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Dog Training Encyclopedia SmallDogsUSA.org created a compilation of the most important information on dog training available. The Dog Training Encyclopedia is comprised of 12 Categories and 39 Articles with references and resources that expand to complete the most thorough book on dog training available. The Media section is available as a separate publication. Whether dog training is your profession or you just want to decode your dog's behavior, you will discover what you need to know. Free publications, PUP-E-CARDS®, daily news, videos and resources available at smalldogsusa.org or news.smalldogsusa.org His Master's Voice RECOMMENDED: Not only are these training treats used by pros and are extremely effective, but they come with a money-back guarantee and customer support. NOTE: Due to quality control standards, these training treats are only available direct from the manufacturer and not available in stores. Contents 1 CATEGORIES 1 1.1 Dog training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.3 How dogs learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.4 Training methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.1.5 Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.1.6 Individualized and/or class training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.7 Specialized training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.8 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.1.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Assistance dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Clicker training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Dog agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.4.1 Competition basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.4.2 Agility obstacles 15 1.4.3 Agility scoring and clean runs 1.4.4 Competition classes 1.4.5 1.2 1.3 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Fairness among dogs and handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 i ii CONTENTS 1.4.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.4.7 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.4.8 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.4.9 Competition process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.4.10 Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.4.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.4.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Herding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.5.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Hunting dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.6.1 Breeds and capabilities used in hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.6.2 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.6.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.6.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Leash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.7.1 Types of leashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.7.2 Leash laws in the United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 1.7.3 Dog leashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.7.4 Cat leashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.7.5 Other uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.7.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.7.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 List of dog sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.8.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.8.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Obedience training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.9.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.9.2 Dog intelligence and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.9.3 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.9.4 Training devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 1.9.5 Competitive obedience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1.9.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.9.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.9.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.10 Operant conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.10.1 Historical notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1.10.2 Tools and procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.10.3 Factors that alter the effectiveness of consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 1.10.4 Operant variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 CONTENTS 2 iii 1.10.5 Avoidance learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.10.6 Four term contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.10.7 Operant hoarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10.8 Biological correlates of operant conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10.9 Operant conditioning in economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10.10 Questions about the law of effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.10.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.10.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.11 Punishment (psychology) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.11.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.11.2 Aversives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.11.3 Importance of contingency and contiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.11.4 Applied behavior analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 1.12 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.12.2 Brief history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.12.3 Operant conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 1.12.4 Natural and artificial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.12.5 Intermittent reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.12.6 Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.12.7 Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 1.12.8 Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 1.12.9 Persuasive communication & the reinforcement theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.12.10 Mathematical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.12.11 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.12.12 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 1.12.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 1.12.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 1.12.15 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 1.12.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 ARTICLES 56 2.1 Alpha roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.1.2 Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.1.3 Contemporary use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.1.4 Further sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.1.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Animal attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.2 iv CONTENTS 2.3 2.2.1 Alligators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.2.2 Arthropods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.2.3 Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.2.4 Beavers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.2.5 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.2.6 Bulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.7 Chimpanzees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.8 Catfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.9 Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.10 Cougars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.11 Coyotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.12 Crocodiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.13 Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.2.14 Elephants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.15 Fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.16 Hippopotamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.17 Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.18 Hyenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.19 Komodo dragons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.20 Leopards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.21 Lions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.22 Racoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.23 Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.24 Sharks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.25 Snakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.2.26 Tigers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.2.27 Wolves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.2.28 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.2.29 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.2.30 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.2.31 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 2.2.32 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Dog bite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.3.1 Health effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.3.2 Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.3.3 Breed-specific attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.3.4 Human-dog interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.3.5 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.3.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.3.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 CONTENTS v 2.4 Bark (sound) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.4.1 Barking in dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.4.2 Types of barks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.4.3 Barking as nuisance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 2.4.4 Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 2.4.5 Breeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.4.6 Naturally “barkless”dog breeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.4.7 Barking in other animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.4.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.4.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Bite inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.5.1 Evolution of Bite Inhibition in Modern Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.5.2 Chemicals Involved in Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.5.3 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.5.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 BowLingual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.6.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.6.2 Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.6.3 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.6.4 Related products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.6.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Canine Good Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.7.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Dog collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.8.1 Basic collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.8.2 Training collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 2.8.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Dog communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.9.1 Dog-human communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.9.2 Evolution of dog-human communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.9.3 Dominance and submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.9.4 Visual communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.9.5 Auditory communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.9.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.9.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.9.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.9.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 vi CONTENTS 2.10 Coprophagia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.10.1 Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.10.2 Other animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.10.3 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.10.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.10.5 Society and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.11 Crate training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.11.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.11.2 Crate selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.11.3 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 2.11.4 Adverse effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 2.11.5 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.12 Cyber-Enhanced Working Dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.12.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 2.13 Defence Animal Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.13.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.13.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.13.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2.14 Detection dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 2.14.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 2.14.2 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 2.14.3 Bed bug detection dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.14.4 Wildlife scat detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.15 Dog aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 2.15.1 Factors contributing to aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 2.15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.15.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.16 Dog behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.16.1 Evolution/Domestication/Co-evolution with humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 2.16.2 Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.16.3 Senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.16.4 Social behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 CONTENTS vii 2.16.5 Reproduction behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.16.6 Behavior problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.16.7 Comparison of behavior with other canids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.16.8 Dogs in human society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.16.9 Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 2.16.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.16.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.16.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.17 Dog behaviourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.17.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.17.2 Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.17.3 Professional associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.17.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.18 Dog bite tug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.18.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 2.18.2 Size and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.18.3 Puppy training with a bite tug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.18.4 Adult dog training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.18.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.18.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.18.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.19 Dog surfing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2.19.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.19.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.19.3 Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.19.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 2.19.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.19.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.19.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.20 Dog–cat relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 2.20.1 Range of relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.20.2 Cultural impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.20.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.20.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.21 Dogs in the City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.21.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.21.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.22 Dogs in warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 viii CONTENTS 2.22.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2.22.2 Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2.22.3 Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 2.22.4 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.22.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 2.22.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 2.22.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 2.22.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 2.23 Fetch (game) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.23.1 Mathematics of Fetch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.23.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.23.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.24 Flirt pole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 2.24.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 2.24.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.24.3 Health effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 2.24.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.24.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.25 Game (dog) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.25.1 Dog fighting breeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.25.2 Working terrier breeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.25.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 2.25.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.26 Gee and haw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.26.1 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.26.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.26.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.27 Gun-dog training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.27.1 Types of dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.27.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 2.27.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.28 Housebreaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.28.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.28.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.29 Dog intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 2.29.1 Inherited abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 2.29.2 Evaluation of intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 2.29.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.29.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 CONTENTS ix 2.30 The Intelligence of Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 2.30.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.30.2 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 2.30.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 2.30.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 2.31 Pack (canine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.31.1 Pack behavior in specific species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 2.31.2 Dominance and the alpha wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 2.31.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 2.31.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 2.32 Prey drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 2.32.1 Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 2.32.2 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 2.32.3 Degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.32.4 Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.32.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.33 Professional handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.33.1 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.33.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.34 Separation anxiety in dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 2.34.1 Typical behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.34.2 Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.34.3 Treatment for separation anxiety in dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 2.34.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 2.34.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 2.35 Shepherd's whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.35.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.35.2 Mechanics and material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.35.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.35.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.36 Shock collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.36.1 Types of devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 2.36.2 Frame of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.36.3 Technical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 2.36.4 Scientific studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 2.36.5 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 2.36.6 Praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 2.36.7 Public control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 2.36.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 2.37 Soft mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 2.37.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 x CONTENTS 2.38 Twilight bark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 2.38.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 2.39 Dog whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 2.39.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 148 3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Chapter 1 CATEGORIES 1.1 Dog training tioning, where it forms an association between an antecedent and its consequence.* [2] There are a variety of established methods of animals training, each with its adherents and critics. Some of the better known dog training procedures include the Koehler method, clicker training, dominance-based training, negative reinforcement and relationship-based training. The common characteristics of successful methods are knowing the animal's attributes and personality, accurate timing of reinforcement and/or punishment and consistent communication. 1.1.1 Definition Dancer with a Hoop Dog training is the application of behavior analysis which uses the environmental events of antecedents and consequences to modify the behavior of a dog, either for it to assist in specific activities or undertake particular tasks, or for it to participate effectively in contemporary domestic life. While training dogs for specific roles dates back to Roman times at least, the training of dogs to be com- Dog training using positive reinforcement, with the dog exhibiting patible household pets developed with suburbanization in the “down”position the 1950s. A dog learns from every interaction it has with its environment.* [1] This can be through classical conditioning, where it forms an association between two stimuli; non-associative learning, where its behavior is modified through habituation or sensitisation; and operant condi- Dog training is teaching a response to cues or commands, or the performance of actions not necessarily natural to the dog, and also raising a dog accommodated to his environment by modifying natural digging, barking and eliminating behaviors. Dog training is defined as the purpose1 2 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES ful changing of a dog's behavior.* [3] Dog training can be socialisation to the domestic environment, basic obedience training or training for specialized activities including law enforcement, search and rescue, hunting, working with livestock, assistance to people with disabilities, entertainment, dog sports, detection and protecting people or property. 1.1.2 History to train desired behaviors, advocated the use of compulsion and inducements, differentiated between primary and secondary reinforcers, and described shaping behaviors, chaining components of an activity, and the importance of timing rewards and punishments. The book demonstrated an understanding of the principles of operant conditioning almost thirty years before they were formally outlined by B.F. Skinner in The Behavior of Organisms.* [9] While publishers of the 2001 reprint warn that some of the “compulsive inducements”such as the switch, the spiked collar and the forced compliance are unnecessarily harsh for today's pet dogs,* [10] the basic principles of Most's methods are still used in police and military settings.* [11] Although research into how dogs learn and into crossspecies communication has changed the approach to dog training in recent decades, understanding the role of early trainers and scientists contributes to an appreciation of Marian Breland Bailey played a major role in developing empirically validated and humane animal training how particular methods and techniques developed.* [4] methods and in promoting their widespread implementation.* [12] Marian was a graduate student under B.F. Before 1900 Skinner. Her first husband Keller Breland also came to study with Skinner and they collaborated with him, trainIn around 127-116 B.C. a Roman farmer, Marcus Varro, ing pigeons to guide bombs. The Brelands saw the comrecorded advice on raising and training puppies for herd- mercial possibilities of operant training, founding Aniing livestock. His writings indicate that not only was dog mal Behavior Enterprises (ABE). In 1955, they opened training for specific tasks well established, but that the the “I.Q. Zoo”as both a training facility and a showvalue of early training was recognised.* [5] case of trained animals. They were among the first to use In 1848 W. N. Hutchinson published his book Dog Break- trained animals in television commercials, and the first ing: The Most Expeditious, Certain and Easy Method, to train dolphins and whales as entertainment, as well as * Whether Great Excellence or Only Mediocrity Be Required, for the navy. [12] Keller died in 1965, and in 1976 MarWith Odds and Ends for Those Who Love the Dog and ian married Bob Bailey, who had been director of mathe Gun. Primarily concerned with training hunting dogs rine mammal training for the navy. They pioneered the such as pointers and setters, the book advocates a form of use of the clicker as a conditioned reinforcer for training * reward-based training, commenting on men who have“a animals at a distance. [11] ABE went on to train thou* strong arm and a hard heart to punish, but no temper and sands of animals of more than 140 species. [12] Their no head to instruct”and suggesting “Be to his virtues work had significant public exposure through press covever kind. Be to his faults a little blind.”* [6] Stephen erage of ABE-trained animals, bringing the principles of Hammond, a writer for Forest and Stream magazine, ad- behavior analysis and operant conditioning to a wide au* vocated in his 1882 book Practical Training that hunting dience. [13] dogs be praised and rewarded with meat for doing the Konrad Lorenz, an Austrian scientist who is regarded as correct behavior.* [7] developing the foundations of ethological research,* [14] further popularised animal behaviorism with his books, Man Meets Dog and King Solomon's Ring.* [15] Lorenz War years stated that there were three essential commands to teach a dog: “lie down”(stay where you are), “basket”(go Konrad Most began training dogs for police work in Ger- over there) and “heel”(come with me).* [16] many, and was appointed principal of the State Breeding and Training Establishment for police dogs in Berlin, In 1935, the American Kennel Club began obedience triwhere he carried out original research into training dogs als, and in the following years popular magazines raised for a broad range of service tasks. At the outbreak of public awareness of the benefits of having a trained pet war in 1914 he was charged with organising and direct- dog, and of*the recreational possibilities of dog training ing the use of dogs to further the war effort. He headed as a hobby. [17] After WWII, the increasing complexithe Experimental Institute for Armed Forces' Dogs dur- ties of suburban living demanded that for a pet dog's own ing the Second World War, and afterwards ran the Ger- protection and its owner's convenience, the dog should be man Dog Farm, a centre for the training of working obedient. William Koehler had served as principal trainer dogs, including assistance dogs for the blind. He played a at the War Dog Training Center, in California, and afleading role in the formation of the German Canine Re- ter the war became chief trainer for the Orange Empire search Society and Society for Animal Psychology.* [8] Dog Club̶at the time, the largest dog club in the United clubs, and a dog His 1910 publication, Training Dogs: A Manual, empha- States̶instructor for a number of breed * trainer for the Walt Disney Studios. [18] In 1962 Koehler sised using instinctive behavior such as the prey drive 1.1. DOG TRAINING published The Koehler Method of Dog Training, in which he is highly critical of what he calls“tid-bit training techniques”based in“the prattle of 'dog psychologists'".* [17] Amongst the training innovations attributed to Koehler is the use of a long line in conjunction with a complete absence of oral communication as a way of instilling attentiveness prior to any leash training. Koehler insisted that participants in his training classes used “emphatic corrections”, including leash jerks and throw chains, explaining that tentative, nagging corrections were cruel in that they caused emotional disturbance to the dog.* [19] Vicki Hearne, a disciple of Koehler's, commented on the widespread criticism of his corrections, with the explanation that it was the emotionally loaded language used in the book that led to a number of court cases, and to the book being banned in Arizona for a time.* [20] Despite the controversy, his basic method forms the core of many contemporary training systems.* [21] Post WWII 3 it was acceptable to use “a tidbit now and then to overcome a problem.”Saunders perhaps began the shift away from military and police training methods, stressing repeatedly the importance of reinforcement for good behaviour in training̶a move toward the positive training methods used today.* [23] In 1965, John Paul Scott and John Fuller identified the critical periods for learning and social development in puppies, and published Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog, a landmark study of dog behavior.* [24] The 1980 television series Training Dogs the Woodhouse Way made Barbara Woodhouse a household name in the UK, and the first international celebrity dog trainer.* [25] Known for her “no bad dogs”philosophy, Woodhouse was highly critical of “bad owners”, particularly those she saw as“overly sentimental”.* [26] She described the “psychoanalyzing of dogs”as “a lot of rubbish”.* [27] Her no-nonsense style made her a pop-culture icon, with her emphatic“sit”and catch cry of“walkies”becoming part of the popular vernacular.* [28] The Monks of New Skete, who were breeders and trainers of German Shepherds in Cambridge, New York, published How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend: A Training Manual for Dog Owners in 1978 and it became an immediate best seller. Despite advocating a philosophy that “understanding is the key to communication and compassion with your dog,”* [29] they endorsed confrontational punishments which were later shown to elicit dangerously aggressive responses in many dogs.* [30] In the 1980s veterinarian and animal behaviourist Ian Dunbar discovered that despite evidence on the peak learning periods in animals, few dog trainers worked with puppies before they were six months old.* [25] Dunbar founded Sirius Dog Training, the first off-leash training program specifically for puppies, which emphasizes the importance of teaching bite inhibition, sociality, and other basic household manners, to dogs under six months of age.* [31] Dunbar has written numerous books, and is known for his international seminar presentations and award-winning videos on puppy and dog behavior and training.* [32] Rudd Weatherwax trains Lassie. In the 1950s Blanche Saunders was a staunch advocate of pet-dog training, travelling throughout the U.S. to promote obedience classes.* [15] In The Complete Book of Dog Obedience, she said,“Dogs learn by associating their act with a pleasing or displeasing result. They must be disciplined when they do wrong, but they must also be rewarded when they do right.”* [22] Negative reinforcement procedures played a key part in Saunders' method, primarily the jerking of the choke chain. The mantra taught to students was “Command! Jerk! Praise!" She felt that food should not be an ongoing reward, but that Prior to the 1980s, Karen Pryor was a marine-mammal trainer who used Skinner's operant principles to teach dolphins and develop marine-mammal shows. In 1984, she published her book, Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training, an explanation of operantconditioning procedures written for the general public.* [23] In the book Pryor explains why punishment as a way to get people to change often fails, and describes specific positive methods for changing the behaviour of husbands, children and pets.* [33] Pryor's dog training materials and seminars showed how operant procedures can be used to provide training based on positive reinforcement of good behavior.* [23] Pryor and Gary Wilkes introduced clicker training to dog trainers with a series of seminars in 1992 and 1993. Wilkes used aversives as well 4 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES as rewards, and the philosophical differences soon ended Typical positive reinforcement events will satisfy some the partnership.* [34] physiological or psychological need, so it can be food, a game, or a demonstration of affection. Different dogs will find different things reinforcing. Negative reinforcement 21st century occurs when a dog discovers that a particular response ends the presentation of an aversive stimulus. An aversive The 21st century has seen the proliferation of television is anything that the dog does not like, such as a tight choke programs and accompanying books that feature dog train- chain.* [39] ing and rehabilitation,* [35] including Joel Silverman's Good Dog U, Dog Whisperer with Cesar Millan, It's Me Punishment is operationally defined as an event that lowor the Dog featuring Victoria Stillwell, The Underdog ers the probability of the behavior that it follows. It is * Show, Dogs in the City, and SuperFetch. The Association not“punishment”in the common sense of the word, [40] of Pet Dog Trainers advises that television programs are and does not mean physical or psychological harm and produced primarily for entertainment, and while all pro- most certainly does not mean abuse. Punishment simgrams will have good and not-so-good points, the viewer ply involves the presentation of an undesired consequence should critically evaluate the information before deciding (positive punishment) when the wrong behavior is performed, such as a snap of the leash; or the removal of which training tips to adopt.* [36] a desired consequence (negative punishment) when the wrong behavior is performed, such as the owner eating 1.1.3 How dogs learn the cheese that would have been the reward.* [41] A behavior that has previously been developed will cease if Operant conditioning reinforcement stops. This is called extinction. A dog that paws its owner for attention will eventually stop if it no longer receives attention.* [42] Classical conditioning Classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning) is a form of learning in which one stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus.* [43] Basically, classical conditioning is when a dog learns to associate things in its environment, or discovers some things just go together. A dog may become afraid of rain through an association with thunder and lightning, or it may respond to the owner putting on a particular pair of shoes by fetching Reinforcement can be a game or toy, such as this tennis ball. its leash.* [44] Classical conditioning is used in dog training to help a dog make specific associations with a particOperant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is ular stimulus, particularly in overcoming fear of people a form of learning in which an individual's behavior and situations.* [45] is modified by its consequences. Two complementary motivations drive instrumental learning: the maximization of positive outcomes and minimization of aversive Non-associative learning ones.* [37] There are two ways in which behavior is reinforced or strengthened: Positive Reinforcement occurs Non-associative learning is a change in a response to a when a behavior is strengthened by producing some de- stimulus that does not involve associating the presented sirable consequence; negative reinforcement occurs when stimulus with another stimulus or event such as reward a behavior is strengthened by avoiding some undesirable or punishment.* [46] Habituation is non-associative learnconsequence. There are two ways in which behavior is de- ing. An example is where a dog that reacts excitedly to creased or weakened: negative punishment occurs when a door bell is subjected to repeated ringing without aca behavior is weakened by not producing a reinforcing companying visitors, and stops reacting to the meaningconsequence; and positive punishment occurs when a be- less stimuli. It becomes habituated to the noise.* [47] On havior is weakened by producing a consequence that is the other side of habituation, is sensitization. Some dogs' a disincentive. In combination, these basic reinforcing reactions to the stimuli become stronger instead of them and punishing contingencies provide four ways for mod- habituating to the repeated stimuli or event.* [48] Desenifying behavior.* [38] Reinforcement increases the rela- sitization is the process of pairing positive experiences tive probability or frequency of the behavior it follows, with an object, person, or situation that causes fear or while Punishment decreases the relative probability or anxiety.* [49] Consistent exposure to the feared object in frequency of the behaviour it follows. conjunction with rewards allows the animal to become 1.1. DOG TRAINING 5 less stressed, thereby becoming desensitized in the pro- the same skills at six months of age than control puppies cess. This type of training can be effective for dogs who the same age who were not previously allowed to watch are fearful of fireworks.* [50] their mothers working.* [54] A 2001 study recorded the Learned irrelevance is where dogs that are over-exposed behaviour of dogs in detour tests, in which a favourite to a stimulus or cue learn the cue is irrelevant because toy or food was placed behind a V-shaped fence. The the exposure has proven to be uneventful. So a dog demonstration of the detour by humans significantly imowner who continually says “Sit, sit”without response proved the dogs' performance in the trials. The experior consequence, inadvertently teaches the dog to ignore ments showed that dogs are able to rely on information provided by human action when confronted with a new the cue.* [42] task. Significantly, they did not copy the exact path of the Learned helplessness is where a dog just simply shuts human demonstrator, but adopted the detour behaviour down, in a situation where it has no option to avoid a shown by humans to reach their goal.* [55] A 1977 experinegative event. For learned helplessness to occur, the ment by Adler and Adler found that puppies who watched event must be both traumatic and outside the dog's con- other puppies learn to pull a food cart into their cages by trol.* [51] Family dogs that are exposed to unpredictable an attached ribbon proved considerably faster at the task or uncontrolled punishment are at risk of developing dis- when later given the opportunity themselves. At 38 days turbances associated with the learned helplessness disor- of age, the demonstrator puppies took an average of 697 der. Punishment which is poorly coordinated with iden- seconds to succeed, while the observers succeeded in an tifiable avoidance cues or response options, such as when average of 9 seconds.* [56] punishment takes place long after the event, meet the criteria of inescapable trauma.* [41] 1.1.4 Training methods Social learning Social learning is the learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. This form of learning does not need reinforcement to occur; instead, a model is required. While the model may not be intentionally trying to instill any particular behavior, many behaviors that are observed are remembered and imitated.* [52] The domestic dog is a social species and its social dependency makes it aware of the behavior of others, which contributes to his own behavior and learning abilities. There is, however, ongoing discussion about how much, and how, dogs can learn by interacting with each other and with people.* [53] The term “social learning”encompasses several closely related concepts: allelomimetic behavior or mimicking where, for example, puppies follow or copy others of their kind; social facilitation where the presence of another dog causes an increase in the intensity of a behaviour; and local enhancement which includes pieces of social facilitation, mimicking, and trial-and-error learning, but is different from true observational learning in that the dog actively participates in the behavior in the presence of the other dog and/or other environmental cues.* [53] Four necessary conditions for observational learning are: attention, retention, motivation, and production. That is, the dog must pay attention to the dog or person performing the modelled behavior; retain the information gathered about the behavior during the observation; be motivated to reproduce the behavior in a time and place removed from the original; and finally, produce the behavior, or some reasonable facsimile thereof.* [53] Koehler method Strictly following the model set out in the Koehler Method of Dog Training, some 50 years later, the Koehler method continues to be taught in both class and private training formats. The method is based in the philosophy that a dog acts on its right to choose its actions. Koehler explained that a dog's learned behavior is an act of choice based on its own learning experience. When those choices are influenced by the expectation of reward, the behavior will most likely be repeated, and when those choices are influenced by the anticipation of punishment, they will most likely cease. Once the dog has learned that its choices result in comfort or discomfort it can be taught to make the correct decisions. Action→Memory→Desire encapsulates the learning pattern used by the method; the dog acts, remembers the consequences, and forms the desire to repeat or avoid those consequences. Adherents believe that once the behavior has been correctly taught, it should be performed, thus making any correction, fair, reasonable, and expected.* [57] While the model has been used consistently since 1962, some of the punishment procedures described in the book are now not considered necessary, humane, or appropriate by many trainers.* [23] Motivational training Purely positive or motivational training employs the use of rewards to reinforce good behavior, and ignores all bad behavior.* [58] It is based in Thorndike's Law of Effect, A 1997 study conducted by Slabbert and Rasa deter- which says that actions that produce rewards tend to inthat do not produce remined that pups between the ages of 9–12 weeks who crease in frequency and actions * wards decrease in frequency. [59] were permitted to observe their narcotics-detecting mothers at work generally proved more capable at learning Motivational training has its roots in captive animal train- 6 ing, where compulsion and corrections are both difficult and dangerous, and ignoring bad behavior is not problematic as the animal lives under controlled conditions. As a dog training strategy, purely positive training is feasible, but difficult, as it requires time and patience to control the rewards the dog receives for behavior. Some activities such as jumping up or chasing squirrels are intrinsically rewarding, the activity is its own reward, and with some activities the environment may provide reinforcement such as when the response from dog next door encourages barking.* [58] CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES sit, for example; or by 'shaping' where increasingly closer approximations to the desired behaviour are reinforced; and by 'capturing' where the dog's spontaneous offering of the behaviour is rewarded.* [63] Once a behaviour is learnt and is on cue (command), the clicker and the treats are faded out.* [64] Clicker training uses no physical compulsion or corrections and uses almost entirely positive reinforcements. Some clicker trainers use mild corrections such as a“non reward marker"; an “Uhuh”or “Whoops”to let the dog know that the behaviour is not correct, or corrections Ruff Love is one program based on the method. Stating such as a “Time out”where attention is removed from that “positive is not permissive”the program controls the dog.* [65] the dog's environment using crates, tethers, and head halters to ensure the dog has little opportunity for bad behaviour and to ensure that the owner delivers all reinforcements.* [60] Electronic training Clicker training Electronic training involves the use of an electric shock as an aversive. Common forms are collars which can be triggered remotely, or that are triggered by barking, fencing that delivers a shock when a dog wearing a special collar crosses a buried wire, and mats that can be placed on furniture to deliver a shock. Some aids deliver an aversive such as a spray of citronella when triggered.* [66] The use of electric shock aversives for training dogs is the subject of considerable controversy. Supporters claim that the use of electronic devices allows training at a distance and the potential to eliminate self-rewarding behaviour, and point out that properly used, they have less risk of stress and injury than mechanical devices, such as choke chains. Opponents cite the risks of physical and psychological trauma associated with incorrect or abusive use.* [67] Clicker-training using a metal cricket Clicker training is a nickname given to a positive reinforcement training system based on operant conditioning. The system uses conditioned reinforcers which are able to be delivered more quickly and more precisely than primary reinforcers such as food. The term 'clicker' comes from a small metal cricket adapted from a child's toy, however some trainers using the method use a whistle, a word, or even a light as the conditioned reinforcer.* [61] The basis of effective clicker training is precise timing to deliver the conditioned reinforcer at the same moment as the desired behaviour is offered. The clicker is used as a 'bridge' between the marking of the behaviour and the rewarding with a primary reinforcer such as a treat or a toy.* [62] The behaviour can be elicited by 'luring' where a hand gesture or a treat is used to coax the dog to In one study laboratory-bred Beagles were divided into three groups. Group A received an electric shock when the dogs touched the prey (a rabbit dummy fixed to a motion device). Group H received a shock when they did not obey a previously trained recall command during hunting. Dogs in group R received the electric shock arbitrarily, i.e. the shock was administered unpredictably and out of context. Group A did not show a significant rise in salivary cortisol levels, while group R and group H did show a significant rise. This led to the conclusion that animals which were able to clearly associate the electric stimulus with their action, i.e. touching the prey, and consequently were able to predict and control the stressor, did not show considerable or persistent stress indicators, while animals that were not able to control the situation to avoid the shock did show significant stress.* [67] In 2004 a study was published on German Shepherds trained for protection work using shock collars, which showed that although electronically trained dogs can excel as guard dogs, their behavior toward humans and work circumstances changed, often indicating heightened uncertainty and reactivity.* [68] 1.1. DOG TRAINING Model-rival training Based on the principles of social learning, model-rival training uses a model, or a rival for attention, to demonstrate the desired behaviour.* [69] The method was used by Irene Pepperberg to train Alex the African Grey Parrot to label a large number of objects. McKinley and Young undertook a pilot study on the applicability of a modified version of the model-rival method to the training of domestic dogs, noting that the dog's origins as a member of large and complex social groups promote observational learning. The model-rival training involved an interaction between the trainer, the dog, and a person acting as a model-rival, that is, a model for desired behaviour and a rival for the trainer's attention. In view of the dog, a dialogue concerning a particular toy commenced between the trainer and the model-rival. The trainer praised or scolded the model-rival depending on whether the modelrival had named the toy correctly. It was found that the performance times for completion of the task were similar for dogs trained with either operant conditioning or the model rival method. In addition, the total training time required for task completion was comparable for both methods.* [70] A Hungarian dog training group called Népszigeti Kutyaiskola use a variation of model-rival training which they describe as the Mirror Method. The mirror method philosophy is that dogs instinctively learn by following the example of others in their social sphere. Core to the program is including the dog in all aspects of the owner's life and positive reinforcement of copying behaviors. Mirror method dog training relies on using a dog's natural instincts and inclinations rather than working against them.* [71] Dominance-based training The concepts of“pack”and“dominance”in relation to dog training originated in the 1940s and were popularized by the Monks of New Skete in the 1970s. The model is based on a theory that“dogs are wolves”and since wolves live in hierarchical packs where an alpha male rules over everyone else, then humans must dominate dogs in order to modify their behavior.* [72] However, recent studies have shown that wolves in the wild actually live in nuclear families where the father and mother are considered the pack leaders, and their offspring's status depends on their birth order which does not involve fighting to attain a higher rank, because the young wolves naturally follow their parents' lead.* [73] 7 afraid.* [74] Researchers have described several reasons why the dominance model is a poor choice for dog training.* [75] First, a relationship based on dominance is established to gain priority access to scarce resources, not to impose particular behaviors on the less dominant animal,* [76] so the dominance model is irrelevant for most of the behaviors that people want from their dogs, such as coming when called or walking calmly on a leash.* [75] Second dominance-submission relationships, once established, are constantly tested and must be regularly reinforced.* [77] Thus people, particularly children and the elderly, may not be able to retain their rank and are at risk of being injured if they attempt to do so.* [75] Third, dominant individuals gain priority access to resources, but only while they are present, establishing dominance over a dog does not guarantee its behavior when the dominant individual is distant or absent.* [75] Relationship-based training Derived from the theories of symbolic interactionism, relationship based training exploits the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment between dogs and their trainers. Building on a positive relationship between them, the method sets out to achieve results that benefit both the dog and the trainer, while at the same time enhancing and strengthening their relationship. The basic principles include ensuring that the dog's basic needs have been met before beginning a training session, finding out what motivates the dog and using it to elicit behaviours, interpreting the dog's body language to improve communication between dog and trainer, using positive reinforcement to encourage desired behavior, training incompatible behaviors to replace unwanted behaviours, and controlling the dog's environment to limit the possibility of unwanted behaviours.* [78] A relationship-based approach to dog training is not reliant on using particular training aids or treats, the relationship is always there, and the connection between dog and trainer is sufficiently powerful to achieve the training goals.* [79] 1.1.5 Factors Training can take as many forms as there are trainers, however a detailed study of animal trainers found common characteristics of successful methods: thoughtful interpretation of what the animal does prior to training, accurate timing and consistent communication.* [80] Animal behaviorists assert that using dominance to modify a behavior can suppress the behavior without addressCommunication ing the underlying cause of the problem. It can exacerbate the problem and increase the dog's fear, anxiety, and aggression. Dogs that are subjected to repeated threats Main article: Dog communication may react with aggression not because they are trying to be dominant, but because they feel threatened and Dogs have become closely associated with humans 8 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES through domestication and have also become sensitive to human communicative signals. Generally, they have a lot of exposure to human speech, especially during play, and are believed to have a good ability to recognize human speech. Two studies investigated the ability of a single dog that was believed to be exceptional in its understanding of language. Both studies revealed the potential for at least some dogs to develop an understanding of a large number of simple commands on the basis of just the sounds emitted by their owners. However the studies suggested that visual cues from the owner may be important for the understanding of more complex spoken commands.* [81] Understanding Main articles: Dog behavior and Dog intelligence For any of these techniques, consistency of the owner's training/behavior and level of engagement can influence the affectiveness of any technique applied.* [82] Innate characteristics Class training can be effective in encouraging socialization and play with a peer group. Popular advocates of class training include Victoria Stillwell* [86] and Ian Dunbar.* [87] 1.1.7 Specialized training Dogs are also trained for specific activities such as Competitive Obedience, CGC Certification, Agility, Herding, Tracking, and Flyball, and to undertake particular roles such as Detection dogs, Assistance dogs, Hunting dogs, Police dogs, Search and rescue dogs or Guard dogs. Arthur Haggerty, who for forty years was the major supplier of trained dogs for the U.S. entertainment industry, advocated the teaching of tricks to pet dogs, explaining that dogs bred for active duty herding, guarding or hunting were unemployed in modern society. He believed that dogs that are bored or frustrated, and consequently badly behaved, would find a purpose, a stronger relationship with their owners, and a way of filling their idle hours in learning tricks.* [88] Haggerty advocated working with the breed or the individual dog's characteristics to teach tricks based on retrieving, scenting, vocalising and so on, publishing a trick aptitude chart for various dog breeds. He distinguished between tricks based on the dog's normal behaviours (Kiss, Wag your Tail) and tricks that were taught. While Haggerty was publicly critical of trainers using total positive reinforcement for obedience training,* [89] he encouraged food rewards for trick training.* [88] In considering the natural behaviours of specific breeds of dogs, it is possible to train them to perform specialised, highly useful, tasks. For example, Labrador retrievers are the favoured breed for the detection of explosives. This is because of a combination of factors including their food drive which enables them to keep focused on a task despite noise and other distractions. Most working breeds 1.1.8 Tools of dogs are able to be trained to find people with their sense of smell (as opposed to their sense of sight). Cocker Spaniels are able to be trained as part of a termite detec- 1.1.9 See also tion team. Their relatively small size enables them to fit • Alpha roll into small spaces, and their light weight allows them to walk on areas of ceiling which would be dangerous to • Bark (dog) anything heavier. In fact, although unusual, termite de• Conformation showing tection dogs are much more reliable at detecting termites than humans who rely on a basic system of tapping and • Dog agility listening. Because of their ability to learn signals by sight and for their energetic and athletic natures, German Shep• Dog sports herds are able to be trained for work alongside search and • List of dog trainers rescue teams and human apprehension teams.* [83] • Obedience training 1.1.6 Individualized and/or class training Individualised training is used with dogs that have an urgent or unique training problem such as fear, hyperactivity, aggression (and other related problems), separation anxiety, biting, excessive barking, insecurity, destructive behaviors, walking difficulties, and inappropriate elimination.* [84]* [85] This type of training would normally be undertaken where the problem naturally occurs rather than a class situation. General: • Animal cognition • Animal training • Ethology • Operant conditioning • Punishment (psychology) 1.1. DOG TRAINING • Reinforcement 9 • Reward system [24] Scott, John Paul; John L. Fuller (1998). Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226743387. • Dog behaviorist [25] Millan 2010, p. 89. [26] Woodhouse 1982, p. 13. 1.1.10 Notes [1] Millan 2010, p. 33. [2] Braslau-Schneck, Stacy (1998).“An Animal Trainer's Introduction To Operant and Classical Conditioning”. Retrieved 29 November 2012. [3] Millan 2010, p. 32. [4] Burch 1999, p. 1. [5] Millan 2010, p. 82. [6] Hutchinson 2005, p.11. [7] Millan 2010, p. 83. [8] Most 1954, p. 7. [27] Woodhouse 1982, p. 9. [28] Dudman, Helga (1996). The Dog's Guide to Famous Owners: A Walkies Through History with Some Very Important Pooches. London: Robson. [29] Monks of New Skete 1978, p. 3. [30] Herron, Meghan E; Frances S. Shofer; Ilana R. Reisner (2009). “Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors” . Applied Animal Behavior Science 117 (1): 47– 54. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.011. Retrieved 30 November 2012. [31] Dunbar, Ian. “Sirius Dog Training”. Retrieved 30 November 2012. [9] Burch, Mary R; Duane Pickel (1990). “A toast to [32] Millan 2010, p. 90. Most: Konrad Most, a 1910 pioneer in animal training” . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 23 (2): 263–4. [33] Pryor 1984, p. ix. doi:10.1901/jaba.1990.23-263. PMC 1286234. PMID [34] Spector, Morgan (3 January 2009).“Who Started Clicker 16795731. Training for Dogs?". Retrieved 30 November 2012. [10] Most 1954, p. 26. [35] Millan 2010, p. 91. [11] Millan 2010, p. 84. [36] APDT (2010). “Can I Train My Dog Just Like They Do On TV? Reality TV versus Real Life”. Association of [12] Bihm, Elson M.; J. Arthur Gillaspy, Jr. (1 June 2012). Pet Dog Trainers. 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Retrieved 30 November 2012. [41] Reid 1996, p. 108. [42] Lindsay 2000, p. 213. [43] Bouton, M. E. (2007). Learning and Behavior: A Contemporary Synthesis. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. [44] Burch 1999, p. 3–5. [45] Dunbar, Ian (2007).“Classical Conditioning”. Dog Star Daily. Retrieved 1 December 2012. [46] “Animal Learning”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 21, 2011. [47] Reid 1996, p. 34–35. [48] Lindsay 2000, p. 219. [49] “The Use of Positive Reinforcement Training Techniques to Enhance the Care, Management, and Welfare of Primates in the laboratory”. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science. 2003. Retrieved 16 December 2011. 10 [50] “Burning Question: Why do dogs hate fireworks?". shine.yahoo.com/. July 3, 2012. Retrieved July 13, 2012. [51] Seligman, Martin E. P.; Steven F. Maier and James H. Geer (1968).“Alleviation of Learned Helplessness in the Dog”. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 73 (3): 256–262. doi:10.1037/h0025831. PMID 5658526 [52] Bandura, Albert (1971). Psychological Modelling. New York: Lieber-Antherton. [53] Miller, Pat (July 2004). “Young Dogs Can Learn From Older Well-Behaved Dogs”. The Whole Dog Journal. Retrieved 1 December 2012. [54] Slabbert, J. M.; O. A. E. Rasa (1997). “Observational learning of an acquired maternal behaviour pattern by working dog pup: an alternative training method?". Applied Animal Behaviour Science 53 (4): 309–316. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01163-X. [55] Pongrácz, Péter; Á. Miklósi, E. Kubinyi, K. Gurobi, J. Topál and V. Csanyi (2001). “Social learning in dogs: the effect of a human demonstrator on the performance of dogs (Canis familiaris) in a detour task”. Animal Behaviour 62 (6): 1109–1117. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1866. [56] Adler, Leonore Loeb; Helmut E. Adler (1977). “Ontogeny of observational learning in the dog (Canis familiaris)". Developmental Psychobiology 10 (3): 267–271. doi:10.1002/dev.420100310. PMID 863122. [57] Ancheta, Tony. “Koehler Dog Training”. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [58] Marlo 1999, p. 101. [59] Burch 1999, p. 4. [60] Garrett, Susan (2002). Ruff Love. Chicopee, MA: Clean Run. ISBN 1-892694-06-9. [61] Pryor 1999, p. 4. [62] Pryor 1999, p. 29. [63] Pryor 1999, p. 60–62. [64] Grobbelaar, Claire. “What is Clicker Training?". Retrieved 2 December 2012. [65] Alexander, Melissa (1 July 2003). ""NRMs”No Reward Markers”. Retrieved 2 December 2012. CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES [69] McConnell, Patricia (26 January 2011). “The ModelRival Method”. The Other End of the Leash. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [70] McKinley, S.; R. J. Young (2003). “The efficacy of the model-rival method when compared with operant conditioning for training domestic dogs to perform a retrievalselection task”. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 81 (4): 357–365. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00277-0 [71] Wogan, Lisa (November 2010). “The Mirror Method”. The Bark. Retrieved 3 December 2012. [72] “Why Won't Dominance Die?". Association of Pet Behavior Counsellors. Retrieved 16 December 2011. [73] “Dog Training and the Myth of Alpha-Male Dominance” . TIME Science. 30 July 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2011. [74] “Position Statement on the Use of Dominance Theory in Behavior Modification of Animals”. American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. Retrieved 16 December 2011. [75] Yin, Sophia (2007).“Dominance versus leadership in dog training”. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practising Veterinarian, North American Edition 29 (7): 414–4–8 [76] Bernstein, Irwin S. (1981). “Dominance: The Baby and the Bathwater”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4 (3): 419–429. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00009614 [77] Drews, Carlos (1993). “The concept and definition of dominance in animal behaviour”. Behaviour 125 (3/4): 283–313. doi:10.1163/156853993X00290 [78] Woodard, Sherry (15 April 2011). “Why We Use Relationship-Based Training”. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [79] Clothier, Suzanne (2009).“Relationship Based Approach to Training”. Retrieved 2 December 2012. [80] McGreevy 2011, p. 280. [81] Fukuzawa, M.; D. S. Mills; J. J. Cooper (2005). “The effect of human command phonetic characteristics on auditory cognition in dogs (Canis familiaris)". Journal of Comparative Psychology 119 (1): 117–120. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.119.1.117. PMID 15740436. [82] Arhant, Christine (2010). "Behavior of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behavior and level of engagement in activities with the [67] Schalke, E.; J. Stichnoth; S. Ott; R. Jones-Baade dog”. Applied Animal Behavior Science 123 (3): 131– (2007). “Clinical signs caused by the use of elec142. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.01.003. |first2= misstric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations” ing |last2= in Authors list (help); |first3= missing |last3= . Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105 (4): 369–380. in Authors list (help); |first4= missing |last4= in Authors doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002. list (help); |first5= missing |last5= in Authors list (help) [66] Burch 1999, p. 162. [68] Schilder, Matthijs B.H.; Joanne A.M. van der Borg (2004). “Training dogs with help of the shock collar: short and long term behavioral effects”. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 85 (3): 319–334. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2003.10.004. [83] McGreevy 2011, p. 116–279. [84] Jane S. Orihel.“Management and Rehabilitation of InterDog Aggression in Animal Shelters”. Retrieved 15 December 2011. 1.2. ASSISTANCE DOG [85] “Specializing in Dog Aggression and Dog Behavior”. Dog Behavior Rehab. Retrieved 15 December 2011. [86] “Positively”. Victoria Stillwell. Retrieved 15 December 2011. [87] “Sirius Dog Training”. Ian Dunbar. Retrieved 15 December 2011. [88] Haggerty, Capt. Arthur; Carol Lea Benjamin (1978). Dog Tricks: Teaching your Dog to be Useful, Fun and Entertaining. New York: Howell Book House. ISBN 0-38513493-2. [89] Miller, Stephen (July 17, 2006). “Captain Haggerty, 74, Dog Trainer, Dog Author, Dog Cineaste”. The New York Sun. Retrieved 1 December 2012. [90] Victorian Consolidated Regulations (2008). “Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Regulations 2008 - SECT 9”. Retrieved 2 December 2012 [91] Lindsay, 2005, p. 583 [92] Lindsay, 2005, p. 584 11 • Millan, Cesar; and Melissa Jo Peltier (2010). Cesar's Rules, New York: Three Rivers Press ISBN 978-0307716873 • Monks of New Skete (1978). How to be Your Dog's Best Friend: A Training Manual for Dog Owners, London : Little Brown • Most, K. (1954). Training Dogs, (J. Cleugh, Trans.), New York: Dogwise Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1929242-00-X • Pryor, Karen (1984). Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training, New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-38039-7 • Pryor, Karen (1999). Clicker Training for Dogs, London: Ringpress Books. ISBN 1-86054-282-4 • Reid, Pamela J. (1996). Excel-Erated Learning, Explaining (in Plain English) How Dogs Learn and How Best to Teach Them, James & Kenneth Publishers. [93] “Ogmore illegal shock collar dog owner gets £2,000 fine” . BBC News. 18 July 2011. • Saunders, Blanche (1969). Training You to Train Your Dog, New York: Howell Book House. ISBN 0-876-05457-2 [94] Victorian Consolidated Regulations (2008). “Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Regulations 2008 - SECT 17”. Retrieved 2 December 2012 • Scott, John P.; and John L. Fuller (1965). Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1.1.11 • Woodhouse, Barbara (1982). No Bad Dogs: the Woodhouse Way, New York, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-54185-4 References • Burch, Mary R.; and Jon S. Bailey (1999). How Dogs Learn, New York: Howell Book House ISBN 1.1.12 0-8760-5371-1 • Hearne, Vicki (1987). Adam's Task: Calling Animals by Name, New York: Alfred A. Knopf ISBN 0-394-75530-8 • Hutchinson, Lieut-Gen WN (1865). Dog Breaking for the Gun: The Most Expeditious, Certain and Easy Method, With Copious Notes on Shooting Sports, New York: Vintage Dog Books, 2005 ISBN 9-781-84664035-3 External links 1.2 Assistance dog Not to be confused with Service dog or Working dog. An assistance dog is a dog trained to aid or assist a • Lindsay, Steven R. (2000). Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Vol 1, Adaptation and Learning, Iowa State Press • Lorenz, Konrad (1953). Man Meets Dog, (Marjorie Kerr Wilson, Trans.) Hagerstown, MA: Kodansha America, 1994 • Marlo, Shelby (1999). New Art of Dog Training, Chicago: Contemporary Books, ISBN 0-8092An assistance dog pressing a button to open an automatic door. 3170-0 • McGreevy, P., and R. Boakes (2011). Carrots and person with a disability. Many are trained by a specific Sticks: Principles of Animal Training, Sydney: Dar- organization, others by their handler, sometimes with the lington Press help of a professional trainer. 12 1.2.1 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Classification Assistance dogs fall into three general types: Guide, Hearing, and Service.* [1] Most will be trained for only one specialty, though “combination”dogs do exist. • Guide dogs assist the blind and the visually impaired. • Hearing dogs, or signal dogs, help the deaf and hard of hearing. Mobility assistance dog helping his handler stand up. 1.2.2 See also • Assistance animal • Autism service dog • Dogs for the Disabled (in the UK) • Medical response dog • Mobility assistance dog • Psychiatric service dog Assistance Dog at food court at shopping mall. • Service dogs are not specifically trained for visual or hearing impairment, but may have specific roles such as mobility assistance dogs, medical alert dogs, and psychiatric service dogs. • Seizure dog • Therapy dog • Working dog 1.2.3 References In the United States, the term“service dog”may be used synonymously with“assistance dog,”and is occasionally [1] Assistance Dogs International used for other types of working dogs as well. These dogs can in some instances be dual classified as therapy dogs. Also any of the above named dogs“in training”are pro- 1.2.4 External links tected under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 • Service Dogs and More - A large print site about (ADA) and Americans with Disabilities Amendment Act Assistance Dogs (ADAA, which expanded some legal protections), even if the handler at the time is not “using”the dog in the ca• Assistance Dogs International pacity for which it is being trained. In most of the rest of the world a distinct separation between service dogs and • Delta Society's National Service Animal Resource assistance dogs is observed. Center 1.3. CLICKER TRAINING • DMOZ Open Directory Project: Service Dogs • International Association of Assistance Dog Partners • Service Dog Central (includes guide and hearing dogs as well) • Please Don't Pat Me Australia (information about Australian Assistance Dogs including guide, hearing, medical, psychiatric assistance dogs and the relevant laws and minimum training standards required) 1.3 Clicker training 13 Keller Breland, worked with him researching pigeon behavior and training projects during World War II, when pigeons were taught to “bowl”(push a ball with their beaks).* [6] They believed that traditional animal training was being needlessly hindered because methods of praise and reward then in use did not inform the animal of success with enough promptness and precision to create the required cognitive connections for speedy learning. They saw the potential for using the operation conditioning method in commercial animal training.* [7] The two later married and in 1947 created Animal Behavior Enterprises (ABE), “the first commercial animal training business to intentionally and systematically incorporate the principles of behavior analysis and operant conditioning into animal training.”* [8] The Brelands coined the term“bridging stimulus”in the 1940s to refer to the function of a secondary reinforcer such as a whistle or click.* [8] ABE continued operations until 1990, with the assistance of Bob Bailey after Keller Breland died in 1965.* [8] They report having trained over 15,000 animals and over 150 species during their time in operation.* [8] Although the Brelands tried to promote clicker training for dogs in the 1940s and 1950s, the method failed to catch on until the late 1980s and early 1990s.* [9] In the early 1990s, Karen Pryor and Gary Wilkes started giving clicker training seminars to dog owners; the first was given in San Franscisco in 1992.* [9] In 1998, Alexandra Kurland published “Clicker Training For Your Horse.” * [9]* [10] In the 21st century, training books began to appear for other companion animals, such as cats, birds, and rabbits.* [11] 1.3.2 Methodology Clicker-training a dog. Clicker training is a method for training animals that uses positive reinforcement such as a food treat, along with a clicker or small mechanical noisemaker to mark the behavior being reinforced. When training a new behavior, the clicker helps the animal to quickly identify the precise behavior that results in the treat. The technique is popular with dog trainers, but can be used for all kinds of domestic and wild animals.* [1] Sometimes instead of a click to mark the desired behavior, other distinctive sounds are made (such as“whistle, a cluck of the tongue, a snap of the fingers, or even a word” )* [2] or visual or other sensory cues (such as a flashlight, hand sign, or vibrating collar),* [3] especially helpful for deaf animals. 1.3.1 The first step in clicker training is teaching the animal to associate the clicker sound (or other chosen marker such as a whistle)* [2] with a treat. Every time the click sounds, a treat is offered immediately. Next the click is used to signal that a desired behavior has happened. Some approaches* [1] are: • capturing: catching the animal in the act of doing something that is desired, for example sitting or lying down. Eventually the animal learns to repeat the behavior for a treat. • shaping: gradually building a new behavior by rewarding each small steps toward it. • luring: using the treat like a magnet to get the animal to move toward the desired position. History Once the behavior is learned, the final step is to add a cue B. F. Skinner first identified and described the princi- for the behavior, such as a word or a hand signal.* [1] The ples of operant conditioning that are used in clicker train- animal will have learned that a treat is on the way after ing.* [4]* [5] Two students of Skinner's, Marian Kruse and completing the desired behavior. 14 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES 1.3.3 See also • Animal training • Dog training • Operant conditioning • Cat training • The Amazing Acro-Cats 1.3.4 References [1] “Clicker Training Your Pet”, ASPCA, accessed July 28, 2014. [2] “5 Clicker Training Myths”, Wag the Dog, accessed July 29, 2014. [3] “Clicker Training for Deaf Dogs”, Deaf Dog Education Action Fund, accessed July 29, 2014. [4] Skinner, B.F. (1951). How to teach animals. Scientific American, 185, 26-29. [5] Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts. • Orr, Joan and Teresa Lewin, “Getting Started: Clicking With Your Rabbit”(2006, Sunshine Books), ISBN 978-1890948238. • Pryor, Karen“Getting Started: Clicker Training for Cats”(2012, Karen Pryor Clickertraining), ISBN 978-1-890948-14-6 (Kindle edition). • Pryor, Karen,“Getting Started: Clicker Training for Dogs”(2004, Interpret Publishing), ISBN 1-86054282-4 • Pryor, Karen,“Reaching the Animal Mind: Clicker Training and What It Teaches Us About All Animals”(2010, Scribner), ISBN 978-0743297776. • Spector, Morgan,“Clicker Training for Obedience” (1999, Sunshine Books), ISBN 978-0962401787. 1.3.6 External links • “Clicker Training Your Pet”, ASPCA 1.4 Dog agility [6] Peterson, G. (2000). The Discovery of Shaping or B.F. Skinnerʼs Big Surprise. The Clicker Journal: The Magazine for Animal Trainers, 43, 6-13. [7] Bailey and Gillaspy, Operant Conditioning Goes to the Fair,The Behavior Analyst 2005, pp 143-159. [8] “Animal Behavior Enterprises”, History of Behavior Analysis, accessed July 28, 2014. [9] “Modern Training and Clicker Training for Pet Owners” , History of Behavior Analysis, accessed July 28, 2014. [10] Kurland, Alexandra, “Clicker Training for Your Horse” (2004 edition, Ringpress Books), ISBN 1-86054-292-1. A hairless Chinese Crested taking part in an agility competition. [11] See “Further Reading”. Dog agility is a dog sport in which a handler directs a dog through an obstacle course in a race for both time 1.3.5 Further reading and accuracy. Dogs run off leash with no food or toys as incentives, and the handler can touch neither dog nor • Alexander, Melissa C., “Click for Joy: Questions obstacles.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6] Consequently the hanand Answers from Clicker Trainers and Their Dogs” dler's controls are limited to voice, movement, and var(2003, Sunshine Books), ISBN 978-1890948122. ious body signals, requiring exceptional training of the animal and coordination of the handler. • Castro, A. (2007): The bird school - Clicker training for parrots and other birds. ISBN 978-3-939770- In its simplest form, an agility course consists of a set of standard obstacles laid out by a judge in a design of his 03-9. or her own choosing in an area of a specified size. The • Johnson, Melinda,“Getting Started: Clicker Train- surface may be of grass, dirt, rubber, or special matting. ing for Birds”(2003, Sunshine Books), ISBN 978- Depending on the type of competition, the obstacles may 1890948153. be marked with numbers indicating the order in which • Kurland, Alexandra, “Clicker Training for Your they must be completed. Horse”(2004, Ringpress Books), ISBN 1-86054292-1. Courses are complicated enough that a dog could not complete them correctly without human direction. In 1.4. DOG AGILITY 15 competition, the handler must assess the course, decide on handling strategies, and direct the dog through the course, with precision and speed equally important. Many strategies exist to compensate for the inherent difference in human and dog speeds and the strengths and weaknesses of the various dogs and handlers. • Agility field left side: A competition agility field showing (clockwise from lower left) a tunnel, the dogwalk, the judge standing in front of a winged jump, two additional winged jumps, dog executing the teeter-totter with his handler guiding, and the tire jump. 1.4.1 • Course map showing the layout of the course in the preceding photos. Maps like this are commonly used by officials to communicate the course to handlers. Competition basics Because each course is different, handlers are allowed a short walk-through before the competition starts. During this time, all handlers competing in a particular class can walk or run around the course without their dogs, determining how they can best position themselves and guide their dogs to get the most accurate and rapid path around the numbered obstacles. The handler tends to run a path much different from the dog's path, so the handler can sometimes spend quite a bit of time planning for what is usually a quick run. The walk-through is critical for success because the course's path takes various turns, even U-turns or 270° turns, can cross back on itself, can use the same obstacle more than once, can have two obstacles so close to each other that the dog and handler must be able to clearly discriminate which to take, and can be arranged so that the handler must work with obstacles between himself and the dog, called layering, or at a great distance from the dog. • Agility field right side: The right side of the same agility field showing (clockwise from foreground) the weave poles, the pause table, the A-frame, two winged jumps, the collapsed tunnel (or chute), and a wingless jump. Numbered orange plastic cones next to obstacles indicate the order in which the dog must perform them. 1.4.2 Agility obstacles The regulations of different organizations specify somewhat different rules and dimensions for the construction of obstacles. However, the basic form of most obstacles is the same wherever they are used. Obstacles include the following: Contact obstacles Printed maps of the agility course, called course maps, are often made available to the handlers before they run, to Tunnels help the handlers plan their course strategy. The course map contains icons indicating the position and orienta- Jumps tion of all the obstacles, and numbers indicating the order in which the obstacles are to be taken. Course maps were originally drawn by hand, but nowadays almost all course maps are created using a program called Clean Run Course Designer. Each dog and handler team gets one opportunity together to attempt to complete the course successfully. The dog begins behind a starting line and, when instructed by his handler, proceeds around the course. The handler typically runs near the dog, directing the dog with spoken commands and with body language (the position of arms, shoulders, and feet). Because speed counts as much as accuracy, especially at higher levels of competition, this all takes place at a fullout run on the dog's part and, in places, on the handler's This winged single jump is adjusted in height so that small dogs such as Pembroke Welsh Corgis may compete against similarpart as well. sized dogs. Scoring of runs is based on how many faults are incurred. Penalties can include not only course faults, such as knocking down a bar in a jump, but also time faults, Jump (or hurdle) Two uprights supporting a horizonwhich are the number of seconds over the calculated stantal bar over which the dog jumps. The height is addard course time, which in turn is determined based on justed for dogs of different heights. The uprights the competition level, the complexity of the course, and can be simple stanchions or can have wings of variother factors. ous shapes, sizes, and colors. 16 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Double and triple jump (or spread jump) Two upfence hurdle, long hurdle, window hurdle, and water rights supporting two or three horizontal bars spread hurdle. forward or back from each other. The double can have parallel or ascending horizontal bars; the triple always has ascending bars. The spread between the Miscellaneous horizontal bars is sometimes adjusted based on the height of the dog. Panel jump Instead of horizontal bars, the jump is a solid panel from the ground up to the jump height, constructed of several short panels that can be removed to adjust the height for different dog heights. A Chinook on a pause table An Australian Shepherd jumping through a tire jump. Broad jump (or long jump) A set of four or five slightly raised platforms that form a broad area over which the dog must jump without setting their feet on any of the platforms. The length of the jump is adjusted for the dog's height. Tire jump A torus shape roughly the size of a tire (18 inches (46 cm) to 24 inches (61 cm) inside diameter), suspended in a frame. The dog must jump through the opening of the“tire"; like other jumps, the height is adjusted for dogs of different sizes. The tire is usually wrapped with tape both for visibility and to cover any openings or uneven places in which the dog could catch. Many organizations now allow A Border Collie demonstrates fast weave poles. or require a so-called displaceable or breakaway tire, where the tire comes apart in some way if the dog hits it hard enough.* [8] Table (or pause table) An elevated square platform about 3-foot-by-3-foot (1-meter-by-1-meter) square Other hurdles UKC agility allows a variety of hurdles onto which the dog must jump and pause, either sitnot found in other agility organizations: bush hurting or in a down position, for a designated period dle, high hurdle, log hurdle, picket fence hurdle, rail of time which is counted out by the judge, usually 1.4. DOG AGILITY 17 about 5 seconds. The height ranges from about 8 1.4.3 Agility scoring and clean runs to 30 inches (20 to 76 cm) depending on the dog's Each organization has its own rules about what constitutes height and sponsoring organization. a fault, and whether one can earn a qualifying score with faulted runs. A completed run that passes the minimum Pause box A variation on the pause table. The pause defined standards for time, faults, points, etc., is referred box is a square marked off on the ground, usually to as a qualifying run and in some cases earns credit towith plastic pipe or construction tape, where the dog wards agility titles. A qualifying run is also referred to as must perform the “pause”behavior (in either a sit a leg. A clean run or clear round is one with no faults. or a down) just as he would on the elevated table. Different organizations place different values on faults, which can include the following: Weave poles Similar to a slalom, this is a series of 5 to 12 upright poles, each about 3 feet (0.91 m) tall and spaced about 24 inches (61 cm) apart (spacing for 1.4.4 Competition classes AKC was 21 inches (53 cm) until it was changed in January 2010. The extra three inches was to re- Given the available set of obstacles and possible faults, lieve stress on the dog's back.), through which the there are many permutations of games, or classes, that one dog weaves. The dog must always enter with the first can play on the agility field. A typical course is laid out pole to his left, and must not skip poles. For many within a 100-by-100-foot (30 by 30 m) area, with roughly dogs, weave poles are one of the most difficult ob- 10 to 20 feet (3.0 to 6.1 m) between obstacles. stacles to master. Judges design their own courses (in NADAC, judges can do so or can select from previously designed courses) usOther obstacles UKC agility allows the following obsta- ing the rules of the sanctioning organization. Each orgacles not found in other agility organizations: swing nization decides which classes are valid for achieving tiplank, sway bridge, and platform jump. NADAC tles and how each must be performed, but there are many also uses a hoop obstacle. A Hoopers course con- similarities. sists entirely of hoops, but hoops may be used in Some of the common types of courses or classes are other courses as well. References for equipment Equipment specifications for various organizations: • AKC (PDF), under “Obstacle Specifications and Performance Requirements”(United States) • ASCA (PDF), in Appendix A “Equipment Specifications”(United States) • CKC, Canadian rules, see Appendix A (Canada) • CPE, follow the “Rules”link (United States) • FCI (PDF), under“Obstacle Specification”(International) • NADAC (North America) • TDAA (North America) • USDAA (North America) • UKC, list of equipment, no specs (North America) • The Kennel Club, partial specs (United Kingdom) • Standard, Regular, or Agility: This is a numbered course consisting of (usually) at least one of each of the three primary contact obstacles (not including the crossover) plus jumps, tunnels, and weave poles of various flavors. A novice course might consist of as few as 15 obstacles; a higher-level course might have 22. The dog must negotiate the obstacles in the correct order within the standard course time (SCT). • Jumpers or Jumping: This numbered course consists primarily of various types of jumps and, depending on the organization, also weave poles and tunnels. The dog must negotiate the obstacles in the correct order within the standard course time (SCT). The dogs achieve their fastest speed on these courses because there are no contact obstacles to slow them down. • Gamblers, FAST, Jackpot, or Joker: An unnumbered course. The game typically consists of two parts, an opening period and the closing period, also known as the gamble, joker, or jackpot. In the opening period, the dog has a certain amount of time in which to do whatever obstacles the handler deems appropriate and accrues points based on the obstacles completed. At the end of the allocated time for the opening period, a horn or whistle blows. At that point, the gamble begins. The dog has a certain small amount of time (about 15 seconds) in which to 18 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES complete a sequence of obstacles designated by the agility course, with the handlers exchanging a baton judge ahead of time. (In FAST, there is no opening between sections. and closing period and this sequence may be taken at any time during the run.) The challenge is that there is a line on the ground past which the handler 1.4.5 Fairness among dogs and handlers must not step, typically paralleling the gamble obstacles and from 5 to 20 feet (1.5 to 6.1 m) away depending on the level of competition. The handler must choose an opening sequence that flows comfortably for the individual dog's skills and experience. The sequence must also be planned so that, when the horn blows, the dog is in a good position to immediately begin the gamble. The greatest challenge is the distance handling – getting the dog to move or even turn away from you. • Snooker: Loosely based on the billiard game of Snooker. The course has at least three red jumps, each numbered 1, and six other obstacles numbered 2 through 7. The dog accumulates points based on the obstacle's number. This also has two parts, an opening sequence and a closing sequence. In the Australian Koolie smooth coat competing in an agility trial. opening sequence, the dog must complete a 1, then any obstacle numbered 2 to 7, a different 1 and any 2 to 7 obstacle (including the one already performed), and yet another different 1 and another 2-7 obstacle. For example, the dog could perform the red on the left for 1 point, the 7-point obstacle, the red in the middle for 1 point and then the 7-pointer again, then the red on the far side of the course and the 7-pointer one more time, for a total of 24 points in the opening. After successfully completing this, the dog must complete the obstacles 2-7, in order, for an additional possible 27 points. Failure to follow these rules exactly (such as knocking a bar or taking 2 reds in a row) results in the dog and handler being A St. Bernard competing in dog agility. whistled off the course. Although each organization has its own rules, all divide • Strategy and entertainment value: The dogs dogs into smaller groups that are close to each other in size might have to negotiate between other obsta- and experience for purposes of calculating winners and cles without taking them or make a difficult qualifying scores: * [9]* [10]* [11] * [12]* [13]* [14]* [15] entry to the obstacle, often combined with a longer distance between the reds and the 7 so • Dogs are measured in height at the peak of their that it consumes more time to do the higherwithers (shoulders). They are then divided into point obstacle in the opening. height groups; for example, dogs measuring between 12 and 16 inches (30 and 41 cm) might compete to• Power & Speed: The course consists of two secgether with the jumps set at a height of 16 inches tions. The first is an untimed “Power”section, (41 cm). This ensures that dogs who might have which features the contact equipment and any of the an advantage on a particular course because of their following at the discretion of the judge setting the size (larger or smaller) keep the advantage to a mincourse: weaves, table, a-frame, spread jump, long imum. jump. If this section is negotiated without accruing any faults, the dog and handler may go on to the • Dogs are further divided into their experience lev“Speed”section, which consists of a timed jumping els. So, for example, there may be competitions for course. 12 inches (30 cm) Novice dogs, 12 inches (30 cm) • Team, Pairs, or Relay: Two or three dog-andhandler teams each execute a portion of a Standard Intermediate dogs, and 12 inches (30 cm) Masters dogs. Dogs typically have to have certain numbers of successes at lower levels before they can move up 1.4. DOG AGILITY 19 to compete with more advanced dogs. Some organizations allow beginner dogs to run on-leash in some situations. • Some organizations divide dogs into additional optional categories because the dogs are older (usually over seven years), need to jump at a lower height than the regular standard, or the like. For example, a veteran's class for older dogs might allow the dogs to jump at a height lower than the standard height and to have more time to complete the course. Otherwise, dogs are not separated by age; they must only be of at least a specified minimum age to compete. • Some organizations divide handlers into additional optional categories, such as junior handlers (usually A mixed-breed dog demonstrates the teeter at an agility class. under 18), handicapped handlers, or senior handlers. Dogs are not separated by breed in agility competitions. Some organizations require that dogs entering its competitions must be purebred, but many organizations allow any sound, able-bodied dog, whether purebred or mixedbreed. Blind dogs and dogs with disabilities judged to make the course run physically dangerous to the dog are generally ineligible for the dog's own safety. Among the major agility associations worldwide, the AKC stands out in its exclusion of deaf dogs from agility competition.* [9] 1.4.6 History Main article: History of dog agility The history of dog agility can be traced to a demonstration at the Crufts Dog Show in the late 1970s in the United Kingdom. Dogs were run around a course designed similar to horse jumping courses during intermission as a way to entertain the audience. It has since spread rapidly around the world, with major competitions held worldwide. 1.4.7 Geography Main article: Geography of dog agility Dog agility is an international dog sport with many different sanctioning organizations and competitions worldwide. 1.4.8 Training Dogs can begin training for agility at any age; however, care is taken when training dogs under a year old so as to not harm their developing joints.* [16] Dogs generally start training on simplified, smaller, or lowered (in height) agility equipment and training aids (such as ladders and wobbling boards to train careful footing);* [17] however, even quickly learning puppies must be finished growing before training on equipment at standard height to prevent injury. Introducing a new dog to the agility obstacles varies in response. Each individual dog learns at his own pace; confident dogs may charge over equipment with little encouragement, while more timid dogs may take weeks to overcome their hesitations with much encouragement. Both scenarios present their own challenges; dogs may be overconfident and sloppy to the point where they have a serious accident, so self-control must be taught.* [16]* [18] Timid dogs need extra support to boost their confidence.* [18] Given the right encouragement, a timid dog can gain confidence through learning the sport itself.* [16]* [18] The size of the dog can also have an effect on training obstacles, particularly with the chute, in which smaller dogs are prone to getting trapped and tangled inside.* [17] Great effort is taken in general to see that the dog is always safe and has a good experience in training for agility so that they do not fear the obstacles, and instead perform them willingly and with enthusiasm.* [17] The teeter-totter (or see-saw) and the weave poles are typically the most challenging obstacles to teach to any dog.* [16] Many dogs are wary of the see-saw's movement, and the weave poles involve a behavior that does not occur naturally to the dog.* [16]* [17] Contact obstacles in general are challenging to train in a manner that ensures that the dog touches the contact zone without sacrificing speed. Whether for competition or recreation, the most important skill for an agility team to learn is how to work together quickly, efficiently, and safely.* [17] Dogs vary greatly in their speed and accuracy of completing a course, as well as in their preferences for obstacles; therefore, the handler must adjust their handling style to suit and support the dog. Training techniques for each piece of equipment varies. For example, the techniques for training the weave poles include using offset poles that gradually move more in line with each other; using poles that tilt outward from 20 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES the base and gradually become upright; using wires or gates around the poles forcing the dog into the desired path; putting a hand in the dog's collar and guiding the dog through while leading with an incentive; teaching the dog to run full speed between two poles and gradually increasing the angle of approach and number of poles; et cetera.* [17] Agility can be trained independently (for instance at home) or with an instructor or club that offers classes. Seasoned handlers and competitors, in particular, may choose to train independently, as structured classes are commonly geared towards novices.* [16] Seasoned handlers often instead look to seminars and workshops that teach advanced handling techniques, and then practice on their own. Common reasons for joining an agility class include: • Access to agility equipment, especially the larger contact obstacles, which can be expensive, difficult English Springer Spaniel to build, and require a lot of space to use.* [18] • Seeking the guidance and expertise of more experi- trial takes place, and another member to be the secretary, enced handlers.* [18] who is responsible for providing competitors with the • Enjoying the social venue that many classes pro- show premium or schedule̶a document that describes the specific competition, summarizes the rules, describes vide.* [18] the trial site, and includes an entry form̶receiving com• Training in a more distracting environment, which pleted entry forms, sending out running orders, producing is helpful in preparation for competition.* [18] running-order lists for the day of competition, and compiling the results from the trial to send to the sanctioning In addition to the technical and educational training, organization. physical training must also be done.* [18] At the very least, the dog must be fit enough to run and jump without The designated chief ring steward or ring manager is recausing stress or injury to its body. The handler can also sponsible for finding and assigning workers, almost albenefit from being physically fit, but with some handling ways volunteers, to perform the myriad tasks involved in styles it is not necessary to keep up with the dog (nor is it putting on a trial. For example, if electronic timing is not possible with very fast dogs).* [18] Being able to handle a being used, each class needs a timer, who ensures that the dog from a distance allows mobility-impaired handlers to dog's running time is recorded, a scribe, who records the participate in the sport en par with mobile handlers. Re- judge's calls as a dog runs the class, and pole setters (or search has also demonstrated health benefits to handlers ring stewards), who ensure that jump bars are reset when they are knocked off and change jump heights for dogs of engaged in dog agility.* [19] different sizes. 1.4.9 Competition process Competition locations Competitions (also called trials or matches or shows) are usually hosted by a specific local club. The club might be devoted solely to dog agility, or it might be primarily a breed club that wants to promote the working abilities of its breed, or it might be a club that hosts many types of dog sports. The club contracts with judges who are licensed by the sanctioning organization and applies to the organization for permission to hold a trial on a specific date or weekend; most trials are two-day weekend events. Agility competitions require considerable space. Each ring is usually at least 100 feet (30 m) on each side, though exact dimensions vary according to the organisations. Competitions can have anything from one up to more than a dozen rings. The ground must be level and, ideally, grassy, although other surfaces are used. In addition, competitors need space to set up quarters for their dogs and gear; when space permits, competitors often bring pop up canopies or screenroom awning tents for shade. Dogs, when not competing, are usually left Key trial jobs to rest in exercise pens, crates, or dog tents familiar and The club designates a member to be the chairperson or enclosed environments in which they can relax and reshow manager, who is responsible for ensuring that the cover between runs. Handlers also bring reflective cloths 1.4. DOG AGILITY to protect their dogs from sun exposure and to calm them down (by covering their crates with the cloths). There also needs to be space for many handlers with dogs on leashes to move freely around the rings without crowding, and space for warming up, exercising, and pottying dogs. Adjacent to the site, parking must be available for all competitors. At weekend or weeklong shows that offer camping, space needs to be provided both for competitors' caravans and tents, and for the small fenced enclosures or gardens that they set up around them. In heavily populated areas, therefore, it is uncommon to find real estate inexpensive enough to devote entirely to agility, so sites are usually rented for the weekend. Even in more rural areas, agility-only sites are uncommon. Popular locations include fairgrounds, large parks, covered horse-riding arenas, and in cold-winter areas, large, empty warehouses in which mats or carpet can be laid. Course design 21 correspond to a grid: for example, if course maps are printed on a grid of 10-foot-by-10-foot squares, the posts that hold the ring ropes marking the course's four sides are often set 10 feet apart. When the course builders finish, the judge walks through the course and double-checks that the obstacles are legal, that they are placed where the judge intended, and that there are no unintended hazards on the course (such as potholes, uneven ground, or mud puddles) around which the course must be adjusted. For many classes, the judge then measures the path through the course to determine the optimal running distance of a typical dog. The judge uses that measurement with a speed requirement determined by the rules to calculate the standard course time, the time under which dogs must complete the course to avoid time faults. For example, if the course is 150 yards (or meters) long, and the rules state that dogs must run the course at a rate of at least 3 yards (or meters) per second, the standard course time would be 50 seconds. Other organizations, though, leave the decision on course time to the judge's discretion Before the trial, each judge designs the courses that he or she will judge at the competition. The sanctioning organization usually reviews and approves the courses to ensure Running a course and determining results that they meet the organization's guidelines. Guidelines include such issues as how far apart obstacles must be, how many turns are allowed (or required) on a course, which obstacles and how many of each must appear on the course, and so on. The rules vary by level of competition and by organization. Building a course and calculating times A Weimaraner jumping an ascending triple-bar spread jump Golden Retriever in an agility competition. Before each class, or the evening before the first class, course builders use course maps provided by the judges to place equipment on the course. The chief course builder is usually an experienced competitor who understands what equipment is legal, how it must be configured, how each must be aligned compared to other obstacles, and can direct several course-building volunteers to efficiently move the equipment into place. To make the job easier, courses are often marked in some way to The judge often holds a briefing for competitors before each class, to review the rules and explain specific requirements for a particular course. For Standard courses for experienced competitors, the judge's briefing is often minimal or dispensed with altogether. For novice handlers in classes with complex rules, the briefings can be much longer. The competitors then walk the course (as described earlier). When the walk-through ends, the gate steward or caller ensures that dogs enter the ring in the running order previously determined by the trial secretary and manages changes to the running order for handlers who might have conflicts with other rings of competition. As each dog and handler team runs the course, the dog is timed either by a person with a stopwatch or with an electronic timer, and the scribe writes the judge's calls and the dog's 22 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES final time on a scribe sheet or ticket, which is then taken 1.4.10 Injuries to the score table for recording. Surveys of handlers indicates that about 1 in 3 dogs incur At the score table, scorekeepers compile the results in a injuries from agility related activities. The most common variety of ways. Some organizations require or encourage types of injuries were (in order) strains, sprains and concomputerized scorekeeping; others require certain types tusions. Locations most commonly injured were shoulof manual score sheets to be filled out. When all the dogs ders, back, phalanges (forelimb/hindlimb) and neck. Inin a given height group, level, and class have run, the score juries were most commonly perceived as being caused table compares run times, faults, and any other requireby interactions with bar jumps (contact), A-frames and ments to determine placements (and, for classes that prodog walk obstacles (contact and/or fall). There were no vide qualifying points towards titles, which dogs earned relationship between the use of warm-up and cool-down qualifying scores). exercises and injuries.* [20]* [21] Each ring might run several classes during a day of competition, requiring multiple course builds, walk throughs, 1.4.11 See also briefings, and so on. • Championship (dog) Awards and Titles • Dog agility worldwide • Dog sports • Dock jumping • Fifteen and Send Time • Rat agility • Show Jumping 1.4.12 References [1] “AAC Rules and Regulations v4.0”. Retrieved April 6, 2011. [2] “AKC Regulations for Agility Trials”. Retrieved December 8, 2009. [3] “NADAC Exhibitor's Handbook”. Retrieved December 8, 2009. [4] “Official UKC Rules and Regulations”. Retrieved April 6, 2011. [5] “USDAA Rules and Regulations”. Retrieved December 8, 2009. A variety of rosette award ribbons from dog agility competitions. Awards are usually given for placements and for qualifying scores. Such awards are often flat ribbons, rosettes, commemorative plaques, trophies, medals, or pins. Some clubs award high-in-trial awards, calculated in various ways, or other special awards for the trial. Dogs who complete their final qualifying scores to become agility champions are often presented with special awards. [6] “CKC Agility Rules and Regulations”. Retrieved May 9, 2014. [7] “2011 Rulebook”. Canine Performance Events, Inc. 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2011. [8] “USDAA news release about tire specifications”. Retrieved December 7, 2011. [9] “AKC Rules (PDF; refer to“Classes, Titles, and Height Divisions”)". Retrieved December 7, 2011. Many Kennel Clubs also award titles to those who man- [10] “ASCA Rules (PDF; refer to“Measuring a Dog's Height” and“ASCA Sanctioned Classes, Divisions & Levels”)". age to qualify enough times in a particular level. Most Retrieved December 7, 2011. clubs require three qualifying scores in any level to get the corresponding title, however, other clubs may require [11] “CPE Rules (PDF; follow Rules and see pages 4, 5, and more or less. 10)". Retrieved December 7, 2011. 1.5. HERDING 23 [12] “FCI Rules (Word; refer to “Tests, Categories, and Classes”)". Retrieved December 7, 2011. [13] “NADAC Rules and FAQs”. Retrieved December 7, 2011. [14] “USDAA Certification Programs”. Retrieved December 7, 2011. [15] “The Kennel Club General Information, Grading Structure, and Measurements”. Retrieved December 7, 2011. [16] Margaret H. Bonham (2000). Introduction to Dog Agility. Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-7641-1439-5. [17] Julie Daniels (1991). Enjoying Dog Agility: From Backyard to Competition. Doral Publishing. ISBN 0-94487516-5. A man herding goats in Tunisia [18] Jacqueline O'Neil (1998). All About Agility. Howell Books. ISBN 0-87605-412-2. Some animals instinctively gather together as a herd. A group of animals fleeing a predator will demonstrate herd behavior for protection; while some predators, such as wolves and dogs have instinctive herding abilities derived [20] Cullen, K. L.; Dickey, J. P.; Bent, L. R.; Thomason, J. from primitive hunting instincts.* [1] Instincts in herding J.; Moëns, N. M. M. (2013). “Survey-based analysis of risk factors for injury among dogs participating in agility dogs and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive training and competition events”. Journal of the Ameri- herding tests. Dogs exhibiting basic herding instincts can * can Veterinary Medical Association 243 (7): 1019–1024. be trained to compete in herding and stock dog trials. [1] Sperm whales have also been observed teaming up to herd doi:10.2460/javma.243.7.1019. PMID 24050569. prey in a coordinated feeding behavior.* [2] [19] Dog Agility Exercise Study, University of Massachusetts Dept. of Kinesiology, April 2010. [21] Cullen, K. L.; Dickey, J. P.; Bent, L. R.; Thomason, J. J.; Moëns, N. M. M. (2013). “Internet-based survey of the nature and perceived causes of injury to dogs participating in agility training and competition events”. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 243 (7): 1010– 1018. doi:10.2460/javma.243.7.1010. PMID 24050568. 1.4.13 External links • Agility Association of Canada (AAC) • AKC Rules and Regulations • USDAA Rules and Regulations • NADAC Rules and Regulations Herding is used in agriculture to manage domesticated animals. Herding can be performed by people or trained animals such as herding dogs that control the movement of livestock under the direction of a person.* [3] The people whose occupation it is to herd or control animals often have herd added to the name of the animal they are herding to describe their occupation (shepherd, goatherd, cowherd). These -herds may use herding dogs to assist them and a competitive sport has developed in some countries where the combined skill of man and dog is tested and judged in a Trial such as a Sheepdog trial. Animals such as sheep, camel, yak and goats are mostly reared. They provide milk, meat and other products to the herders and their families. • FCI Agility Regulations • IFCS Agility Regulations • ANKC Agility Trial Rules • The Kennel Club (UK) Agility Regulations 1.5 Herding 1.5.1 Notes [1] Hartnagle-Taylor, Jeanne Joy; Taylor, Ty (2010). Stockdog Savvy. Alpine Publications. ISBN 978-1-57779-1065. [2] http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/56563/ title/Sperm_whales_may_team_up_to_herd_prey [3] Renna, Christine Hartnagle (2009). Herding Dogs. Ken- nel Club Books. ISBN 978-1-59378-737-0. Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group (herd), maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place̶or any combination of those. While the layperson uses the term “herd- 1.5.2 See also ing”, most individuals involved in the process term it mustering, “working stock”or droving. • Herd (disambiguation) 24 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES • Herder • Herding dogs • Pastoralism 1.6 Hunting dog For the species known as the African hunting dog, Cape hunting dog, or painted hunting dog, see African wild dog. A hunting dog refers to a canine that hunts with or for humans. There are several types of hunting dogs developed for various tasks. The major categories of hunting dogs include hounds, terriers, dachshunds, cur type dogs, and gun dogs. Among these categories further divisions can be made based upon the dogs' skill sets. 1.6.1 Breeds and capabilities used in hunting For a list of breeds of each type, see the detailed articles for each category: Details about the Categories Spaniels definitively fall into two types: ones that seek prey in water and others that seek it on land. Spaniels are the oldest class of gundog in existence, going back at least to the late Renaissance. Flushing spaniels combine hunting, flushing, and retrieving skills. Flushing spaniels that are used in the modern field include the Brittany, the English Springer Spaniel, the slightly smaller Welsh Springer Spaniel, and the field bred American and English Cocker Spaniels. The larger two chiefly are used for retrieveing and flushing game in thick grass or mild underbrush, with the Brittany having working habits closest to later developed pointers. Cocker Spaniels are generally used for thick prickly brush that they can duck, dive and dodge in pursuit of smaller game like rabbits, and Clumbers, Sussex, and Field Spaniels are preferred for their slower, methodical hunting pattern. The American Water Spaniel, Irish Water Spaniel, Kooikerhondje, and the Boykin Spaniel are noted for their water work and do very well in temperate water, with the last being adapted to subtropical swamps. They fall into the water spaniel category. Many of these breeds vary their game according to the desires of the hunter: American Water Spaniels are known to be able to go after animals as big as a large goose in the water or the much smaller prairie chicken out of the water. Boykin Spaniels have a coat more closely adapted to the warmer temperatures of the American South whereas Irish Water Spaniels are adapted for cool, damp conditions, hence the curly coat and whiplike tail of the latter. Like spaniels, hounds generally fall into two types: Sighthounds and scenthounds. The scenthounds are the younger of the two classes. Typical examples of the scenthound family include the Beagle, Bloodhound, members of the Coonhound family, and the Grand Bleu de Gascogne. There is great variety in how this group operates, but the one constant is having some of the strongest noses in dogdom: Bloodhounds have been used for hundreds of years to track both man and beast, sometimes on trails that have been sitting on the ground for days. Coonhounds were originally bred in the American South. They are still used to this day to hunt many different kinds of beasts, ranging in size from the squirrel to the American black bear, so accordingly they are bred for great stamina in multiple terrain, on water and land (all are excellent swimmers,) a loud booming bark that can carry for miles, and a short coat that pairs well with a humid subtropical climate. Beagles have been bred since at least the 16th century as rabbit and fox hunters who will relentlessly pursue the scent of prey even when it goes to ground and were originally intended to work in large packs:they have a gregarious temperament. A Grand Bleu de Gascogne is a very large breed of scenthound that is also quite old: it was a common dog for noblemen to use in their hunting parties and also was a pack hunter; many scenthounds in France were kept by wealthy men to trail quarry on private estates. Sighthounds are different from scenthounds in their methods and adaptations. The long lean head of the sighthound gives it a greater degree of binocular vision, and the body is usually quite slender with an elongated lower spine, giving a double suspension gallop when it runs. In many cases this class is older than the scenthound group: the greyhound, the Scottish Deerhound, and the Saluki have origins going well back into the Middle Ages and earlier. Their speed, agility and visual acuity are particularly adapted for coursing game in open meadows or steppes, and all of them are adapted for running down prey rather than just sniffing for them until they catch up. They are independent in nature, and are worked singly or in a "brace" of two or three dogs. Sighthounds are generally quiet and placid dogs compared to other hunting breeds, but are capable of explosive speed. Rhodesian Ridgebacks are one of the few hound breeds with both capabilities, and though they are not the fastest runners they are notable for having exceptionable endurance. Setters and pointers hunt over long distances to find game birds like members of the pheasant and quail family, using their noses to find the prey and then sneaking up on them in the brush, showing the hunter exactly where the bird is hiding. Most of this family comes from Europe, and would include the Shorthaired, Wirehaired, Shorthaired German Pointers and Weimaraner from Germany, The Viszla from Hungary, Bracco Italiano from Italy, and field bred Irish Setters, Irish Red and White Set- 1.6. HUNTING DOG 25 ters, English Pointers, English Setters, and Gordon Setters from the British Isles. Many in this group share traits with spaniels in terms of the coat they have: it is easier to pick out bits of nettle from a long coat than a short one and the coat itself offers some protection from damp and thorny conditions. tremely popular for killing vermin. Unlike many other hunters, this group did not exclusively work in rural areas: rats were rampant in Victorian era London, Edinburgh, Cardiff, Dublin, Birmingham, Belfast, and Glasgow, and poisons had marginal effects: the rats bred in the dirty conditions of these cities faster than traps could be laid. Water dogs fall into two categories: the retrievers and It became very profitable for working class men to have a multi-purpose. Retrievers are excellent swimmers with profession where they trained small dogs to sniff out and kill as many rats as they could as fast as they could. characteristic webbed feet, and many derive from either Canadian, American, or British stock. Retrievers typi- In fox hunting, they are often paired with hounds should cally have oily coats that help repel icy water, and are prey go to ground, since most breeds of terrier will pull noted for having high intelligence and being very strongly the fox out of its hole and never back down until its master bonded to their masters. The Nova Scotia Duck Tolling calls it off. Members of the bull and terrier subfamily are Retriever is very unusual in the fact that it “tolls"-plays used in the United States and Australia for the hunting of around in the hopes of attracting the attention of water- feral pigs, often paired with scenthounds-their job is to fowl from above and then letting its master shoot the bird, wait until the hounds have found the pig and thereafter whence it retrieves it and goes back in the blind. Golden to charge at it in an explosion of strength and stamina, Retrievers are originally from Scotland: their long, flow- throwing themselves at the pig and keeping it busy until ing double coats make them ideally suited to Scotland's the hunter comes to kill it. They are bred to have great rainy wet climate and their patience on land and in wa- courage and lightning fast reflexes, protecting their master ter is the stuff of legend; they shall wait for a bird for and the other dogs from the sharp tusks of an adult boar hours and will obey their master so long as master re- and the bulldog blood of their ancestors whispers to them wards him with fond affection. Chesapeake Bay Retriev- to bite down and never let go. ers, very popular in the United States, are bred to jump in water after ducks and geese even when there is a coating of ice over the water-they have deep chests meant to act 1.6.2 Gallery as a jackknife that will cut through it when they swim. • Wolf hunt depicted in a 12th-century bestiary Most famous of all is the Labrador, native to an island in Maritime Canada but popular around the world: the field • Medieval women hunting, illustration from a period type Labrador has longer legs and a slimmer frame than manuscript the show type that is better known in Britain, but both show signs of being attracted to water from puppyhood. • Hunting Dog by Li Di, 12th-century Chinese painting Other water dogs are multi purpose. Standard Poodles fall into the water dog category because they originally • Boar hunting, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th were used by wealthy Germans to hunt ducks; they precentury) date most types of water dogs. Today there are kennels in the United States that have revived the breed for this • Hunting the hart (16th Century) from Turbervile, purpose, with some dogs proving adept hunters at flushcopied from Jaques du Fouilloux. ing bobwhite quail and common pheasant and achieving very high ranks in competitions, sometimes beating the more popular Labrador Retriever. They are highly intel- 1.6.3 References ligent, second only to Border Collies in rank in overall aptitude, and hunters must be very specific in indicating 1.6.4 Further reading what they want when giving commands: they cannot be trained by conventional means and require very concrete • Hunting dogs constellation Canes Venatici signals to indicate what is desired so they may solve the puzzle themselves. They are excellent swimmers whose • Deeley, Martin. “Working Gundogs: An Introcoat requires a simple bath after a swim and a simple duction to Training and Handling. (1990,reprinted cut about an inch off the skin rather than the impracti2002) The Crowood Press. ISBN 1-85223-764-3. cal show clips. Portuguese Water Dogs are medium-sized • Fergus, Charles. Gun Dog Breeds, A Guide to dogs that will retrieve just about anything from the water Spaniels, Retrievers, and Pointing Dogs, The Lyons and have a strong instinct to swim, plus they will guard Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58574-618-5 whatever quarry a hunter keeps: they are one of the only water dogs that were bred to hunt fish. • Roettger, Anthony Z. and Schleider, Benjamin H. Terriers were bred to kill, and are one of the few huntIII. (2004) Urban Gun Dogs: Training flushing dogs ing dogs that have worked in urban environments: many for home and field. The Writer's Collective. ISBN terriers of English, Scottish, and Irish extraction were ex1-59411-050-6 26 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES 1.7 Leash For other uses, see Leash (disambiguation). A leash (also called a lead, lead line or tether) is a rope Tenterfield Terrier on a long leash at a tracking trial • Very short tab leashes; a clip attached to a loop handle or to a short piece of leather with a knot or similar short handle. Allows very close, tight control of a dog in certain competition or training situations. • Short, soft, braided leather leash with a loop handle and a clip to attach to the collar, usually about 4 feet in length, commonly used during obedience training. The softness enables the trainer to fold the leash into a shorter length and the braiding allows a firmer grip. A clip-on leash attached to a dog's collar. or similar material attached to the neck or head of an animal for restraint or control. On the animal, some leashes clip or tie to a collar, harness, or halter, while others go directly around the animal's neck. 1.7.1 Types of leashes • Nylon webbing leash, also known as a tracking/training leash in the UK, usually 4 to 6 feet, with a loop handle and clip, most commonly used for walking dogs casually. • Extended-length webbing leashes, 12 to 30 feet or more, also known as a tracking/training leash in the UK, usually with a loop handle and a clip, primarily for training at a distance or during tracking sessions. • Slip-leash, usually with a loop handle and an adjustable, slipping loop at the other end that goes around the dog's neck. Often used in work or competitions̶such as dog agility̶where the leash must be quickly removed and replaced. • Retractable, a hook on a thin rope that retracts automatically into a large plastic handle, allowing the dog to wander 15 or 25 feet away while keeping the leash taut (in theory preventing it from tangling around obstacles or the dog's legs) but still allowing the handler to reel in the dog for closer control. Nylon webbing leash, a common style For dogs, leashes take many forms; for example: • A simple metal chain. There are also bicycle dog leashes, especially designed for people who enjoy taking their pet in a ride with the bike. The leash is an aluminum tube with a plastic coated cable which runs down through the tube. It extends out of the tube end a couple of feet to allow for ease of movement for the dog. One end connects to the bike and the other to the dog's collar. This keeps them safely away the bike.* [1] Cat leashes and harnesses are also available on the market and are convenient for people who are not comfortable letting their pet free.* [2] 1.7. LEASH 1.7.2 27 Leash laws in the United States of laws and give localities power to make leash law, there are some other states in which leash laws apply statewide. America States that do not have statewide leash laws are Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming. In Connecticut, dogs are not permitted to run at large except in the situation of hunting. Still, if the dog has vicious propensities and the owner still allows it to run at large and a person is bitten, the owner can be fined for up to $1,000 and is also liable for 6 months of prison unless the victim has abused the dog and provoked the harmful behavior. Sign near Conneaut Harbor (in Conneaut, Ohio) In Delaware, dogs are not allowed to run at large unless in situations when the owner is present and has control over the pet. An exception is for farm dogs. Also, during the night dogs must be kept in an enclosure from which they cannot escape, firmly secured with a collar or chain or other device, so they cannot stray from the premises,* [3] or are under the reasonable control of the owner or custodian. If an owner does not respect these laws and if the dog bites someone, the owner is subject to civil liability and for fines of up to $1,500. Many cities have passed legislation that requires dogs to be on leash in public areas; in some areas, cats are also required to be restrained (under control) on a leash, in a kennel, or in a cat-proof yard or house. Dogs in the District of Columbia must be kept on a leash as well. They are also not permitted on school grounds when school is in session or on any public recreation area without a leash.* [4] Purposes of a leash include: preventing animals from frightening or biting people or other animals, defecating and urinating in inappropriate places, endangering traffic, digging up lawns, causing other damage, getting lost, and getting away from owners. Leashes also provide a clear method of communication and ensure control during training of dogs. Indiana is one of the states that has a restraint statute, which means that dogs must be restrained at all times. Otherwise, if the dog bites a person when not restrained the owner is subject to civil liability and criminal penalties. (Cite needed; definition of “restraint”needed; discussion of local Indiana ordinances forbidding dog tethering needed.) Dogs are allowed to run at large during the night in Kentucky only if they are accompanied by and under control of their owner. According to the leash laws of Louisiana, dogs are prohibited to run at large at all times of the day. The same law applies in Maine, where the only exception is for hunting dogs. Missouri legislation requires that dogs are kept in leashes that are no longer than 10 feet when they are in state parks or on historic sites.* [5] Also, dogs that have rabies are not permitted to run at large. In Nebraska, dogs may run at large only in counties where the population does not reach 80,000. New Hampshire legislation does not allow dogs to run at large unless they are accompanied by their owner or custodian or when dogs are used for training or are trained In the United States, leash laws are different within each for hunting, herding or exhibitions. state. While some states do not have state-wide leash Cat wearing a harness and leash 28 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Illinois legislation prohibits owners from walking their collar in order to maintain good control of the dog.* [10] dogs when they are not in a leash. The material of which the leash is made of is not of great Dogs in New York must be restrained or confined at all importance as long as the leash does not show evidence of wear or fraying. Therefore, leashes should be peritimes of the day. odically checked to ensure they are maintained in proper According to the North Carolina law, dogs are allowed to condition. run at large during the night only if they are accompanied An important aspect of dog leashes is their sturdiness. by their owner or a person who has received the owner's Although rope leashes are quite cheap, they are vulnerapermission to do so. ble to chewing and fraying and are not amongst the most Ohio law requires one to “keep the dog under the rea- recommended types of leashes. However, it is considsonable control of some person,”but does not require a ered that a better type of leash is the one made of nylon leash except for “any female dog …at any time the dog because this material provides a bit of elasticity which is is in heat.”There are additional provisions for “danger- meant to result in more comfort for the dog. On the other ous dogs”that have injured a person or killed another hand, nylon leashes can cause chafe or can cut into the dog.* [6] skin of the dog. Pennsylvania legislation states that dogs must be confined Leather leashes are often preferred over the nylon ones or firmly secured or reasonably controlled by a person, because of the resistance of the material and because it within the property of the owner. becomes more flexible with age and it is softer. Leather Tennessee law prohibits dogs to run at large except in is however more prone to be chewed when compared to cases in which dogs are engaged in legal hunting or herd- nylon. ing. The retractable dog leash is one of the most comfortable West Virginia and Wisconsin are states that do not have leashes for the dogs because they allow them to go as far a law that requires dogs to be leashed. Still, they do have as they want as long as the owner does not consider it laws that hold dog owners and keepers liable for all dam- a danger. Retractable leashes are usually made of nylon ages caused by dogs that are permitted to run at large.* [7] and the retractable device is made of plastic or a stronger composite. Although these leashes can be convenient for Different law applies to dangerous dogs and female dogs both the dog and the owner as it allows some control, they as in different states they are prohibited to run at large make it difficult to keep an aggressive dog under control at all times. Also, in states such as Connecticut and which can result in persons or other dogs being attacked. Louisiana, guide dogs must also be leashed.* [8] Aggressive dogs should not be walked with such a leash and also puppies should be kept closely to ensure its protection from various dangers such as cars. 1.7.3 Dog leashes Dog leashes are used to walk the dog in public places. Having the dog wear a leash is a way of protecting the dog and other persons on the street. When walking a dog in crowded places they can get easily confused and lost or they could be involved in car accidents. Also, crowded places might cause them distress which might result in attacking a person. Not to mention that in some areas walking the dog without a leash is against the law. Dog leashes come in variety of designs and colors and they can be made of leather, nylon or other composite materials. Also, the length is one of the important aspects of the leash. The length of the leash must be chosen according to the size of the dog and it is important because it allows a good control. Leashes should not be either too long or too short. Too long leashes do not provide good control of the pet which can result in unpleasant accidents with more aggressive dogs whereas too short leashes are uncomfortable for both the dog and the owner. The perfect leash can restrain the dog but at the same time is not viewed as a punishment for the pet.* [9] Some leashes are made of reflective materials and are suitable for walking the dog at night. They are convenient because they make the dog and the owner much more visible in the traffic, reducing the likelihood of accidents. In India, dog leashes are made from the usual materials, including chain, leather and nylon. Australia is the biggest net importer of Indian made chain leashes, accounting for nearly 22% of the Australian dog leash market. 1.7.4 Cat leashes Cat leashes are used with the purpose of preventing the cat getting lost. Unlike dogs, cats rarely get into fights or attack persons on the street so cat leashes are mainly a safety measure to protect the pet itself. Very often the cat leashes are replaced with harnesses because they avoid the dangers of the leash which include escaping and running away or choking. Cats are more likely to not be willing to be walked in a harness than dogs are. That is why cats are considered to need up to months to be able to adjust High quality dog leashes have a good quality metal clip to wearing a harness. and they can be made of leather, nylon or even chain. Cat leashes come in a variety of colors, designs and modThe metal clip must securely fasten to a metal ring on the els and they are also made of different materials. There 1.8. LIST OF DOG SPORTS 29 are cat leashes made of leather, nylon or rope. Whereas [9] “Dog Collars Leashes”. Retrieved 2010-06-04. the leather leash is one of the best qualities because of the characteristics of the material, it is also one of the most [10] “Dog Leash - How to Select the Best Basic Dog Leash” . Retrieved 2010-06-04. expensive and not very comfortable for the cat at the same time. Nylon cat leashes and harnesses are however more [11] Noah Webster, “Leash”. Dictionary, 1828. elastic and thus more comfortable and also provide more control. 1.8 List of dog sports 1.7.5 Other uses • Among hunters, a collection of three hares “ ( a brace and a half”or tierce) or three creatures of any kind, especially greyhounds, foxes, and deer, is called “a leash”.* [11] Dog sports are activities that involve dogs. • Other types of key leashes include: • Toddler leashes to ensure that young children do not wander far away from their guardians, and are typically attached as a harness to the toddler, while the other end containing the loop is held by the guardian. Toddler leashes are a controversial product and parents have strong opinions about it. • Key leashes and lanyards are used to keep the Training a retrieve in Schutzhund, a dog sport keys attached to handbags. • People enjoying BDSM sometimes uses a leash as a sex toy. 1.7.6 See also • Creance • Fiador (tack) • Child harness • Electronic leash 1.7.7 References [1]“Comparing Bicycle-mounted Leashes”. Retrieved 201005-10. [2] “Cat Leash and Harness Devices”. Retrieved 2010-0510. [3] “Delaware Leash Law”. Retrieved 2010-05-10. [4] “District of Columbia Leash Law”. Retrieved 2010-0510. [5] “Missouri Leash Law”. Retrieved 2010-05-10. There is much discussion about what exactly defines a sport for dogs. Some issues are: • Must a sport be entertaining to watch? Agility, Disc dog, and Dock Jumping are very entertaining to spectators, and often televised. • If a human companion is not actively involved, is it actually a sport? Take greyhound racing, for example, or hunting from a duck blind, from which the dog retrieves the game. • Is 'any' activity a sport if a casual observer does not understand the nature of the competition? For example, in a conformation show, the handler and dog move around a ring for a judge to evaluate the dog's appearance and structure; the skill and knowledge required are not obvious to those uninterested in the sport. This list is intended only to represent anything that anyone is likely to refer to as a dog sport, not to argue its validity as sport. This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. [6] “Ohio Leash Law”. Retrieved 2012-04-30. [7] “Wisconsin Leash Law”. Retrieved 2010-05-10. [8] “Overview of State Dog Leash Laws”. Retrieved 201005-10. • Agility • Barn Hunt* [1] 30 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES • Greyhound jockey • Hare coursing • Herding or stock dog • Hunting • Hound trailing • Junior showmanship • Jack Russell hurdle racing An Alaskan Malamute going over an A-frame during a dog agility competition • Lure coursing • Dog mushing • Musical canine freestyle, canine dressage, heelwork to music • Nosework • Obedience training • Protection sports (including Schutzhund, PSA - Protection Sports Association, Service Dogs Of America and French Ring sport) • Rally obedience A Golden Retriever dock jumping into a pool • Retrieving trials • Bikejoring • Schutzhund • Cani cross • Scootering • Caniteering • Sheepdog trials (or herding) • Carting • Sighthound disc sport • Competition obedience • Sighthound racing (including Greyhound and Whippet racing, coursing, and lure coursing) • Conformation showing • Catchball (a variation on flyball) • Degility • Disc dog • Skijoring • Skip dog • Sled dog racing • Dock jumping • Dog surfing • Dog hiking, pack hiking • Terrier racing • Dog scootering • Tracking trials (see also Tracking (dog)) • Earthdog trials • Treibball • Field trials • Water work and water rescue • Flyball • Weight pulling • French Ring sport • Dachshund racing (or Wiener racing) • Greyhound racing • Wheelchair mushing 1.9. OBEDIENCE TRAINING 1.8.1 References [1] Barnhunt.com • Sundance, K. (2010). 101 Ways to Do More With Your Dog: Make Your Dog a Superdog with Sports, Games, Exercises, Tricks, Mental Challenges, Crafts, and Bonding. Beverly, MA: Quarry Books 1.8.2 See also • Racing 31 caring for and living with the dog participates and trains the dog, as they will be the one who will be giving the commands. The relationship and trust between the dog and handler are important for success. Basic or beginner's obedience is typically a short course ranging from six to ten weeks, where it is demonstrated to the handler how to communicate with and train the dog in a few simple commands. With most methods the dog is trained one command at a time. Though there may or may not be a specific word attached to it, walking properly on a leash, or leash control, is often the first training required prior to learning other commands. 1.9 Obedience training Obedience training usually refers to the training of a dog and the term is most commonly used in that context. Obedience training ranges from very basic training, such as teaching the dog to reliably respond to basic commands such as“sit”,“down”,“come”, and“stay”, to high level competition within clubs such as the American Kennel Club, United Kennel Club, and the Canadian Kennel Club, where additional commands, accuracy and performance are scored and judged. Obedience implies compliance with the direction or command given by the handler. For a dog to be considered obedient rather than simply trained in obedience, it must respond reliably each time its handler gives a command. German Shepherd Dog 1.9.1 History Working dogs have always learned to obey commands related to the work that they historically performed, such as when a herding dog moves a flock of animals in response to a shepherd's whistled directions, or a hunting dog searching for (or chasing down) quarry or leaving the treed quarry at the hunter's command. In the twentieth century, formalized dog training originated in military and police applications, and the methods used largely reflected the military approach to training humans. In the middle and late part of the century, however, more research into operant conditioning and positive reinforcement occurred as wild animal shows became more popular. Aquatic mammal trainers used clickers (a small box that makes a loud click when pushed on) to“mark”desired behavior, giving food as a reward. The change in training methods spread gradually into the world of dog training. Today many dog trainers rely heavily on positive reinforcement to teach new behaviors. At a basic level, owners want dogs with which they can pleasantly share a house, a car, or a walk in the park. Some dogs need only a minimum amount of training to learn to eliminate outside (be housebroken), to sit, to lie down, or to come on command (obey a recall). Many other dogs prove more challenging. New dog owners might find training difficult and fail to make progress, because they expect dogs to think and act like humans, and are surprised and baffled when the dogs don't. Dogs that demonstrate the previously mentioned basic skills, as well as walking reasonably well on a leash and a few other minor tasks, can be tested for and earn the American Kennel Club's (AKC) Canine Good Citizen certification. While not a competitive obedience title, a CGC certification demonstrates that the dog is sociable, well behaved, and reliable in public settings.* [1] Some inObedience training is often a prerequisite for or compo- surance companies will waive breed restrictions on dogs nent of other training. with CGCs, and many states have passed resolutions supThe actual training of the dog can be done by anyone, the porting and encouraging CGC certification as a yardstick trainer, owner, or a friend. Typically the individual who is for canine manners and responsible dog ownership. Training a dog in obedience can be an ongoing and lengthy process depending on the dog, the methods used, and the skill and understanding of both the trainer and the handler. The level of obedience the handler wishes to achieve with the dog is also a major factor in the time involved, as is the commitment to training by the handler. 32 1.9.2 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Dog intelligence and training not trained using harsh corrective methods, as this training can be psychologically harmful to the dog and result in further behavioral issues.* [2]* [3] 1.9.3 Commands The specific command word is not important, but consistency in usage is. There are certain commands that are accepted as standard and commonly used. Basic commands • Sit: The dog is in a sitting position. • Down: A dog is typically down when its elbows (front feet) and hocks (rear legs) are touching the ground or floor. • Heel: The dog's head or shoulder is parallel to the handler's leg on the left side of the handler. • Come or Here: (referred to as the recall) “Call your dog”equals “come”or “here”. • Stay: The dog must remain in the position (sit, down, stand) and location under which the command was given until it is released by the handler. A White German Shepherd ready to obey. Certain breeds, such as Doberman Pinschers, German Shepherds, Border Collies, Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers, have reputations as being easier to train than others, such as some hounds and sled dogs. Dogs that have been bred to perform one task to the exclusion of all others (such as the Bloodhound or Husky), or that have been bred to work independently from their handler (such as terriers), may be particularly challenging with obedience training. Dog intelligence is exhibited in many different ways, and a dog that might not be easy to train might nonetheless be quite adept at figuring out how to open kitchen cabinets or to escape from the yard. Novice dog owners need to consider a dog's trainability as well as its energy level, exercise requirements, and other factors before choosing a new pet. Very high intelligence is not necessarily a good thing in a companion dog, as smart dogs can require extensive daily mental stimulation if they are not to become bored and destructive. No breed is impossible to obedience train, but novice owners might find training some breeds quite difficult. The capacity to learn basic obedience̶and even complicated behavior̶is inherent in all dogs. Some breeds may require more patience or creativity in training than others. Individual dogs that exhibit fearful or anxious behaviors should also be handled with greater care, and especially Advanced commands • Stop – a dog that will simply stop whatever it is doing and lie down on command no matter how far it is from its keeper is a dog that can be taken anywhere. • Back up – keepers of large dogs or dogs with a reputation for aggressiveness can make strangers more comfortable by teaching the dog to back up on command. • Growl – the inverse of backing up. Some owners teach non-aggressive dogs to growl on a subtle command – not the word growl, usually a small hand gesture – as a way of letting strangers know that you and your dog value being left alone. • Shake - Directs the dog to shake whole body. Generally used after bathing or swimming to prevent dog from soaking owner. • Shake Hands or Shake - Directs dog to lift paw and place it in the hand of the owner as if shaking hands. • Steady – keep near by. The dog can walk free, but not dash off. • Stand – dog stands still. Useful for grooming. Many dogs are groomed frequently and need to stand quietly during the process. 1.9. OBEDIENCE TRAINING • Go to bed, kennel, or get in: Directs the dog to go to its bed or its crate and to remain there until released. The dog has freedom of movement in that location to stand up, turn around, or lie down, unlike when placed in a Stay. Useful to keep a dog out from underfoot and safe in a busy or complicated situation. • Drop or drop it: Dogs pick up all sorts of things, some of which they shouldn't have. A dog that drops anything on command, no matter how attractive (and “attractive”to a dog can be “rotten and smelly”to a human), is a dog under control that the owner can prevent from eating dangerous items or from destroying valued personal property. 33 Flat collar Flat collars are commonly used in clicker training and other non-correction-based training, such as puppy kindergarten. They are also effective in training small dogs, however they tend to lift the dog off the ground when giving corrections while the dog is distracted or in high adrenal mode. They are typically made of nylon or leather, and fasten with a buckle or quickrelease connection. Slip collar Slip collars (commonly called choke chain or check chains) are made of metal links or rolled material such as nylon or leather. A metal ring is at each end. Historically, slip collars have been used as a matter of course, mostly in North America and the UK. In the last few decades use of these collars has declined. Correctly • Leave it: An adjunct to Drop, directing the dog to used, the collar should make a quick clicking not zipping not touch an item. Also useful before the dog has sound when quickly snapped and released to startle or get picked anything up. Leave it is also used in con- the attention of the dog and indicate to the handler that junction with Take it. the technique was a swift jerk not a choke. The idea is not to strangle the dog, though this can happen if the collar is • Take it: The dog leaves a desired object, such improperly used. as a toy or treat, untouched until given this command. Alternatively, the dog takes and holds an object which it has no interest in. This can protect an Martingale collar Martingale collars (also called owner's, visitor's, or child's fingers. limited-slip collars) are usually made of flat nylon with a smaller fixed-length section (made of either nylon or a • Give: The dog has an object in its mouth and“gives” short length of chain) that, when pulled on by the leash, it to its owner by releasing the object into the owner's shortens up tightening the collar around the dog's neck, hand. Object of choice in training is usually a lightto a limited extent. When properly fitted, martingales weight dumbbell or a glove. This is useful for when are looser than flat-buckle collars when not tightened, and your dog has one of your belongings and you want it less severely corrective than slip collars when tightened. back before the dog hides it or chews it up. • Speak: A dog, when taught this command, will bark Prong collars Prong collars (also called 'pinch colonce (or more) when told to do so. lars') are a series of chain links with blunted open ends • Roll Over: When taught this command a dog will turned towards the dog's neck. The design of the prong collar is such that it has a limited circumference unlike lie down, roll over, and stand back up. slip collars which do not have a limit on how far they • Attack: A dog will attack something (or someone) can constrict on a dog's neck. The limited traction of the when told to do so. Common commands are either martingale chain combined with the angle of the prongs prevents the prongs moving close enough to pinch. The “Attack”or “Sic'em”. collar is designed to prevent the dog from pulling by ap• Fetch: A dog will retrieve a thrown object (usually plying pressure at each point against the dog's neck. a ball or a stick) and bring it back to the one who Prong collars must never be turned inside out (with the threw it. prongs facing away from the dog's skin), as this may cause • Place : The dog is trained to go to a certain place injury against the body and head. Plastic tips are occaand stay there until released, usually a place in the sionally placed on the ends of the prongs to protect against house selected by owner. tufts forming in the fur or, in the case of low quality manufactured collars with rough chisel cut ends, puncturing • With me: used when walking your dog to keep them the skin. Like the slip collar, the prong collar is placed at your side and with your pace. high on the dog's neck, just behind the ears, at the most sensitive point. 1.9.4 Training devices Collars Main article: Dog collar Some dogs can free themselves from prong collars with large wire looped sides by shaking their head so that the links pop out, so some trainers have come to use a second collar (usually an oversize slip collar) in addition to the prong collar so when this happens the dog does not run loose. 34 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Shock collars Shock collars (also known as E-collars) Schutzhund dog training. Bite tugs are perfect for puptransmit a remote signal from a control device the handler pies but can be used for training adult dogs as well. operates to the collar. An electrical shock is transmitted by the handler remotely, at varying degrees of intensity, from varying distances depending on range frequency. It 1.9.5 Competitive obedience is also done automatically in the bark electronic collar to stop excessive barking, and invisible fence collar when the dog strays outside its boundary. Shock collars are widely used in some areas of the world and by some dog obedience professionals.,.* [4] Some dog training associations, veterinary associations and kennel clubs condemn their use.* [5] Other devices Leash Main article: Leash The leash or lead is used to connect the dog to the handler, lead the dog, as well as to control the dog in urban areas. Most communities have laws which prohibit dogs from running at large. They may be made of any material such as nylon, metal or leather. A six foot length is commonly used for walking and in training classes, though leashes come in lengths both shorter and longer. A long line (also called a lunge line) can be 3 metres (ten feet) or more in length, and are often used to train the dog to come when called from a distance. Clicker Main article: Clicker The clicker is a small hand-held device that makes a distinct, short sound to mark a desired behavior. (See clicker training for a more detailed discussion of this methodology.) It has gained popularity in recent years as being a means of training that does not involve physically correcting the dog, though it may be used in conjunction with these methods. This Smooth Collie retrieves an obedience dumbbell made of wood; others are made of metal. Main article: obedience trial For dog owners who enjoy competition and relish the opportunity to work as a highly tuned team with their dogs, competitive obedience trials are available. Dogs can earn obedience titles, including an obedience championship. In competition, merely sitting, lying down, or walking on a leash are insufficient. The dog and handler must perform the activities off leash and in a highly stylized and carefully defined manner. For example, on a recall, the dog must come directly to the handler, without sniffing or veering to one side, and must sit straight in front of the handler, not at an angle or off to one side or the other. Training for obedience competitions builds on basic obedience training. The United Kennel Club (UKC), the Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC), the American Kennel Club (AKC) and the Australian Shepherd Dog Club of America (ASCA) are some of the organizations which offer Head halters are an alternative to collars that works simititles in Competition Obedience. larly to a horse halter. The halter fits over the dog's snout and behind its head (leading it to sometimes be mistaken AKC obedience titles include: Companion Dog (CD), for a muzzle). Halters reduce the dog's ability to success- Companion Dog Excellent (CDX), Utility Dog (UD), fully pull on the leash, but do not eliminate it. If the halter Utility Dog Excellent (UDX), and Obedience Trial is used with a sharp jerk on the leash, neck injury to the Champion (OTCH). dog may result, but used correctly head halters have not In recent years, a new form of Obedience competition, been shown to cause harm. known as Rally Obedience, has become very popular. It Head halter Main article: Dog collar was originally devised by Charles L.“Bud”Kramer from the obedience practice of“doodling”- doing a variety of Dog bite tug Main article: Dog bite tug interesting warmup and freestyle exercises. Rally Obedience is designed to be a “bridge”, or intermediate step, Dog training bite tug is a tool usually used as retrieve between the CGC certification and traditional Obedience developing skills. It is used for police, military and competition. 1.10. OPERANT CONDITIONING 35 Unlike regular obedience, instead of waiting for the judge's orders, the competitors proceed around a course of designated stations with the dog in heel position. The course consists of 10 to 20 signs that instruct the team what to do. Unlike traditional obedience, handlers are allowed to encourage their dogs during the course. Obedience for other purposes There are many reasons for training dogs beyond the level required for basic companionship. For example, assistance dogs must obey their“sit”and“down”commands perfectly at all times, but they do not have to conform to the rigid rules of competitive obedience. Dogs competing in dog sports, such as flyball, agility or Schutzhund, must be trusted in an open field, off leash and surrounded by other people, dogs, hot dogs, and flying Diagram of operant conditioning discs. This requires more focused attention on the owner and a better recall than that found in most household companion dogs, and more advanced training than that re- 1.10 Operant conditioning quired for formal obedience. 1.9.6 See also • Clicker training • Dog sports • Dog training • The Intelligence of Dogs • Musical canine freestyle • Rally obedience (Rally-O) Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental learning, is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments for behavior. It encourages the subject to associate desirable or undesirable outcomes with certain behaviors. Instrumental conditioning was first discovered and published by Jerzy Konorski and was also referred to as Type II reflexes. Mechanisms of instrumental conditioning suggest that the behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength. The expressions“operant behavior”and“respondent behavior”were popularized by B.F. Skinner who worked on reproduction of Konorskiʼs experiments. Operant behavior means that“a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus”. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (or respondent conditioning) in that operant con1.9.7 References ditioning deals with the reinforcement and punishment [1] “About Canine Good Citizen®". American Kennel Club. to change behavior. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its antecedents and Retrieved 31 March 2015. consequences, while classical conditioning is maintained [2] Laviolette, Niki (29 March 2015). “Key points to re- by conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors, which member when training a dog”. Tribune Star. Retrieved are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors condi31 March 2015. tioned through a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.* [1] They both, however, [3] “Natural Dog Obedience Training”. K9 Basics. 13 Ocform the core of behavior analysis and have grown into tober 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015. professional practices. Operant conditions are simple to understand, after trial and error Learning is achieved. A [4] The Facts About Modern Electronic Training Devices reward for overcoming an obstacle can give the inner mo[5] Shock Collars - The Shocking Truth, The Association of tivation needed to continue with success. Pet Dog Trainers 1.9.8 External links 1.10.1 Historical notes • AKC Obedience Regulations 36 Thorndike's law of effect Main article: Law of effect Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes.* [2] When first constrained in the boxes, the cats took a long time to escape. With experience, ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, enabling the cats to escape in less time over successive trials. In his law of effect, Thorndike theorized that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthened behavior and some consequences weakened behavior. Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure.* [3] CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior.* [10] In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior,* [11] which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as“mands”and “tacts”to capture the essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's audience. 1.10.2 Tools and procedures To shape behavior: antecedents and consequences Antecedents as well as the following consequences: reinforcement and punishment are the core tools of operant conditioning. It is important to realize that some terminology in operant conditioning is used in a way that is different from everyday use. Skinner “Antecedent stimuli”occurs before a behavior happens. Main article: B. F. Skinner “Reinforcement”and“punishment”refer to their effect on the desired behavior. 1. Reinforcement increases the probability of a behavB.F. Skinner (1904–1990) often referred to as the father ior being expressed. of operant conditioning. His work is most often cited in connection with this topic. His book “The Behavior of 2. Punishment reduces the probability of a behavior Organisms”,* [4] published in 1938, initiated his lifelong being expressed study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unob- “Positive”and“negative”refer to the presence or absence servable mental states such as satisfaction, building his of the stimulus. analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.* [5] 1. Positive is the addition of a stimulus To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented 2. Negative is the removal or absence of a stimulus (ofthe operant conditioning chamber in which subjects such ten adverse) as pigeons and rats were isolated from extraneous stimuli and free to make one or two simple, repeatable responses.* [6] This was similar to Thorndikeʼs puzzle box There is an additional procedure and became known as the Skinner box. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical 1. Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence record of these responses from which response rates could following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsebe estimated. These records were the primary data that quential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfaSkinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on vorable consequences) it will occur less frequently. response rate of various reinforcement schedules.* [7] A When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforcement schedule may be defined as “any procereinforced with either positive or negative reinforcedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according ment, it leads to a decline (extinction) in that behavto some well-defined rule”.* [8] Reinforcement is known ior. as“behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).”The effects This creates a total of five basic consequences of schedules became, in turn, the basic experimental data from which Skinner developed his account of operant 1. Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): Occurs conditioning. He also drew on many less formal obserwhen a behavior (response) is followed by a stimvations of human and animal behavior.* [9] ulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the 1.10. OPERANT CONDITIONING frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement. 2. Negative reinforcement (escape): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. 3. Positive punishment (punishment) (also called “Punishment by contingent stimulation”): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the“addition”of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). This procedure is usually called simply punishment. 4. Negative punishment (penalty) (also called“Punishment by contingent withdrawal”): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. 5. Extinction: Occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Then, in “extinction”, no food is given. Typically the rat continues to press more and more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be “extinguished.” It is important to note that actors are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Additionally, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people. Some other common terms and procedures • Escape and avoidance In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. In avoidance learning, the behavior precedes and prevents an (aversive) stimulus, for example putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Because, in 37 avoidance, the stimulation does not occur, avoidance behavior seems to have no means of reinforcement. Indeed this non-occurrence of the stimulus has been a problem for reinforcement theory, which has been dealt with in various ways. See section on avoidance learning below. • Noncontingent reinforcement refers to delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response.* [12] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent “reinforcement”.* [13] • Schedules of reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. • Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. • Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. • Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. • Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. • Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after each response.* [14] • Discrimination, generalization & context. Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished: •“Discrimination”typically occurs when a response is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a red light and not at a green light; in consequence, it pecks at red and stops pecking at green. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions have been studied; for example an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another. •“Generalization”is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained 38 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at “red”a pigeon might also peck at “pink”, though usually less strongly. •“Context”refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. in a room, or the interior of an operant conditioning chamber. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context may be absent, or altered, in another. This may cause difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur elsewhere. Operant conditioning to change human behavior Researchers have found the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior: 1. State goal (aims for the study) That is, clarify exactly what changes are to be brought about. For example, “reduce weight by 30 pounds.” 2. Monitor behavior (log conditions) Keep track of behavior so that one can see whether the desired effects are occurring. For example, keep a chart of daily weights. 3. Reinforce desired behavior (give reward for proper behavior) For example, congratulate the individual on weight losses. With humans, a record of behavior may serve as a reinforcement. For example, when a participant sees a pattern of weight loss, this may reinforce continuance in a behavioral weight-loss program. A more general plan is the token economy, an exchange system in which tokens are given as rewards for desired behaviors. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such as power, prestige, goods or services. 4. Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior For example, remove candy and fatty snacks from kitchen shelves. 1.10.3 petite”for that source of stimulation has been satisfied. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence will then increase. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for behavior. Satiation is generally only a potential problem with primary reinforcers, those that do not need to be learned such as food and water.* [15] 2. Immediacy: After a response, how immediately a consequence is then felt determines the effectiveness of the consequence. More immediate feedback will be more effective than less immediate feedback. If someone's license plate is caught by a traffic camera for speeding and they receive a speeding ticket in the mail a week later, this consequence will not be very effective against speeding. But if someone is speeding and is caught in the act by an officer who pulls them over, then their speeding behavior is more likely to be affected.* [16] 3. Contingency: If a consequence does not contingently (reliably, or consistently) follow the target response, its effectiveness upon the response is reduced. But if a consequence follows the response consistently after successive instances, its ability to modify the response is increased. The schedule of reinforcement, when consistent, leads to faster learning. When the schedule is variable the learning is slower. Extinction is more difficult when learning occurs during intermittent reinforcement and more easily extinguished when learning occurs during a highly consistent schedule.* [15] 4. Size: This is a “cost-benefit”determinant of whether a consequence will be effective. If the size, or amount, of the consequence is large enough to be worth the effort, the consequence will be more effective upon the behavior. An unusually large lottery jackpot, for example, might be enough to get someone to buy a one-dollar lottery ticket (or even buying multiple tickets). But if a lottery jackpot is small, the same person might not feel it to be worth the effort of driving out and finding a place to buy a ticket. In this example, it's also useful to note that “effort”is a punishing consequence. How these opposing expected consequences (reinforcing and punishing) balance out will determine whether the behavior is performed or not. Factors that alter the effectiveness of consequences The majority of these factors exist because of various bi- ological reasons. The biological purpose of the Principle of Satiation is to maintain the organism's homeostasis (an organismʼs ability to maintain a stable internal environment). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the effectiveness of the taste of sugar as a reinforcer is high. However, as the organism reaches or ex1. Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a con- ceeds their optimum blood-sugar levels, the taste of sugar sequence will be reduced if the individual's “ap- becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive. When using consequences to modify a response, the effectiveness of a consequence can be increased or decreased by various factors. These factors can apply to either reinforcing or punishing consequences. 1.10. OPERANT CONDITIONING The Principles of Immediacy and Contingency exist for neurochemical reasons. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways “releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons.”* [17] This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducted or conducting outward or away from something) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced. 1.10.4 Operant variability Operant variability is what allows a response to adapt to new situations. Operant behavior is distinguished from reflexes in that its response topography (the form of the response) is subject to slight variations from one performance to another. These slight variations can include small differences in the specific motions involved, differences in the amount of force applied, and small changes in the timing of the response. If a subject's history of reinforcement is consistent, such variations will remain stable because the same successful variations are more likely to be reinforced than less successful variations. However, behavioral variability can also be altered when subjected to certain controlling variables.* [18] 1.10.5 Avoidance learning In avoidance learning an organism's behavior is reinforced by the termination or prevention of an (assumed aversive) stimulus. There are two kinds of commonly used experimental settings: discriminated and free-operant avoidance learning. Discriminated avoidance learning In discriminated avoidance learning, a novel stimulus such as a light or a tone is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock (CS-US, similar to classical conditioning). During the first trials (called escape-trials) the animal usually experiences both the CS (Conditioned Stimulus) and the US (Unconditioned Stimulus), showing the operant response to terminate the aversive US. During later trials, the animal will learn to perform the response during the presentation of the CS thus preventing the aversive US from occurring. Such trials are called “avoidance trials.” 39 Free-operant avoidance learning In this experimental session, no discrete stimulus is used to signal the occurrence of the aversive stimulus. Rather, the aversive stimulus (mostly shocks) are presented without explicit warning stimuli. There are two crucial time intervals determining the rate of avoidance learning. This first one is called the S-S-interval (shock-shock-interval). This is the amount of time which passes during successive presentations of the shock (unless the operant response is performed). The other one is called the RS-interval (response-shock-interval) which specifies the length of the time interval following an operant response during which no shocks will be delivered. Note that each time the organism performs the operant response, the RS-interval without shocks begins anew. Two-process theory of avoidance This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. The theory assumes that two processes take place: a) Classical conditioning of fear. During the first trials of the training, the organism experiences the pairing of a CS with an aversive US. The theory assumes that during these trials an association develops between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – “fear.” b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and those responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Although, after this training, the organism no longer experiences the aversive US, the term “avoidance”may be something of a misnomer, because the theory does not say that the organism “avoids”the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism “escapes”an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. 1.10.6 Four term contingency Applied behavior analysis, which is the name of the discipline directly descended from Skinner's work, holds that behavior is explained in four terms: conditioned stimulus (S* C), a discriminative stimulus (S* d), a response (R), and a reinforcing stimulus (S* rein or S* r for reinforcers, sometimes S* ave for aversive stimuli).* [19] 40 1.10.7 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Operant hoarding Operant hoarding is a referring to the choice made by a rat, on a compound schedule called a multiple schedule, that maximizes its rate of reinforcement in an operant conditioning context. More specifically, rats were shown to have allowed food pellets to accumulate in a food tray by continuing to press a lever on a continuous reinforcement schedule instead of retrieving those pellets. Retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement.* [20] 1.10.8 1.10.10 Questions about the law of effect Biological correlates of operant con- A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the ditioning The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong* [21]* [22] and by R.T. Richardson.* [22] They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been demonstrated to cause plasticity in many cortical regions.* [23] Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.* [24] Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.* [25] It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when the action of dopamine is high. 1.10.9 and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. One concept that encompasses both of economics and instrumental conditioning is consumer demand. With consumer demand, the focus is on the price of the commodity and the amount purchased. The degree to which price influences consumption is defined as being the elasticity of demand. Certain commodities are more elastic than others. Price change in certain foods can affect the amount bought, while gasoline and essentials seem to be less effected by price changes. For these examples, gasoline and essentials would be less elastic than certain foods like cake and candy. On a graph model representation, something less elastic would not be stretched out as far as a commodity that's consumption fluctuates greatly due to the price.* [26] Operant conditioning in economics Main article: Consumer demand tests (animals) Further information: Behavioral economics Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applications of operant conditioning concepts sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called“sign tracking”), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby.* [27]* [28] Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training).* [29]* [30] These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.* [31]* [32]* [33] A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-reinforcement) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenterʼs task is to work out how these interact.* [34] 1.10.11 See also • Animal testing • Applied behavior analysis (ABA; application of operant and classical conditioning) • Behavioral contrast • Behaviorism (philosophy behind behavior analysis) • Behavior modification (old expression for ABA; modifies behavior with consequences not antecedents) 1.10. OPERANT CONDITIONING • Biofeedback • Child grooming • Cognitivism (psychology) (theory of internal mechanisms without reference to behavior) • Consumer demand tests (animals) • Educational psychology • Educational technology • Experimental analysis of behavior (research in operant and classical conditioning) • Exposure therapy • Habituation • Jerzy Konorski • Learned industriousness • Matching law • Negative (positive) contrast effect • Radical behaviorism (B.F. Skinner's philosophy) • Reinforcement learning • Reward system • Power and control in abusive relationships • Preference tests (animals) • Premack principle • Psychological manipulation • Sensitization • Social conditioning • Spontaneous recovery • Traumatic bonding 1.10.12 References [1] Domjan, Michael, Ed., The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Fifth Edition, Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2003 [2] Thorndike, E.L. (1901). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, 2, 1–109. [3] Miltenberger, R. G.“Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures”. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. p. 9. [4] Skinner, B. F. “The Behavior of Organisms:An Experimental Analysis”, 1938 New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts 41 [5] Skinner, B. F.“Are theories of learning necessary?" 1950, Psychological Review,57, 193-216. [6] Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. “B. F. Skinner: The role of reinforcement and Punishment”, subsection in: Psychology; Second Edition. New York: Worth, Incorporated, 2011, 278-288. [7] Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F.“Schedules of Reinforcement”, 1957 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts [8] Staddon, J. E. R; D. T Cerutti (February 2003).“Operant Conditioning”. Annual Review of Psychology 54 (1): 115. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124. Retrieved 23 March 2013. [9] Mecca Chiesa (2004) Radical Behaviorism: The philosophy and the science [10] Skinner, B. F. “Science and Human Behavior”, 1953. New York: MacMillan [11] Skinner, B. F. “Verbal Behavior”, 1957. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts [12] Tucker, M., Sigafoos, J., & Bushell, H. (1998). Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior. Behavior Modification, 22, 529–547. [13] Poling, A., & Normand, M. (1999). Noncontingent reinforcement: an inappropriate description of time-based schedules that reduce behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 237–238. [14] Schacter et al.2011 Psychology 2nd ed. pg.280-284 Reference for entire section Principles version 130317 [15] Miltenberger, R. G.“Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures”. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. p. 84. [16] Miltenberger, R. G.“Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures”. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. p. 86. [17] Schultz, Wolfram (1998). Predictive Reward Signal of Dopamine Neurons. The Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1–27. [18] Neuringer, A. (2002). Operant variability: Evidence, functions, and theory. Psychonometric Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 672–705. [19] Pierce & Cheney (2004) Behavior Analysis and Learning [20] Cole, M.R. (1990). Operant hoarding: A new paradigm for the study of self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 247–262. [21] “Activity of pallidal neurons during movement”, M.R. DeLong, J. Neurophysiol., 34:414–27, 1971 [22] Richardson RT, DeLong MR (1991): Electrophysiological studies of the function of the nucleus basalis in primates. In Napier TC, Kalivas P, Hamin I (eds), The Basal Forebrain: Anatomy to Function (Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 295. New York, Plenum, pp. 232–252 [23] PNAS 93:11219-24 1996, Science 279:1714–8 1998 42 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES [24] Neuron 63:244–253, 2009, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3: Article 13, 2009 • scienceofbehavior.com [25] Michael J. Frank, Lauren C. Seeberger, and Randall C. O'Reilly (2004) “By Carrot or by Stick: Cognitive Reinforcement Learning in Parkinsonism,”Science 4, November 2004 • An Introduction to Verbal Behavior Online Tutorial [26] Domjan, M. (2009). The Principles of Learning and Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 6th Edition. pages 244-249. [27] Timberlake, W. (1983). Rats' responses to a moving object related to food or water: A behavior-systems analysis. Animal Learning & Behavior. 11(3):309–320. [28] Neuringer, A.J. (1969). Animals respond for food in the presence of free food. Science. 166:399-401. • Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior • An Introduction to Relational Frame Theory Online Tutorial • [www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/ Positive.pdf] • [www.cehd.umn.edu/ceed/publications/tipsheets/ preschoolbehaviortipsheets/posrein.pdf] 1.11 Punishment (psychology) [29] Williams, D.R. and Williams, H. (1969). Automaintenance in the pigeon: sustained pecking despite contingent non-reinforcement. J. Exper. Analys. of Behav. 12:511–520. [30] Peden, B.F., Brown, M.P., & Hearst, E. (1977). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes. 3(4):377–399. [31] Gardner, R.A., & Gardner, B.T. (1988). Feedforward vs feedbackward: An ethological alternative to the law of effect. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 11:429–447. [32] Gardner, R. A. & Gardner B.T.(1998) The structure of learning from sign stimuli to sign language. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [33] Baum, W. M. (2012) Rethinking reinforcement: Allocation, induction and contingency. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 97, 101-124 . [34] Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S., & Gibbon, J. (1981) Autoshaping and conditioning theory. New York: Academic Press. 1. Staddon, J. E. R. & Cerutti, D. T. (2003) Operant behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 54:115-14 2. Kalat, J. (2013). Introduction to Psychology (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. 3. Elmes, D. (2011). Research Methods in Psychology (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. 4. Boyd, D. (2014). Lifespan Development (7th ed.). Cengage Learning. 5. Myers, D. (2011). Psychology (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. 6. Ormrod, J. (2011). Human Learning (6th ed.). Pearson. 7. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan. 1.10.13 External links • Operant conditioning article in Scholarpedia • Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis • Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior • Negative reinforcement Diagram of operant conditioning In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is only known by its effect on the rate of the behavior, not by any “hostile”or aversive features of the change. For example, painful stimulation which would serve as a punisher in many cases serves to reinforce some behaviors of the masochist. 1.11.1 Types There are two types of punishment in operant conditioning: • positive punishment, punishment by application, or type I punishment, an experimenter punishes a response by presenting an aversive stimulus into the animal's surroundings (a brief electric shock, for example). 1.11. PUNISHMENT (PSYCHOLOGY) 43 • negative punishment, punishment by removal, or type II punishment, a valued, appetitive stimulus is removed (as in the removal of a feeding dish). As with reinforcement, it is not usually necessary to speak of positive and negative in regard to punishment. behavior and a punishing effect, the less effective the punishment will be. One major problem with a time delay between a behavior and a punishment is that other behaviors may present during that time delay. The subject may then associate the punishment given with the unintended behaviors, and thus suppressing those behaviors instead of the targeted behavior. Therefore, immediate Punishment is not a mirror effect of reinforcement. In ex- punishment is more effective in reducing a targeted beperiments with laboratory animals and studies with chil- havior than a delayed punishment would be. dren, punishment decreases the likelihood of a previously reinforced response only temporarily, and it can produce 1.11.4 Applied behavior analysis other “emotional”behavior (wing-flapping in pigeons, for example) and physiological changes (increased heart Main article: Applied behavior analysis rate, for example) that have no clear equivalents in reinforcement. Punishment is sometimes used for treatment programs in Punishment is considered by some behavioral psycholapplied behavior analysis in the most extreme cases, to ogists to be a “primary process”– a completely inreduce dangerous behaviors such as head banging or bitdependent phenomenon of learning, distinct from reining exhibited most commonly by children or people with forcement. Others see it as a category of negative reinspecial needs or disabilities. Punishment is considered forcement, creating a situation in which any punishmentone of the ethical challenges to autism treatment and is avoiding behavior (even standing still) is reinforced. one of the major reasons for discussion of professionalizing behavior analysis. Professionalizing behavior analysis through licensure would create a board to ensure that 1.11.2 Aversives consumers or families had a place to air disputes. (see Aversive stimulus, punisher, and punishing stimulus are Professional practice of behavior analysis) somewhat synonymous. Punishment may be used for (a) an aversive stimulus or (b) the occurrence of any 1.11.5 See also punishing change or (c) the part of an experiment in which a particular response is punished. However, some • Child grooming things considered aversive (such as spanking) can become • Emotional blackmail reinforcing. In addition, some things that are aversive may not be punishing if accompanying changes are re• Lovaas technique inforcing. A classic example would be mis-behavior that is 'punished' by a teacher but actually increases over time • Power and control in abusive relationships due to the reinforcing effects of attention on the student. • Psychological manipulation 1.11.3 Importance of contingency and contiguity • Punishment • Traumatic bonding One variable affecting punishment is contingency, which is defined as the dependency of events. A behavior may 1.11.6 References be dependent on a stimulus or dependent on a response. • Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. The purpose of punishment is to reduce a behavior, and New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. the degree to which punishment is effective in reducing a targeted behavior is dependent on the relationship be• Chance, Paul. (2003) Learning and Behavior. 5th tween the behavior and a punishment. For example, if edition Toronto: Thomson-Wadsworth. a rat receives an aversive stimulus, such as a shock each • Holth, P. (2005). Two Definitions of Punishment. time it presses a lever, then it is clear that contingency The Behavior Analyst Today, 6(1), 43- 55 BAO . occurs between lever pressing and shock. In this case, the punisher (shock) is contingent upon the appearance of • http://www.class.uidaho.edu/psyc390/pdf/ the behavior (lever pressing). Punishment is most effec4-8-Side-Effects-and-Problems-with-Punishment. tive when contingency is present between a behavior and pdf a punisher. A second variable affecting punishment is contiguity, which is the closeness of events in time and/or • Chance, Paul. (2009)“Learning and Behavior: Acspace. Contiguity is important to reducing behavior betive Learning Edition.”6th edition Belmont, CA: cause the longer the time interval between an unwanted Wadsorth/Cengage Learning. 44 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES 1.12 Reinforcement ample is that many people can explain in detail where they were when they found out the World Trade Center * * This article is about the psychological concept. For was attacked. [3] [4] the construction materials reinforcement, see Rebar. Reinforcement is an important part of operant or For reinforcement learning in computer science, see instrumental conditioning. Reinforcement learning. For beam stiffening, see Stiffening. In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a 1.12.1 Introduction B.F. Skinner was a high profile researcher that articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future, for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of “cookie-requesting behavior”increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing“cookie-requesting behavior”. If however,“cookie-requesting behavior”does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. Diagram of operant conditioning The sole criteria that determines if an item, activity, or food is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected the strategy to work at some point, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcement is descriptive of an increased probability of a response. consequence that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), longer duration (e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time), greater magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or shorter la- The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous tency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the an- body of reproducible experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special edtecedent stimulus). ucation, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental Although in many cases a reinforcing stimulus is a re- analysis of behavior. warding stimulus which is “valued”or “liked”by the individual (e.g., money received from a slot machine, the taste of the treat, the euphoria produced by an addictive 1.12.2 Brief history drug), this is not a requirement. Indeed, reinforcement does not even require an individual to consciously per- Much of the work regarding reinforcement began with ceive an effect elicited by the stimulus.* [1] Furthermore, behavioral psychologists such as Edward Thorndike, J. stimuli that are “rewarding”or “liked”are not always B. Watson and B.F. Skinner and their use of animal exreinforcing: if an individual eats at a fast food restau- periments. B.F. Skinner is famous for his work on rerant (response) and likes the taste of the food (stimulus), inforcement and believed that positive reinforcement is but believes it is bad for their health, they may not eat superior to punishment in shaping behavior.* [8] At first it again and thus it was not reinforcing in that condition. glance, punishment can seem like just the opposite of Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable reinforcement, yet Skinner argued that they differ imstrengthening in behavior. mensely; he claimed that positive reinforcement results in In most cases reinforcement refers to an enhancement of behavior but this term may also refer to an enhancement of memory. One example of this effect is called posttraining reinforcement where a stimulus (e.g. food) given shortly after a training session enhances the learning.* [2] This stimulus can also be an emotional one. A good ex- lasting behavioral modification (long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects. Skinner defined reinforcement as creating situations that a person likes or removing a situation he doesn't like, and punishment as removing a situation a person likes or setting up one he 1.12. REINFORCEMENT 45 doesn't like.* [8] Thus, the distinction was based mainly Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a beon the pleasant or aversive (unpleasant) nature of the havior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is stimulus. removed or prevented from happening.* [12]* :253 Two other researchers, Azrin and Holz, expanded upon operant conditioning by focusing on the definition of punishment in their chapter to Honigʼs volume on operant behavior, and they defined it as a“consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior.” * [9] Skinnerʼs assumptions regarding reinforcement and punishment were thus challenged throughout the 1960s, and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior; that debate, however, continues in studies today as to whether or not reinforcement is more or equally as effective as punishment.* [10] Edward Thorndike also did some work regarding reinforcement in learning theory and believed that learning could occur unconsciously; that is, reinforcements or punishments could have an effect upon learning even if the person or organism is unaware of it.* [11] The research on the effects of positive and negative reinforcement alongside punishment continue today as those concepts apply directly to many forms of learning and behavior. • Example: A child cleans his or her room, and this behavior is followed by the parent stopping “nagging”or asking the child repeatedly to do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging. • Example: A person puts ointment on a bug bite to soothe an itch. If the ointment works, the person will likely increase the usage of the ointment because it resulted in removing the itch, which is the negative reinforcer. • Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off. Working Saturday is the negative reinforcer, the employeeʼ s productivity will be increased as they avoid experiencing the negative reinforcer. Punishment 1.12.3 Operant conditioning Main article: Operant conditioning The basic definition is that a positive reinforcer adds a stimulus to increase or maintain frequency of a behavior while a negative reinforcer removes a stimulus to increase or maintain the frequency of the behavior. As mentioned above, positive and negative reinforcement are components of operant conditioning, along with positive punishment and negative punishment, all explained below: Reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when an event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases.* [12]* :253 • Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior. Positive punishment occurs when a response produces a stimulus and that responses decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. • Example: A mother yells at a child when he or she runs into the street. If the child stops running into the street, the yelling ceases. The yelling acts as positive punishment because the mother presents (adds) an unpleasant stimulus in the form of yelling. Negative punishment occurs when a response produces the removal of a stimulus and that response decreases in probability in the future in similar circumstances. • Example: A teenager comes home after curfew and the parents take away a privilege, such as cell phone usage. If the frequency of the child coming home late decreases, the privilege is gradually restored. The removal of the phone is negative punishment because the parents are taking away a pleasant stimulus (the phone) and motivating the child to return home earlier. • Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when Simply put, reinforcers serve to increase behaviors she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, posthe toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer itive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up). attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject * • Example: A company enacts a rewards program in will work to be rid of or to end. [13] The table below ilwhich employees earn prizes dependent on the num- lustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (pleasant ber of items sold. The prizes the employees receive or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment. are the positive reinforcement as they increase sales. Further ideas and concepts: 46 • Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the reinforcement. • Negative reinforcement is not punishment. The two, as explained above, differ in the increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) of the future probability of a response. However, in negative reinforcement, the stimulus is an aversive stimulus, which if presented contingent on a response, may also function as a positive punisher. • The increase in behavior is independent of (i.e. not related to) whether or not the organism finds the reinforcer to be pleasant or aversive. Example: A child is given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of the bad behavior increases. Thus, the detention is a reinforcer (could be positive or negative) even if the detention is not a pleasant stimuli, perhaps because the child now feels like a “rebel”or sees it as an opportunity to get out of class. CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES sleep, food, air, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them. Secondary reinforcers A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers. • Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a negative feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool and as negative reinforcement Other reinforcement terms because it removes uncomfortable hot air. • A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer • Reinforcement in the business world is essential in that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairdriving productivity. Employees are constantly moing with many other reinforcers and functions as a tivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, reinforcer under a wide-variety of motivating opersuch as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also ations. (One example of this is money because it is driven by negative reinforcement. This can be seen paired with many other reinforcers).* [16]* :83 when employees are offered Saturdays off if they complete the weekly workload by Friday. • In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism • Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect without regard to any prior behavior. in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a neg• Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforceative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to ment) involves the delivery of reinforcement that react in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the quires the behavior of another organism. * long term. [14] • Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn to follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative reinforcement.* [12] Primary reinforcers A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.* [15] Examples of primary reinforcers include • The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.* [16]* :123 • Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rankordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the Premack principle. 1.12. REINFORCEMENT • Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning. 47 As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to “capture”the skill and utilize naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded). • Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food de1.12.5 livery following the behavior. • Noncontingent reinforcement refers to responseindependent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior.* [17] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent “reinforcement” .* [18] 1.12.4 Natural and artificial In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy where subjects are “rewarded”for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value. In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called “behavior traps”.* [19] A behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four characteristics: • They are “baited”with virtually irresistible reinforcers that “lure”the student to the trap • Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap • Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills* [20] • They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects Intermittent reinforcement Pigeons experimented on in a scientific study were more responsive to intermittent reinforcement, than continuous reinforcement.* [21] In other words, pigeons were more prone to act when they only sometimes could get what they wanted. This effect was such that behavioral responses were maximized when the reward rate was at 50% (in other words, when the uncertainty was maximized), and would gradually decline toward values on either side of 50%.* [22] R.B Sparkman, a journalist specialized on what motivates human behavior, claims this is also true for humans, and may in part explain human tendencies such as gambling addiction.* [23] 1.12.6 Schedules When an animal's surroundings are controlled, its behavior patterns after reinforcement become predictable, even for very complex behavior patterns. A schedule of reinforcement is a rule or program that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by the delivery of the reinforcer, and extinction, in which no response is reinforced. Schedules of reinforcement influence how an instrumental response is learned and how it is maintained by reinforcement. Between these extremes is intermittent or partial reinforcement where only some responses are reinforced. Specific variations of intermittent reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species being investigated (including humans in some conditions). The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain “control over behavior”, in a way that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The reliability of schedules also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior. 48 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated. Simple schedules • Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforced on average every nth response, but not always on the nth response.* [16]* :88 • Lab example: VR4”= first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet). • Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable). • Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after n amount of time. • Example: FI1”= reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second. • Lab example: FI15”= rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement. • Real world example: washing machine cycle. A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given • Ratio schedule – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed. • Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer.* [16]* :86 • Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food. • Real world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat; each time a person puts $1 in a candy machine and presses the buttons he receives a candy bar. • Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average of n amount of time, but not always exactly n amount of time.* [16]* :89 • Example: VI4”= first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/ 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average after 4 minutes. • Lab example: VI10”= a rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement. • Real world example: checking your e-mail or pop quizzes. Going fishing̶you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 18 minutes. Other simple schedules include: Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for specific response. • Fixed ratio (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response.* [16]* :88 • Example: FR2”= every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced. • Lab example: FR5”= rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced with food after every 5 barpresses in a Skinner box. • Real-world example: FR10”= Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot. • Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking. • Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking.* [16]* :338 1.12. REINFORCEMENT • Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior. • Lab example: DRL10”= a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement. • Real world example: “If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none.” • Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement. • Lab example: DRH10"/15 responses = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10 second increment to get reinforced. • Real world example: “If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to pedal x number of times during the y-hour race.” • Fixed time (FT) – Provides reinforcement at a fixed time since the last reinforcement, irrespective of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule. • Lab example: FT5”= rat gets food every 5 seconds regardless of the behavior. • Real world example: a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior between checks • Variable time (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. Effects of different types of simple schedules • Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer and then picks up. • Variable ratio: high rate of responding, greatest activity of all schedules, responding rate is high and stable. 49 • Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar. • Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE). • The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines). • Fixed schedules produce “post-reinforcement pauses”(PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.* [24] • The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a “scallop-shaped”accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more“angular”response. • fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time. • Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are “thinned”(that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience “ratio strain”if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction. • Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly. • Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur. • Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules. • Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones. • Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.* [25] Compound schedules • Fixed interval: activity increases as deadline nears, Compound schedules combine two or more different simcan cause fast extinction. ple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for • Variable interval: steady activity results, good resis- the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among tance to extinction. those most often used are: 50 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES • Alternative schedules – A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement.* [26] • Conjunctive schedules – A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement. • Multiple schedules – Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. • Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring. • Tandem schedules – Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started. • Example: VR10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR10, after that it is changed without warning to FR16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally given. • Higher-order schedules – completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced. • Mixed schedules – Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is Superimposed schedules in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. The psychology term superimposed schedules of rein• Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stim- forcement refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaulus warning of the change in schedule. neously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. • Concurrent schedules – A complex reinforcement An example is a person who comes home after a long procedure in which the participant can choose any day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is reone of two or more simple reinforcement sched- warded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and ules that are available simultaneously. Organisms a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiasare free to change back and forth between the re- tically. Another example of superimposed schedules of sponse alternatives at any time. reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every • Real world example: changing channels on a 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks. television. Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of • Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement – compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on A complex reinforcement procedure in which the simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and participant is permitted to choose during the first his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonlink which of several simple reinforcement sched- strated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, ules will be in effect in the second link. Once a and further that organisms behaved differently under difchoice has been made, the rejected alternatives be- ferent schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food come unavailable until the start of the next trial. or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of • Interlocking schedules – A single schedule with some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more two components where progress in one component than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon affects progress in the other component. An inter- may be required to peck a button switch ten times belocking FR60–FI120, for example, each response fore food appears. This is a “ratio schedule”. Also, subtracts time from the interval component such that a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time each response is “equal”to removing two seconds passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first from the FI. response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since • Chained schedules – Reinforcement occurs after the last lever press. This is called an “interval schedule” two or more successive schedules have been com- . pleted, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement folhas been completed and the next has started lowing fixed or variable number of behaviors by the indi• Example: FR10 in a green light when com- vidual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver pleted it goes to a yellow light to indicate FR3, reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time after it is completed it goes into red light to following a single response by the organism. Individual indicate VI6, etc. At the end of the chain, a behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based reinforcer is given. upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much 1.12. REINFORCEMENT 51 subsequent research in many labs examined the effects pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers. and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose be- The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the tween or among two or more simple schedules of re- two keys can be different. They may be independent, or inforcement at the same time, the reinforcement struc- they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects ture is called a “concurrent schedule of reinforcement” the likelihood of reinforcement on the other. . Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as “or” schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as“and”schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows through systems. It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. In such a “Findley concurrent”procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect. Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a“changeover delay”is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it. When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules.* [27] Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, 1.12.7 Shaping and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That Main article: Shaping (psychology) is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance– reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward avoidance conflict) described by Kurt Lewin (1935) and it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by starts the shaping process for the next set of behaviours, his force field analysis. Other examples of the use of su- and the outcomes of that set prepares the shaping process perimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical for the next set, and so on. As training progresses, the tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control response reinforced becomes progressively more like the (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in desired behavior; each subsequent behaviour becomes a the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, closer approximation of the final behaviour.* [28] 2010). 1.12.8 Chaining Concurrent schedules In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner box is faced with two Main article: Chaining Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward 52 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES chaining (starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened. In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.* [30] Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key, and the subject is taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered. In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.* [29] 1.12.9 1.12.10 Mathematical models A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement. Killeen and Sitomer are among the key researchers in this field. Persuasive communication & the reinforcement theory 1.12.11 Criticisms Persuasive communication Persuasion influences any person the way they think, act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how people understand the concern, position and needs of the people. Persuasion can be classified into informal persuasion and formal persuasion. Informal persuasion This tells about the way in which a person interacts with his/her colleagues and customers. The informal persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails. Formal persuasion This type of persuasion is used in writing customer letter, proposal and also for formal presentation to any customer or colleagues. Process of persuasion Persuasion relates how you influence people with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership, qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work done by others. Here are examples for which you can use persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can prove your best talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for the improvement in the operations. Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion. The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage* [31] of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D. Sheffield's“consummatory behavior contingent on a response”, but these are not broadly used in psychology.* [32] History of the terms In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place psychological use. when one individual expects some particular response In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets synonym for reward, with people (not behavior) thus beout to secure the response through the use of commu- ing“reinforced”, but this is contrary to the term's consisnication. The communicator must realize that different tent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and groups have different values.* [29]* :24–25 not the person, which is strengthened. Negative reinforce- 1.12. REINFORCEMENT ment is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli. There are some within the field of behavior analysis* [33] who have suggested that the terms“positive”and“negative”constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented. For example, Iwata poses the question: "...is a change in temperature more accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat (cold)?"* [34]* :363 Thus, reinforcement could be conceptualized as a pre-change condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that followed the change in stimulus conditions. 1.12.12 Applications Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.* [35] 1.12.13 See also • Applied behavior analysis • Behavioral cusp • Child grooming • Dog training • Learned industriousness • Overjustification effect • Power and control in abusive relationships • Psychological manipulation • Punishment • Reinforcement learning • Reward system • Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior • Traumatic bonding 1.12.14 References [1] Winkielman P., Berridge KC, and Wilbarger JL. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy verses angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgement value. Pers Soc Psychol Bull: 31, 121–35. 53 [2] Mondadori C, Waser PG, and Huston JP. (2005). Timedependent effects of post-trial reinforcement, punishment or ECS on passive avoidance learning. Physiol Behav: 18, 1103–9. PMID 928533 [3] White NM, Gottfried JA (2011). “Reward: What Is It? How Can It Be Inferred from Behavior?". PMID 22593908. [4] White NM. (2011). Reward: What is it? How can it be inferred from behavior. In: Neurobiology of Sensation and Reward. CRC Press PMID 22593908 [5] Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). “Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders”. In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill Medical. pp. 364–375. ISBN 9780071481274. [6] Nestler EJ (December 2013). “Cellular basis of memory for addiction”. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 15 (4): 431– 443. PMC 3898681. PMID 24459410. [7] “Glossary of Terms”. Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Department of Neuroscience. Retrieved 9 February 2015. [8] Skinner, B.F. (1948). Macmillan Company. Walden Two. Toronto: The [9] Honig, Werner (1966). Operant Behavior: Areas of Research and Application. New York: Meredith Publishing Company. p. 381. [10] Domjan, W. (2003). Aversive control: Avoidance and punishment. In: The Principles of Learning and Behavior. CA: Thompson Learning. p. 302. [11] Shanks, David (2010). “Learning: From Association to Cognition”. Annual Review of Psychology (61): 273–301. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100519. [12] Flora, Stephen (2004). The Power of Reinforcement. Albany: State University of New York Press. [13] D'Amato, M. R. (1969). Melvin H. Marx, ed. Learning Processes: Instrumental Conditioning. Toronto: The Macmillan Company. [14] Harter, J. K. (2002). C. L. Keyes, ed. Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. [15] Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism [16] Miltenberger, R. G.“Behavioral Modification: Principles and Procedures”. Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. [17] Tucker, M.; Sigafoos, J. & Bushell, H. (1998). Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior. Behavior Modification, 22, 529–47. [18] Poling, A. & Normand, M. (1999). Noncontingent reinforcement: an inappropriate description of time-based schedules that reduce behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 237–8. 54 [19] Baer and Wolf, 1970, The entry into natural communities of reinforcement. In R. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (eds.), Control of human behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 319–24). Gleenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. [20] Kohler & Greenwood, 1986, Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 19–26. [21] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC1333219/ [22] Zeiler, MD (March 1972). “Fixed-interval behavior: effects of percentage reinforcement.”. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17 (2): 177–89. doi:10.1901/jeab.1972.17-177. PMID 16811580. [23] Sparkman, R. B. (1979). The Art of Manipulation. Doubleday Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 0385270070. [24] Derenne, A. & Flannery, K.A. (2007). Within Session FR Pausing. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(2), 175–86 BAO [25] McSweeney, F.K.; Murphy, E.S. & Kowal, B.P. (2001) Dynamic Changes in Reinforcer Value: Some Misconceptions and Why You Should Care. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2(4), 341–7 BAO [26] Iversen, I.H. & Lattal, K.A. Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 1991, Elsevier, Amsterdam. [27] Toby L. Martin, C.T. Yu, Garry L. Martin & Daniela Fazzio (2006): On Choice, Preference, and Preference For Choice. The Behavior Analyst Today, 7(2), 234–48 BAO [28] Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. “Chapter 7: Learning.”Psychology. ; Second Edition. N.p.: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 284-85. [29] Bettinghaus, Erwin P., Persuasive Communication, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968 CHAPTER 1. CATEGORIES 1.12.15 Further reading • Brechner, K.C. (1974) An experimental analysis of social traps. PhD Dissertation, Arizona State University. • Brechner, K.C. (1977). An experimental analysis of social traps. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 552–64. • Brechner, K.C. (1987) Social Traps, Individual Traps, and Theory in Social Psychology. Pasadena, CA: Time River Laboratory, Bulletin No. 870001. • Brechner, K.C. (2003) Superimposed schedules applied to rent control. Economic and Game Theory, 2/28/03, . • Brechner, K.C. (2010) A social trap analysis of the Los Angeles County storm drain system: A rational for interventions. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Diego. • Brechner, K.C. & Linder, D.E. (1981), A social trap analysis of energy distribution systems, in Advances in Environmental Psychology, Vol. 3, Baum, A. & Singer, JE, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. • Chance, Paul. (2003) Learning and Behavior. 5th edition Toronto: Thomson-Wadsworth. • Dinsmoor, James A. (2004) "The etymology of basic concepts in the experimental analysis of behavior". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 82(3): 311–6. [30] Skinner, B.F., The Behavior of Organisms. An Experimental Analysis, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 1938 • Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts. ISBN 0-13-792309-0. [31] Epstein, L.H. 1982. Skinner for the Classroom. Champaign, IL: Research Press • Lewin, K. (1935) A dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers. New York: McGraw-Hill. [32] Franco J. Vaccarino, Bernard B. Schiff & Stephen E. Glickman (1989). Biological view of reinforcement. in Stephen B. Klein and Robert Mowrer. Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning theory and the impact of biological constraints on learning. Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates • Michael, Jack. (1975) "Positive and negative reinforcement, a distinction that is no longer necessary; or a better way to talk about bad things". Behaviorism, 3(1): 33–44. [33] Michael, J. (1975, 2005). Positive and negative reinforcement, a distinction that is no longer necessary; or a better way to talk about bad things. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 24, 207–22. [34] Iwata, B.A. (1987). Negative reinforcement in applied behavior analysis: an emerging technology. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 361–78. [35] Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. ISBN 0-07144672-9. • Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. • Skinner, B.F. (1956). A case history in scientific method. American Psychologist, 11, 221–33. • Zeiler, M.D. (1968) Fixed and variable schedules of response-independent reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 405–14. • Glossary of reinforcement terms at the University of Iowa 1.12. REINFORCEMENT • Harter, J.K., Shmidt, F.L., & Keyes, C.L. (2002). Well-Being in the Workplace and its Relationship to Business Outcomes: A Review of the Gallup Studies. In C.L. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: The Positive Person and the Good Life (pp. 205– 224). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. 1.12.16 External links • An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial • Scholarpedia Reinforcement • scienceofbehavior.com 55 Chapter 2 ARTICLES 2.1 Alpha roll wild. Dr. Mech refers to this behavior as pinning, which he describes as a dominance behavior.* [8] These domAn alpha roll is a technique used in dog training to dis- inance behaviors are shown significantly more often by cipline a misbehaving dog. It consists of flipping the dog the breeding pair of the pack, but the purpose or role of onto its back and holding it in that position, sometimes the behavior is controversial. by the throat. The theory is that this teaches the dog that This suggests that this ritual does not serve as a behavthe trainer is the pack leader (or alpha animal). ioral correction or punishment, nor as a reinforcement of the dominance of the breeding pair. On the other hand, dyadic play between wolves involves behavior like pin2.1.1 History ning. Wolf puppy play patterns demonstrate that puppies prefer to assume the dominant role in play (see dog The alpha roll was first widely popularized by the Monks behavior), and avoid the submissive roles such as being of New Skete, in the 1978 book“How To Be Your Dog's pinned. This suggests that dogs do not instinctually panic Best Friend”.* [1] (In the 2002 second edition of the if they are forced into this submissive position against book, the monks recanted and strongly discouraged the their will. Although neither of these positions speaks ditechnique, describing it as“too risky and demanding for rectly to the issue of whether the alpha roll is an effective the average dog owner.”* [2]) Although the 1976 book correction tool, it does call into question the behavioral itself is widely regarded as a classic in dog training litera- validity of the technique. ture and highly recommended for people trying to better understand their dog, the alpha roll is now highly controversial among animal behaviorists, since the theory of 2.1.3 Contemporary use canine dominance has been drawn into question. In the original context, the alpha roll was only meant to be used Position statements on dominance released by AVSAB in the most serious cases.* [3] The theory behind the al- and APDT in 2009 draw into question the science bepha roll is based on a research study of captive wolves hind techniques that rely on dominance theory. It should kept in an area too small for their numbers and composed never be used by inexperienced trainers, and never to corof members that wouldn't be found together in a pack in rect undesired behavior caused by the dog's failure to unthe wild. These conditions resulted in increased numbers derstand your command. Used in a controlled way and of conflicts that scientists today know are not typical of coupled with praise and rewards when the dog changes wolves living in the wild.* [4] Behaviors seen in wolves its behavior appropriately, it may have positive effect, (specifically the alpha roll) living in atypical social groups but there is disagreement about its long-term effectiveand crowded conditions does not translate to dog training ness and safety. A 2009 study by University of Bristolʼs especially since using the technique can be harmful to the Department of Clinical Veterinary Sciences showed that methods of handling that relied on dominance theory achandler and the dog.* [5] tually provoked aggressive behavior in dogs with no previous known history of aggression. 2.1.2 Effects It has been argued by some that a dog will only forcibly 2.1.4 Further sources flip another animal onto its back during a serious fight • Melissa Alexander. “The History and Misconcepwhere the intent may be to kill the opponent* [6]* [7]. tions of Dominance Theory”. Archived from the Further, the name alpha roll is considered a misnomer original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 8 October by top wolf experts, such as David Mech, because the 2007. practice as used as a behavioral correction bears little relation to the natural behavior shown by wolves in the • Carmen Buitrago. “Debunking the Dominance 56 2.2. ANIMAL ATTACKS Myth”. Retrieved 8 October 2007. • Kathy Diamond Davis. “Alpha-Roll Training Can Cause Serious Problems”. veterinarypartner.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007. • Krista Mifflin. “About That Alpha Roll”. about.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007. • Deb McKean. “Canine Handling in a Clinical Setting”. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007. 57 [6] Nicole Wilde, CPDT (2001). “Leadership vs. Dominance”. Retrieved 8 October 2007. [7] Dr. Ian Dunbar. “History & Misconceptions of Dominance Theory”. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007. [8] L. David Mech (1999). “Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs”(PDF). Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:1196-1203. Retrieved 8 October 2007. 2.2 Animal attacks Animal attacks are an uncommon cause of human fatal• Cindy Tittle Moore. “rec.pets.dogs Behaviour ities and injuries. The frequency of animal attacks varies FAQ”. Archived from the original on 29 September with geographical location and historical period. Attacks 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007. described in the following article have occurred in historical times with documentation. Instances of attacks that • Mark Plonsky, PhD. “Punishment: Problems & can be attributed to the animal being confined or 'trapped' Principles for Effective Use”. Archived from the prior to an attack have not been included. Serious injuries original on 14 October 2007. Retrieved 8 October and fatalities are more likely to be incurred by infants, 2007. children and those with limited ability to defend themselves against an animal. A person is more likely to be • Kelly Ryan.“Are You the Alpha?". Archived from killed by an animal than they are to die from being hit by the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 8 Oclightening.* [1] tober 2007. Animal attacks have been identified as a major public • Terry Ryan (2001). “Assessing the Alpha Roll” health problem. In 1997 it was estimated that up to (PDF). The Association of Pet Dog Trainers. 2 million animal bites occur each year in the United Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. States. Injuries caused by animal attacks result in thouRetrieved 8 October 2007. sands of fatalities worldwide every year.* [2] All causes of death are reported to the Center for disease control each year. Medical injury codes are used to identify specific 2.1.5 Footnotes cases.* [3] The World Health Organization uses identical coding, though it is unclear whether all countries keep [1] Monks of New Skete, The (1978). How To Be Your Dog's track of fatalities caused by animals. Best Friend. Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 0-31660491-7. 2.2.1 Alligators [2] Monks of New Skete, The (2002). How To Be Your Dog's Best Friend. Little, Brown & Company. ISBN 0-31661000-3. In the original edition of this book, we recom- Main article: List of fatal alligator attacks in the United mended a technique we termed“the alpha-wolf rollover” States by decade ...We no longer recommend this technique and strongly discourage its use to our clients.... The conditions in which it might be used effectively are simply too risky and demanding for the average dog owner; there are other ways 2.2.2 Arthropods of dealing with problem behavior that are much safer and, in the long run, just as effective. Bees, Wasps, Scorpions, and other stinging or biting [4] Adam Miklosi, PhD (2007). Dog Behavior, Evolution and Cognition. Oxford University Press. pp. 83–93. ISBN 978-0-19-295852-5. arthropods cause fatalities but these are not as often characterized as 'attacks'. It may be difficult to characterize some of these encounters as offensive or defensive. An arthropod 'attack' instead of causing tissue trauma such as cutting, lacerating, crushing or the severing of body parts may instead cause a physiological reaction that results in a human death. These effects are toxic effects and allergic effects. [5] Sophia Yin, DVM, MS.“New Study Finds Popular“Alpha Dog”Training Techniques Can Cause More Harm Than Good”. Retrieved 5 May 2011. Listing deaths due stings and allergic reactions from arthropods is not practical but some of the more unusual cases include: [3] AVSAB. “Position Statement on the Use of Dominance Theory in Behavior Modification of Animals”. American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 58 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES central Japan.* [32] Ants In 2006 a 68-year-old South Carolina woman died after being attacked by fire ants while gardening.* [4] Residents European brown bear in nursing homes have been attacked.* [5] Jumper jack ants have caused numerous fatalities. In Main article: Eurasian brown bear 1931 two adults and an infant were killed in New South Wales allegedly from jack jumper ants or Myrmecia pyri- Brown bears are considered unpredictable.* [33] In 2007, formis.* [6] In 1963 another caused by an ant attack docu- a fatality occurred in Finland from an attack by a Euromented in Tasmania.* [7]* [8] Identification of venom al- pean Brown Bear.* [34] Typically one or two people are lergens began in the early 1990s.* [9] all in Tasmania and attacked rather groups, with no attacks being recorded all due to anaphylactic shock.* [10]* [11]* [12]* [lower- against groups of more than seven.* [35] alpha 1] The fatality rate was one person every four years from the sting.* [14] Grizzly bear Bees A grizzly bear entered the home of a couple and killed a * Africanized honey bees are known to attack people un- woman in January 2015. [36] Two people were attacked but survived in glacier national Park in 2005.* [37] provoked.* [15]* [16]* [17]* [18] Hornets 2.2.4 Beavers Giant Asian Hornets in China have killed at least 42 peoMain article: Beaver attack ple injured 1,675 more.* [19]* [20] 2.2.3 Bears Beaver attacks are uncommon but are becoming more frequent. Beavers aggressively defend their territory.* [38] They may attack humans when suffering from rabies,* [39]* [40] Beavers will attack on land or water. The front incisors are particularly sharp, and have passed through limbs and caused serious blood loss.* [41] One beaver attack was known to be fatal when a 60-yearold fisherman in Europe had his artery bit open in his leg.* [40] the attack was described as “the latest in a series of beaver attacks on humans in the country”, where a growing beaver population has increased its interactions with people.* [40] 162 bear attacks were reported in the United States between 1900 and 1985. This is about two reported bear attacks per year.* [21] During the 1990s bears killed around three people a year in the U.S. and Canada.* [21]* [22] A black bear killed three teenagers in Algonquin Park in Canada.* [23] The majority of attacks happened in national parks.* [24] 1028 incidences of black bears acting aggressively toward people, 107 of which resulted in injury, were recorded from 1964 to 1976 in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park.* [23] After a 20-year Non-fatal beaver attacks have included: an attack on a ban, Florida is considering legislation that may permit man swimming in Dobra River, Croatia.* [42] an attack bear hunting to stop the expanding population of black in saltwater on a snorkeler off the coast of Canada;* [41] bears that are a menace in suburban neighborhoods.* [25] the attack and biting of a woman in Virginia by a rabid beaver;* [39] and an attack on a Boy Scout leader in Pennsylvania.* [43] Asian black bears Asian black bears are comparatively more aggressive toward humans than those of Europe or Asia.* [26] In India, attacks have increased. These occur near the Himalayan region. Here, attacks increased from 10 in 1988–89 to 21 in 1991–92.* [27] Recent bear attacks on humans have been reported from Junbesi National Park and Langtang National Park in Nepal, and occurred in villages as well as in the surrounding forest.* [28] Li Guoxing, the second person in history to have received a facial transplant, was a victim of a black bear attack.* [29]* [30] 2.2.5 Birds Cassowary 1926 – a 16-year-old Queensland boy* [44]* [45] Magpies Between 1979–1989 nine people were killed in Japan Main article: Australian magpie § Swooping .* [31] In 2009 one bear attacked a group of tourists in 2.2. ANIMAL ATTACKS 59 2.2.10 Cougars Ostrich 1997-A woman in South Africa was killed while walking Main article: List of fatal cougar attacks in North America through a field on an ostrich farm.* [46] Roosters 2009 - A five-year-old boy was attacked while hiking with his family.* [72] Roosters have been the cause of some fatalities, usually by a bird during a match.* [47]* [48]* [49]* [50] Roosters 2.2.11 Coyotes have killed babies.* [51]* [52] Main article: Coyote attacks on humans Swan Coyote attacks are uncommon and usually cause little harm but have become more frequent. This is especially Swans are large birds and are able to cause significant true in California. Beginning 30 years prior to 2006 harm.* [53] one hundred sixty took place mostly in the Los Angeles County region.* [73] 41 attacks occurred during 1988– 1997, 48 attacks were verified from 1998 through 2003. • 2012 - Kyaker killed in Chicago.* [54] The majority of these incidents occurred in Southern California.* [74] Some coyotes chase joggers and bicyclists, • 2009 - boaters were attacked by a swan that jumped confront people walking their dogs, and stalk small chilinto their boats and attacked with its beak. One boat dren.* [74] capsized.* [55] 2.2.6 Bulls Cattle have killed people* [56] but bulls are more likely to attack and kill people in a variety of contexts. Interacting with the bull is part of some the sports in some cultures. This sometimes results in the death by bull attack.* [57] Bulls attack and kill people on farms.* [58]* [59]* [60] In 2010, a couple were passing through a field where a bull was pastured and the man was killed.* [61] • 2009 – a Canadian was killed by three coyotes.* [75]* [76] • 2013 - a three-year-old mistook a coyote as a dog and was bitten in the face.* [77] • 2015 - a man working in his garden was attacked.* [78] 2.2.12 Crocodiles Main article: Crocodile attack Crocodile attacks often result in fatalities.* [79] Estimates of deaths due to attacks by the The Nile crocodile is estimated be hundreds and possibly thouIn 2012, villagers living near an African game reserve sands yearly.* [80]* [81] Attacks by Nile crocodiles range * were attacked by chimpanzees. One girl was killed. [62] from 275 to 745 per year. 63% of these are fatal. Only 30 attacks have been recorded per year by saltwater crocodiles, of which 50% are fatal. Fatal attacks are typ2.2.8 Catfish ically made by very large crocodiles are considered to be predatory. The Nile crocodile is considered to be the 1998 through 2007 – Three young Indian most prolific predator of humans among wild animals at men.* [63]* [64]* [65] this time.* [82] Crocodile tracking technology is currently under development that would prevent attacks.* [83] 2.2.7 Chimpanzees 2.2.9 Cats 2.2.13 Dogs Though very rare cats have attacked and killed people.* [66]* [67]* [68]* [69]* [70] A medical examiner de- Main article: Dog bite termined that a cat smothered an infant in 1982 and that previous documented cases were probably substan- The numbers of fatalities from dog attacks have not been tiated.* [71] firmly established. Some estimates are 20 to 30 times 60 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES each year,* [84]* [85] while others set the figure some- Leopard attacks remain a danger in some areas.* [103] where around 186.* [86] The National Health and Human One leopard in India killed over 200 people.* [103] LeopServices agency in the United States reports that 9.9% of ard attacks usually occur at night. deaths caused by animals were from dogs.* [87] 2.2.21 Lions 2.2.14 Elephants Main article: Lion § Man-eating Wild elephants have attacked, harmed and killed people.* [88]* [89] Jacky Boxberger, an Olympic athlete, Bùi Thị Xuân, a Vietnamese woman general and Allen Campbell, a professional elephant trainer were attacked and killed by elephants. Elephants have attacked people in villages in India.* [90] Lions enter areas occupied by humans.* [104] Lion attacks in Tanzania increased from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period. Researchers argue that conservation policy contributes directly to human deaths. Lions have taken peoDuring the past five years there were 37,512 cases of wild ple from the center of large towns. Estimates stand at elephant attacks with 54 casualties in Pu'er, south China's 550–700 people attacked by lions every year.* [105] Yunnan Province* [91] 2.2.22 Racoon 2.2.15 Fox A musician was attacked and had her ankle gnawed upon In 2004, a fox attacked a woman as she exited her home in Central Park.* [106] A blind 10-year-old rescued her friend from an attack.* [107] A Washington State jogger in Scotland.* [92] was attacked.* [108] 2.2.16 Hippopotamus 2.2.23 Rats The Hippopotamus is considered by some to be the most dangerous animal in the world,* [93] killing up to 300 The National Health and Human Services agency in the United States reported 3 fatalities between people each year.* [94]* [95] 1979 and 1990 from rats.* [109] When rats attack it is directed typically toward small children or in2.2.17 Horses fants.* [110]* [111]* [112]* [113] Between 1996 and 2009 the National Institutes for Safety and Health 14 documented deaths resulted from a kick to 2.2.24 Sharks the chest or abdomen by a horse.* [96] Main article: Shark attack 2.2.18 Hyenas Twelve unprovoked shark attacks in Australia occurred in 2004 in Australia, two were fatal.* [114] Attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are underre* ported.* [97] A pair of hyenas were responsible for killing 1791 – an identified Aboriginal woman. [115] 27 people in Mulanje, Malawi in 1962.* [98] In 1910 spotted hyenas were observed to kill sufferers of African 2.2.25 Snakes sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps.* [99] 2.2.19 Komodo dragons Further information: List of fatal snake bites in the United States A man was bitten and subsequently lost his big toe to a The National Health and Human Services agency in the Komodo dragon.* [100]* [101] Attacks occur infrequently United States reported 66 fatalities between 1979 and in Indonesia.* [102] 1990 from snakes.* [109] 2.2.20 Leopards Main article: Leopard attack African Rock python An African rock python killed two boys in Campbellton, New Brunswick in 2013.* [116] 2.2. ANIMAL ATTACKS 61 • Wolf of Sarlat Pythons Species of python have attacked people and caused human fatalities. These include: • Wolf of Soissons • Wolves of Ashta • Early 19th century – Two people in Indonesia* [117] • Wolves of Hazaribagh • 1910 or 1927 – a man on a hunting trip from Burma.* [118] • Wolves of Paris • 1932 – a Filipino teenager was consumed by his pet.* [119] • Wolves of Périgord • Wolves of Turku • 1995 – a 29-year-old tapper from southern 2.2.28 Malaysia* [119] See also • 2008 – a 25-year-old woman.* [120] • 2010 Sharm el-Sheikh shark attacks • 2009, a 3-year-old Las Vegas boy was attacked but rescued before being asphyxiated.* [121] • 2013 New Brunswick python attack • 2009, a two-year-old Orlando area girl was killed* [122] • Azaria Chamberlain disappearance • Fatal dog attacks in the United States • Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 2.2.26 Tigers Main article: Man-eating tigers • Kali River goonch attacks • Kelly Keen coyote attack • Kenton Joel Carnegie wolf attack Tigers kill more people than any other big cat, and tigers have been responsible for more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal.* [123] One hundred twenty-nine people in the Sundarbans from 1969– 71.* [104]* [123] The Sundarbans are occupied by 600 royal Bengal tigers* [124] who before modern times used to “regularly kill fifty or sixty people a year”attacks continue to increase.* [124]* [125] Well-known and documented tigers • Tigers of Chowgarh (1925–30) • List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States • List of fatal bear attacks in North America • List of fatal cougar attacks in North America • List of fatal snake bites in the United States • List of fatal shark attacks in the United States • List of shark attacks in South African territorial waters • List of wolf attacks in North America • Tiger of Mundachipallam • Tiger of Segur • Tigress of Champawat (killed in 1907) • Tigress of Jowlagiri 2.2.27 Wolves Main article: Wolf attacks on humans • Kirov wolf attacks • Wolf of Ansbach • Wolf of Gysinge 2.2.29 Notes [1] The total amount of deaths from this 20 year period due to the ant could be higher. 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WXOW News 19 La Crosse, WI. Retrieved 21 March 2015. [80] Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9 64 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES [81] Caldicott, David G.E.; Croser, David; Manolis, Charlie; [98] Webb, Grahame; Britton, Adam (1 September 2005). “Crocodile Attack in Australia: An Analysis of Its Incidence and Review of the Pathology and Management of Crocodilian Attacks in General”. Wilderness & Envi- [99] ronmental Medicine 16 (3): 143–159. doi:10.1580/10806032(2005)16[143:CAIAAA]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16209470. Retrieved 3 February 2013. [100] [82]“Crocodilian Attacks” . IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group (iucncsg.org). Retrieved 3 February 2013. [83] “Tracking crocodile movements could reduce attacks on humans, researchers say”. The Sydney Morning Herald. [84] Langley, Ricky L. (March 2009). “Human Fatalities Resulting From Dog Attacks in the United States, 1979– 2005”. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine 20 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1580/08-WEME-OR-213.1. Kruuk, Hans (2002) Hunter and hunted: relationships between carnivores and people Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-89109-4 Roosevelt, Theodore (1910) African Game Trails: An Account of the African Wanderings of an American Hunter, Naturalist, New York, C. Scribner's sons Cagle, Jess (23 June 2001). “Transcript: Sharon Stone vs. the Komodo Dragon”. TIME. Retrieved 12 February 2010. [101] “Lizard bites Sharon Stone's husband”. BBC News. 11 June 2001. Retrieved 12 February 2010. [102] Markus Makur, 'Giant lizard attack: Komodo dragon bites elderly woman on Rinca island', The Jakarta Post, 13 October 2012. 2 hospitalized in Indonesia after Komodo attack', The Jakarta Post, 7 February 2013. [103] Nowak, Ronald M; and Paradiso, John L. Walker's Mammals of the World. 4th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins [85] Sacks, Jeffrey J., MD, MPH; Sinclair, Leslie, DVM; University Press; 1983. p1090 Gilchrist, Julie, MD; Golab, Gail C., PhD, DVM; Lockwood, Randall, PhD. (15 September 2000). “Breeds of [104] John Seidensticker and Susan Lumpkin (1991). Great dogs involved in fatal human attacks in the United States Cats. p. 240. ISBN 0-87857-965-6. between 1979 and 1998”. JAVMA 217 (6): 836–40. doi:10.2460/javma.2000.217.836. PMID 10997153. [105] Packer, C.; Ikanda, D.; Kissui, B.; Kushnir, H. (August 2005). “Conservation biology: lion attacks on [86] Langley humans in Tanzania”. Nature 436 (7053): 927–928. doi:10.1038/436927a. PMID 16107828. [87] Langley, p.10 [106] “Central Park Raccoon Attack Lands Taraka Larson, [88] “British teacher gored by elephant on South African saBrooklyn Woman, In Hospital”. Huffington Post. Refari”. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 25 March 2015. trieved 2015-04-14. [89] “Elephants Attack Indian Village”. Daily Mail Online. [107] “Piper Rolfe, Legally Blind Vermont Girl, Saves Friend Retrieved 25 March 2015. . From Vicious Raccoon Attack”. Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-14. [90] “Deadly herd of elephants attacks village in India”. Fox [108] “Michaela Lee, Washington Woman, Attacked By RacNews Channel. Retrieved 25 March 2015. coons”. Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-14. [91] “At Least 6 Fatal Wild Elephant Attacks in China Last [109] Langley, p.9 Year”. CRIENGLISH.com. Retrieved 25 March 2015. [92] “Pensioner attacked by fox in her back garden”. The Scotsman. Retrieved 2015-04-09. [110] “Rat Raised to Feed Pennsylvania Family's Snakes Bites, Kills Baby”. NBC 10 Philadelphia. Retrieved 21 March 2015. [93] Ismael, Zunaid. “Security guard survives hippo attack” [111] “Giant rats eat two babies in South Africa townships in . iafrica.com. Retrieved 25 March 2015. separate attacks”. Daily Mail Online. Retrieved 21 March 2015. [94] “The Straight Dope: Are hippos the most dangerous an[112] “Baby with 100 Small Rat bites Bled to Death”. Fox imal?". The Straight Dope. Retrieved 22 March 2015. News Channel. Retrieved 21 March 2015. [95]“The World's Most Dangerous Animals: Top 10 Deadliest Animals”. Animal Danger. Retrieved 22 March 2015. [113] “Rats, muti blamed for mutilated baby's death”. News24. Retrieved 21 March 2015. [96] “An Overview of Safety and Health for Workers in the [114] International Shark Attack File. 2005. SAF Statistics for Horse-Racing Industry, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. the Worldwide Locations with the Highest Shark Attack 2009–128 April 2009”. CDC. p. 6. Retrieved 22 March Activity Since 1990, Florida Museum of Natural History 2015. [115] “aboriginal woman”. A Complete Account of the Settle[97] Begg, Colleen, Begg, Kieth & Muemedi, Oscar (2007) ment at Port Jackson by Watkin Tench. sharkattackfile.net. Preliminary data on human – carnivore conflict in Niassa Retrieved 25 March 2015. National Reserve, Mozambique, particularly fatalities due to lion, spotted hyaena and crocodile, SGDRN (Sociedade [116] Than, K., "Strangulation of Sleeping Boys Puts Spotlight para a Gestão e Desenvolvimento da Reserva do Niassa on Pythons", National Geographic Daily News, 6 August Moçambique) 2013. 2.2. ANIMAL ATTACKS [117] Kopstein, F. (1927): Over het verslinden van menschen door Python reticulatus ["On the swallowing of humans by P. reticulatus"]. Tropische Natuur 4: 65–67. [Article in Dutch] [118] Bruno, Silvio (1998): I serpenti giganti ["The giant snakes"]. Criptozoologia 4: 16–29. (in Italian) Accessed 22 March 2015 [119] Kobis I. 1995. Giant python killed after trying to swallow man. The Star (Malaysian English newspaper), Axcessed 22 March 2015. [120] Woman killed by pet 13-foot python at UPI. Accessed 22 March 2015. [121] In Las Vegas, python vs. angry mom with a knife at Las Vegas Sun. Accessed 22 March 2015. [122] “12- foot python kills toddler”. Examiner. Retrieved 2015-04-08. [123] Nowak, Ronald M; and Paradiso, John L. Walker's Mammals of the World. 4th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1983. p1088 [124] Loadstar. “Man-eaters. The tiger and lion, attacks on humans.”. lairweb.org.nz. [125] “Tiger attacks on rise in Indian Sundarbans”. DNA India. Indo-Asian News Service. 30 July 2008. Retrieved 11 March 2014. 2.2.31 65 •“Death Statistics Comparison”. UnitedJustice.com. 7 December 2008. 7 December 2008. • Driscoll, Jamus.“Bears on the Rampage”. Outdoor Life 197.2 (1996): 20. • The Fear of Wolves – review of wolfs (sic) attacks on humans • Fergus, Charles. Wild Guide: Bears. Mechanisburg, PA; Stackpole Books, 2005. • Guo, Shuzhong, et al. “Human facial allotransplantation: a 2-year follow-up study”. The Lancet 372.9639 (2008): 631–638. • Masterson, Linda. Living with Bears. Masonville, CO; PixyJack Press, LLC, 2006. • Simmons, Shraga. “Olympic Champions”. aish.com 22 August 2004. 17 November 2008. •“Teeth”. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science: Anatomy & Physiology. 17 November 2008. • Ward, Paul and Suzanne Kynaston. Wild Bears of the World. United Kingdom: Cassell plc, 1995 • Whitman, David. “The Return of the Grizzly”. Atlantic Monthly 286.3 (2000): 26–31. Bibliography • Egerton, L. ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of Australian 2.2.32 External links wildlife. Reader's Digest ISBN 1-876689-34-X • “Fatal Mountain Lion Attacks”. Southeastern Out•“The Man-Eater of Jowlagiri”, from Nine Mandoors. Retrieved 31 August 2007. Eaters and One Rogue, Kenneth Anderson, Allen & Unwin, 1955 • “List of Mountain Lion Attacks on People in Cal• CrocBITE • “Fatal Alligator Attacks”. Southeastern Outdoors. Retrieved 31 March 2006. • “Alligator Attacks Fact sheet, p.4-5 (updated 11/29/05)" (PDF). Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Archived from the original on 8 May 2006. Retrieved 12 April 2006. • Anitei, Stefan. “The Limits of the Human Nose: How much can a human smell?" Softpedia. 22 January 2007. 17 November 2008 • Batin, Christopher. “Bear Attacks!" Outdoor Life 210.6 (2003): 46. • Brandt, Anthony. “Attack”. Outdoor Life 197.1 (1996): 52. • Cardall, Taylor Y. and Peter Rosen. “Grizzly Bear Attack”. The Journal of Emergency Medicine 24.3 (2003): 331–333. ifornia”. Retrieved 31 August 2007. • “List of Confirmed Cougar Attacks In the United States and Canada 1890 – 1990”. Retrieved 2 September 2007. • “List of Confirmed Cougar Attacks In the United States and Canada 1991 – 2000”. Retrieved 1 September 2007. • NCIPC bibliography of articles on dog bites • Dogs Bite but Balloons and Slippers are More Dangerous by Janis Bradley, 2005 • CDC Dog Bite Factsheet • “List of Confirmed Cougar Attacks in the United States and Canada 2001 – 2010”. Retrieved 5 May 2012. • Global Shark Attack File 66 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.3 Dog bite 2.3.2 Causes Human behavior “Dog Bite”redirects here. For the song, see Dog Bite (song). Many human behaviors (especially by people unfamiliar with dogs) may factor into bite situations. The majority of Dog bites or dog attacks are attacks on humans by feral dogs will not respond to all or even any of these behaviors or domestic dogs. With the close association of dogs and with aggression, however, some will. These behaviors inhumans in daily life (largely as pets), dog bites – with clude: injuries from very minor to significant – are extremely common. • Challenging for food or water. For example, removing food from a dog, or appearing to intervene beThere is considerable debate on whether or not certain tween a dog and its food. Even when inadvertent, breeds of dogs are inherently more prone to commit atthis may trigger aggressive behavior in some anitacks causing serious injury (i.e., so driven by instinct and mals. breeding that, under certain circumstances, they are exceedingly likely to attempt or commit dangerous attacks). Regardless of the breed of the dog, it is recognized that the risk of dangerous dog attacks can be greatly increased by human actions (such as neglect or fight training) or inactions (as carelessness in confinement and control). Significant dog bites affect tens of million of people globally each year.* [1] It is estimated that two percent of the US population, from 4.5–4.7 million people, are bitten by dogs each year.* [2] Most bites occur in children.* [3] In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased to 26.* [4] 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the dog owner's property.* [4] Animal bites, most of which are from dogs, are the reason for 1% of visits to an emergency department in the United States.* [3] Fifty percent of the payout of home insurance due to attacks committed by homeowners' dogs. Attacks on the serious end of the spectrum have become the focus of increasing media and public attention in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.* [5] 2.3.1 Health effects • Attacking (or perceived attacking) a dog or its companions, or encroaching on its territory. Dogs are pack hunters; they often have an instinct to defend themselves and those they consider their “pack” (which could be other dogs, humans, cats, or even other animals), and to defend their territory, which may include areas they consider“theirs”or belonging to their family. Any dog is unpredictable in the presence of an intruder, especially but not always a burglar. • Sickness or injury. A sick or injured dog, or an older animal, like people, may become “cranky” or over-reactive, and may develop a tendency to become “snappish”. • Failure to recognize insecurity or fear. Like humans, dogs that feel insecure may ultimately turn and defend themselves against perceived threat. It is common for people to not recognize signs of fear or insecurity, and to approach, triggering a defensive reaction. • Intervention when dogs fight. When dogs fight, a human stepping in between, or seeking to restrain one of them without due care, may be badly bitten as well. Rabies results in the death of approximately 55,000 people a year, with most of the causes due to dog bites.* [1] • Threatening body language. Especially including direct staring (an act of aggression/perceived as threatening by dogs) or a person not known to the dog moving their face very close to the animal's own snout (may be perceived as a challenge, threatening, or imposing). Staring is more dangerous when on the same visual level as the dog (such as small children), or when the human is unfamiliar. Capnocytophaga canimorsus transmission (a gramnegative bacterium) following a dog bite can cause overwhelming sepsis in asplenic patients, the elderly, and the immunocompromised. Empiric treatment for this bacteria following a dog bite, consisting of a thirdgeneration cephalosporins early in the infection, should be instituted in these patient populations, or following deep bites or dog bites to the hand. • Prey behaviors. Dogs retain many of the predatory instincts of wolves, including the chasing of prey. Running away from a dog or behaving in a manner suggesting weakness may trigger predatory behaviors such as chasing or excited attack. For example, the instinct to jerk one's hands upwards away from an inquisitive dog may elicit a strong impulse to grab and hold. A person bitten by an animal potentially carrying parvovirus or rabies virus should consult a medical care. An animal bite may also cause serious bacterial infections of soft tissues or bone (osteomyelitis) which can become life-threatening if untreated. 2.3. DOG BITE 67 • Ignoring warning signs. Trained attack dogs may act Training and aggression against an intruder without warning. In a domestic situation, canine aggression is normally Note that attacks may be triggered by behaviors that are suppressed. Exceptions are if the dog is trained to atperceived as an attack, for example, a sudden unexpected tack, feels threatened, or is provoked. It is important approach or touch by a stranger, or inadvertently stepping to remember that dogs are predators by nature, instinct on any portion of the dog's anatomy, such as a paw or tail, is something that never completely disappears, and that or startling a sleeping dog unexpectedly. In particular, the predatory behavior against other animals (such as chasterritory that a dog recognizes as its own may not coin- ing other animals) may train a dog or a pack of dogs to cide with the property lines that its owner and the legal attack humans. It is possible to acclimate a dog to comauthorities recognize, such as a portion of a neighbor's mon human situations in order to avoid adverse reactions backyard. by a pet Dog experts advocate removal of a dog's food, startling a dog, and performing sudden movements in a controlled setting to teach the dog who its leader is, to Dog behavior defuse aggressive impulses in common situations. This Many adoption agencies test for aggressive behavior in also allows better animal care since owners may now redogs, and euthanize an animal that shows certain types move an article directly from a dog's mouth or transport of aggression. Alternatively, aggression can often be ad- a wounded pet to seek medical attention. dressed with appropriate corrective training. Sources of Small children are especially prone to being misunderaggression include: stood by dogs, in part because their size and movements can be similar to prey.* [8] Also, young children may un• Fear and self-defense. Like humans, dogs react intentionally provoke a dog (pulling on ears or tails is when fearful, and may feel driven to attack out of common, as is surprising a sleeping dog) because of their self-defense, even when not in fact being“attacked” inexperience. To avoid potential conflicts, even reliably . Speed of movement, noises, objects or specific well-behaved children and dogs should never be allowed gestures such as raising an arm or standing up may to interact in the absence of an adult who knows and unelicit a reaction. Many rescued dogs have been derstands the dog's personality and trained cues. abused, and in some dogs, specific fears of men, Dogs with strong chase instincts, (e.g. collies, shepherds), women, skin coloring, and other features that recall may fail to recognize a person as a being not to be herded. past abusers, are not uncommon. A dog that feels They may fixate on a specific aspect of the person, such cornered or without recourse may attack the human as a fast-moving, brightly colored shoe, as a prey obwho is threatening or attacking it. A dog may also ject. This is probably the cause for the majority of nonperceive a hand reached out toward its head as an aggressive dogs chasing cyclists and runners. In these attempt to gain control of the dog's neck via the colcases, if the individual stops, the dog often loses interlar, which if done to a wary dog by a stranger can est since the movement has stopped. This is not always easily provoke a bite. the case, and aggressive or territorial dogs might take the • Territoriality and possessions. See above. Aggres- opportunity to attack. sive possessiveness is considered a very important Additionally, most dogs that bark at strangers, particutype of aggression to test for, since it is most associ- larly when not on“their”territory, will flee if the stranger ated with bites, especially bites to children.* [6] challenges it, though this is not recommended behaviour • Predatory instincts. In isolation, predatory behaviors are rarely the cause of an attack on a human. Predatory aggression is more commonly involved as a contributing factor for example in attacks by multiple dogs; a“pack kill instinct”may arise if multiple dogs are involved in an attack.* [7] as challenging the dog is just as likely to evoke a bite. Mailmen, being the classic example, provoke a strong territorial response because they come back day after day to the dog's territory. In the dog's mind they are constantly intruding on their territory and that sets up a learned behavior. • Pain or sickness. See above. As with fear, pain can incite a dog to attack. The canonical example Unsupervised children of sickness-induced attack is the virulent behavior caused by rabies. This is arguably the most critical factor in fatal dog attacks • Redirected aggression. A dog that is already ex- on children, who because of their small size are usually cited/aroused by an aggressive instinct from one not able to withstand an attack until help arrives. Many source, may use an available target to release its ag- adults survived severe dog attacks simply by virtue of the gression, if the “target”does something to evoke fact that they were able to sustain and fend the dogs off to this response from the dog (e.g. shouting & staring some degree until assistance arrived, although the elderly at the dog for barking at the mailman). and disabled are particularly vulnerable. 68 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Children often engage in behavior that will trigger a dog attack. For example, approaching a chained dog, trying to hug or kiss an unfamiliar animal, trying to pull its tail or engaging in other behavior that the dog may feel is threatening. Behavior such as this on the part of children may invoke either an aggressive territorial response from the dog or an aggressive defensive behavior from the dog. The age group with the second-highest amount of fatalities due to a dog attack are 2-year-old children. Over 88% of these fatalities occurred when the 2-year-old child was left unsupervised with a dog(s) or the child wandered off to the location of the dog. 2.3.3 Breed-specific attacks cases of fatal dog attacks; of which "pit bull terrier" or mixes thereof were reportedly involved in 76 cases. The breed with the next-highest number of attributed fatalities was the Rottweiler and mixes thereof, with 44 fatalities.* [2] A study based on more recent data (2000-2009), published in 2013, compared media accounts with reports available from animal control officials, determined that, of their sample of 256 dog bite related fatalities, breed could only be validly determined in 45 cases, and the attacks in these 45 cases were dispersed among 20 different breeds and 2 known mixes. For a further set of 401 dogs in media accounts of dog bite related fatality, reported breed differed between different media accounts of the same attack 31% of the time, factoring in animal control accounts produced disagreement on breed for 40% of attacks.* [11] Dog attacks on humans that appear most often in the news are those that require the hospitalization of the victim or those in which the victim is killed. Dogs of all sizes have 2.3.4 Human-dog interaction mauled and killed humans, although large dogs are capaSee also: Anthrozoology ble of inflicting more damage quickly. When dogs are near humans with whom they are familiar, they normally become less aggressive. However, it should not be assumed that because a dog has been with humans, it will not attack anybody - even a family member. Caution needs to be taken when approaching new dogs for the first time.* [9] Despite domestication, dogs, like their ancestors wolves, remain cunning, swift, agile, strong, territorial and voracious̶even small ones have large, sharp teeth and claws and powerful muscles in their jaws and legs and can inflict serious injuries. The lacerations even from inadvertent dog scratches, let alone deliberate or reckless bites, Due to the pit bull-type breeds' perceived aggression, are easily infected (most commonly by Capnocytophaga owning such an animal is not allowed in Australia and ochracea or Pasteurella multocida). Medium-to-large many European countries, and in several US and Cana- dogs can knock people down with the usual effects of falls dian localities (see breed-specific legislation for details). from other causes. It is sometimes argued that certain breeds are inherently Should affection or mutual respect not exist (as with feral aggressive towards humans and shouldn't be allowed at dogs), should a dog be deliberately starved (dogs are usuall, or that, due to the popularity of certain potentially ally as resourceful as any large predators in getting food), dangerous breeds, these dogs are often owned by irre- should a dog be conditioned to become an attacker, or sponsible owners who provide insufficient training or, should someone intrude upon a dog's territory and pose a worse, aggressiveness training. An opposing argument is threat, then the natural tendencies of a predator manifest that no breed is inherently aggressive towards humans and themselves in a dog attack in which the dog uses its predathat regulating one breed simply moves the irresponsible tory abilities to defend itself. Extrication from such an owners to start focusing on breeds that haven't yet been attack is difficult because of the dog's power and agility. regulated, moving the problem to other breeds. This is Flight from a dog attack by running is usually impossible. one of the positions taken by the American Veterinary Education for adults and children, animal training, selecMedical Association.* [10] tive breeding for temperament, and society's intolerance Although research and analysis* suggests that breed- for dangerous animals combine to reduce the incidence of specific legislation is not completely effective in prevent- attacks and accidents involving humans and dogs. Howing dog attacks, with each new attack, pressure mounts to ever, improperly managed confrontations can lead to seenact such legislation. vere injury from even the most well-tempered dog. Breed disparity An early study (published 2000) in the US by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) covered the years 1979-1998. The study found reports of 327 people killed by dogs over the 20-year period. The CDC used newspaper articles without corroboration by animal control reports for breed“identifications”in 238 of the 327 Stiffened front legs and a raised ridge of hair along the spine can be signs of an imminent attack (as well as of interest, or anxiety and the start of the dog's “fight or flight”mechanism). A wagging tail often is an attempt to communicate excitement, though a tail held high over the back can signal the dog becoming aroused - either for what humans see as for positive or negative reasons. Dogs also have far superior hearing and olfactory senses than humans, as well as having the advantage of reading 2.3. DOG BITE the body language of other humans and animals. 2.3.5 Legal issues United States 69 An unprovoked attack on a jogger by two Cane Corsos was reported in Lapeer, Michigan. The jogger died. The two owners of the dogs were charged with Second degree murder, which carries a potential sentence of Life in Prison.“The dogs involved in the attack have a history of escaping from their kennel and have bitten at least twice before.”* [18] Although using a firearm against an attacking dog may seem acceptable, laws in the United States which pro2.3.6 See also hibit discharging a firearm in a city, and reckless endangerment may limit the extent to which a person is legally • Coyote attacks on humans able to defend themselves in this way. Taking such ac• Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 tions where the dog/dogs involved were not acting aggressively towards humans may result in legal charges against • Fatal dog attacks in the United States the person who shot the animal. No person in the United States has ever been convicted of a crime for firing a gun • Wolf attacks on humans or using any other weapon to stop or kill a dog that was currently attacking him/her.* [12] About whether an attacking dog could itself be criminally 2.3.7 References liable, the California Court of Appeal for the Third Dis- [1] “Animal bites Fact sheet N°373”. World Health Orgatrict explained: nization. February 2013. Retrieved 5 May 2014. Some state laws hold dog owners liable for the harm or damage that their animal causes to people or other dogs. For example, in recent years, Florida dog bite laws have been changed so that prior vicious tendencies may no longer be needed to prove owner liability.* In Texas, dog attack victims are given two possible ways to prove owner negligence when bringing a personal injury or wrongful death claim. The first option is that of strict liability, whereby a victim and their attorney must prove that either the dog has attacked someone else previously (known as the “one bite law”) or else that the owner should otherwise have known their dog was vicious and/or dangerous. The second option is that of owner negligence, which could be argued in cases as various as dogs being allowed to roam freely around neighborhoods, or parents allowing their children to play with pet dogs while unsupervised. Also in Texas, as of September 1, 2007, `Lillian's Law' has taken effect, whereby the owner of a dog that causes death or serious bodily injury may be charged with a second or third degree felony when the attack takes place outside the dog's normal place of confinement (Texas Health & Safety Code Chapter 882). [2] “Dog Bite Prevention”. CDC. Retrieved 22 April 2013. [3] Ellis, R; Ellis, C (Aug 15, 2014). “Dog and cat bites.” . American family physician 90 (4): 239–43. PMID 25250997. [4] Statistics about dog bites in the USA and elsewhere [5] Reuters (2004-10-13). “Stray dog pack attacks Albanian town”. IOL. Retrieved 2008-01-21. An Albanian town had to call in police and hunters after a pack of 200 stray mountain dogs attacked at least nine people. Headed by a clearly identifiable leader, the snarling pack overran the main street of the small northern town of Mamurras, its mayor said on Wednesday. “Even in the movies I have never seen a horde of 200 stray dogs from the mountains attacking people in the middle of a town,”Anton Frroku said on Wednesday. He said the dogs bit at least nine people, aged from 20 to 60, dragging them to the ground and inflicting serious wounds. [6] John, Bisnar (12-11-2012). “Dog Agressive Posessiveness”. p. 1. Check date values in: |date= (help) [7] Shepard Haven Tips for Stopping a Dog Fight In California, owners are subject to massive civil liabil- [8] “Dog Attack Statistics”. Graves Mclain. ity for attacks by their dogs. The state allows a victim to sue on two strict liability causes of action arising out [9] "Dog-Bite-Related Fatalities -- United States, 1995-1996". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1997-05-30. of a single attack̶one created by statute and one arisRetrieved 2008-10-29. * ing from common law. [14] In 1989, the California State Legislature enacted a special administrative hearing pro- [10] Spotlight on Dog Bite Prevention Week cedure just for regulating “menacing dogs,”based on the finding that “dangerous and vicious dogs have be- [11] Patronek, Gary J.; Sacks, Jeffrey J.; Delise, Karen M.; Cleary, Donald V.; Marder, Amy R. (15 December come a serious and widespread threat to the safety and 2013). “Co-occurrence of potentially preventable fac* welfare of citizens of this state.” [15] To help impletors in 256 dog bite–related fatalities in the United States ment it, the Judicial Council of California promulgated a (2000–2009)". Journal of the American Veterinary Medpackage of four forms in 1990.* [16] The notice of hearical Association (Schaumburg, Illinois, USA: American ing bears the warning: “DO NOT BRING THE DOG Veterinary Medical Association) 243 (12): 1726–1736. TO THE HEARING.”* [17] doi:10.2460/javma.243.12.1726. PMID 24299544. 70 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES [12] Woman's neighbor shoots dog Grass Valley man may face animal cruelty charges 2.4.1 Barking in dogs Dog barking is distinct from wolf barking. Wolf barks represent only 2.3% of all wolf vocalizations* [1] and Priebe v. Nelson, 39 Cal. 4th 1112 (2006). are described as “rare”occurrences.* [2] According to Schassburger, wolves bark only in warning, defense, and See California Food and Agricultural Code Section protest. In contrast, dogs bark in a wide variety of social 31601(a). situations, with acoustic communication in dogs being See California Court Forms MC-600, MC-601, MC-602, described as hypertrophic.* [3] Additionally, while wolf and MC-603 barks tend to be brief and isolated, adult dogs bark in long, rhythmic stanzas. Dogs have been known to bark California Court Form MC-601 for hours on end.* [4] [13] People v. Frazier, 173 Cal. App. 4th 613 (2009). [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] “Couple Whose Dogs Fatally Mauled Jogger Charged With Murder”. WWJ. August 1, 2014. Retrieved August 5, 2014. • ^ Sacks, Jeffrey J., MD, MPH; Sinclair, Leslie, DVM; Gilchrist, Julie, MD; Golab, Gail C., PhD, DVM; Lockwood, Randall, PhD. (September 15, 2000). “Breeds of dogs involved in fatal human attacks in the United States between 1979 and 1998”. JAVMA 217 (6): 836– 40. doi:10.2460/javma.2000.217.836. PMID 10997153. • ^ World Almanac and Book of Facts 1985. Doubleday. • ^ World Almanac and Book of Facts 1988. World Almanac Books. While a distinct reason for the difference is unknown, a strong hypothesis is that the vocal communication of dogs developed due to their domestication.* [4] As evidenced by the farm-fox experiment, the process of domestication alters a breed in more ways than just tameness.* [5] Domesticated breeds show vast physical differences from their wild counterparts, notably an evolution that suggests neoteny, or the retention of juvenile characteristics in adults.* [6] Adult dogs have, for example large heads, floppy ears, and shortened snouts – all characteristics seen in wolf puppies.* [7] The behavior, too, of adult dogs shows puppy-like characteristics: dogs are submissive, they whine, and they frequently bark. The experiment illustrates how selecting for one trait (in this case, tameness) can create profound by-products, both physical and behavioral. The frequency of barking in dogs in relation to wolves could also be the product of the very different social environment of dogs. Dogs live in extraordinarily close range with humans, in many societies kept solely as companion animals. From a very young age, humans tend to be one • ^ “Nonfatal Dog Bite--Related Injuries Treated in of a dogʼs primary social contacts. This captive environHospital Emergency Departments”, CDC MMWR, ment presents very different stimuli than would be found by wolves in the wild. While wolves have vast territories, July 4, 2003. dogs do not. The boundaries of a captive dogʼs territory will be visited frequently by intruders, thus triggering the bark response as a warning. Additionally, dogs densely 2.3.8 External links populate urban areas, allowing more opportunity to meet new dogs and be social. For example, it is possible that • NCIPC bibliography of articles on dog bites kenneled dogs may have increased barking due to a de• Dogs Bite but Balloons and Slippers are More Dan- sire to facilitate social behavior. Dogsʼclose relationship gerous by Janis Bradley, 2005 with humans also renders dogs reliant on humans, even for basic needs. Barking is a way to attract attention, and • CDC Dog Bite Factsheet the behavior is continued by the positive response exhibited by the owners (e.g., if a dog barks to get food and the owner feeds it, the dog is being conditioned to continue 2.4 Bark (sound) said behavior.)* [8] • ^ Breed-Specific Legislation in the United States. Linda S. Weiss, Michigan State University - Detroit College of Law (2001). Animal Legal and Historical Web Center A bark is a sound most commonly produced by dogs. Other animals that make this noise include wolves, pinnipeds, foxes and quolls. Woof is the most common representation in the English language for this sound, especially for large dogs. Other transliterations include the onomatopoeic ruff, arf, au au, bow-wow, and, for small dogs, yip. “Bark”is also a verb that describes the sharp explosive cry of certain animals. 2.4.2 Types of barks Barking in domestic dogs is a controversial topic. While suggested that barking is “non-communicative,”* [9] data exists to show that it may well be a means of expression that became increasingly sophisticated during domestication. However, due to the lack of consensus 2.4. BARK (SOUND) 71 over whether or not dogs actually communicate using their barks, there has not been much work done on categorizing the different types of barking in dogs. That which has been done has been criticized by FeddersenPetersen as “lack[ing] objectivity.”Using sonographic methods, Feddersen-Petersen identified several distinct types of barks, and then analyzed them for meanings, functions, and emotions. He separated dog barks into subgroups based on said sonographic data: stery, barked. “One owner thought the scent was preferable to her dog's body odor.”* [13] There is some evidence that humans can determine the suspected emotions of dogs while listening to barks emitted during specific situations. Humans scored the emotions of dogs performing these barks very similarly and in ways that made sense according to the situation at hand. In one example, when subjects were played a recording of a dog tied alone to a tree, a situation in which one could reasonably infer that the dog would be distressed, the human listeners tended to rank the bark as having a high level of despair. It has been suggested that this may be evidence for the idea that dog barks have evolved to be a form of communication with humans specifically, since humans can so readily determine a dog's needs by simply listening to their vocalizations.* [11] Further studies have found that the acoustic structure of a bark "[varies] considerably with context.”* [12] These studies suggest that barks are more than just random sounds, and indeed hold some sort of communicative purpose. 2. Using positive training methods to correct the behaviour. Dogs may bark from anxiety or stress, so punishment can often cause problems by reinforcing a cycle of bad behaviour. Positive approaches can include: Dog barking can be a nuisance to neighbours, and is a common problem that dog owners or their neighbours may face. Many dogs can bark at 100 dBA. Even at 17.5 yards away and with the dog outside a closed window, the noise level of a barking dog can be well over the level that causes psychological distress.* [14] Different kinds of barking often require different kinds of approach to reNot all breeds demonstrated every subgroup of barking. duction. Instead, significant variance in vocalization was found be- Common approaches are as follows: tween different breeds. Poodles showed the least of all barking subunits. Additionally, barking in wolves was ob1. Attempting to understand, and if possible eliminate, served as notably less diverse. For example, wolf barks * the causes of barking. are rarely harmonic, tending instead to be noisy. [10] 2.4.3 Barking as nuisance Bark control Nuisance-barking dogs sound off for no particular reason. “Many dogs bark when they hear other dogs barking,”says Katherine A. Houpt, V.M.D., Ph.D., director of the Cornell Animal Behavior Clinic. Nuisance, inappropriate, or excessive barking comprises between 13 and 35 percent of behavior-problem complaints by dog owners, Houpt noted. The electric collars deliver an irritating shock of adjustable intensity when a vibration sensor in the collar detects barking. The citronella collar releases a spray of citronella when a microphone in the collar senses barking. For the eight dogs that wore both types of collars (one shepherd mix did not complete the study), all owners found the citronella collar to be effective in reducing or stopping nuisance barking and most preferred the fragrance spray. Four out of eight owners said electric shocks had no effect on their dogs̶they kept on barking. The citronella collars had problems, Juarbe-D'az noted. One dog owner complained that citronella oil stained the upholstery when the dog, fond of lying about on uphol- • Repeated exposure to stimuli whilst calming the dog and persuading it to remain quiet. • Distraction as the stimulus happens, through treats, praise, or similar. • Reshaping via clicker training (a form of operant conditioning) or other means to obtain barking behaviour on command, and then shaping the control to gain command over silence. 3. Seeking professional advice from local organizations, dog trainers, or veterinarians. 4. Use of a mechanical device such as a bark collar. There are several types, all of which use a collar device that produces a response to barking that the dog notices: • Citrus spray (“citronella”) - dogs as a rule do not like citrus. At the least, it is very noticeable and disrupts the pattern through surprise. These collars spray citrus around the dog's muzzle when it barks. (Sometimes these devices make a“hissing”noise before spraying, as an additional deterrent - see “Combination and escalation devices”below) • Sonic/ultrasonic (including vibration) - these collars produce a tone which humans may or may not be able to hear, in response to barking. Over time, the sound becomes annoying or distracting enough to deter barking. • Electrical - these collars produce a mild stinging or tingling sensation in response to a bark. It is important that such devices have a failsafe mechanism and shut off after a certain time, to prevent ongoing operation. 72 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES • Combination and escalation devices - many sound and/or electrical collars have combination or escalation systems. A combination system is one that (for example) uses both sound and spray together. An escalation device is one that uses quiet sounds, or low levels of output, rising gradually until barking ceases. Escalation devices are effective since they “reward”the dog for stopping sooner by not having “all-or-nothing”action, so the dog can learn to react by stopping before much happens. • Albanian - ham ham • Arabic - hau hau; how how (‫ هو‬,‫)هو‬ • Armenian -haf haf • Basque - au au; txau txau (small dogs); zaunk zaunk (large dogs); jau jau (old dogs) • Balinese - kong, kong • Belgium- woef, woef; blaf, blaf; waf, waf (large dogs) Keff, keff; Wuff, Wuff (small dogs) • Bengali - gheu, gheu; bhao, bhao Note: • Various bark collars have been both praised, and criticised, and some are considered inhumane by various people and groups. Electrical devices especially come under criticism by people who consider them torturous and akin to electrocution. However most Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals agree that in a last resort even an electric collar is better than euthanasia if it comes to an ultimatum, for a stubborn dog that will not stop any other way. It is generally agreed that understanding the communication and retraining by reward is the most effective and most humane way. • Bulgarian - bau-bau (бау-бау); jaff, jaff (джафджаф) • Burmese - woke, woke • Catalan - bau, bau; bub, bub • Chinese, Cantonese - wow, wow (汪汪) • Chinese, Mandarin - wang, wang (汪汪) • Croatian - vau, vau • Czech - haf, haf; štěk (the bark itself) • Danish - vov, vuf Surgical debarking • Dutch - blaf, blaf; kef, kef; waf, waf; woef, woef Main article: Surgical debarking • Esperanto - boj, boj • Estonian - auh, auh The controversial surgical procedure known as 'debarking' is a veterinary procedure for modifying the voice box so that a barking dog will make a significantly reduced noise. It is considered a last resort by some owners, on the basis that it is better than euthanasia, seizure, or legal problems if the matter has proven incapable of being reliably corrected any other way. Debarking is illegal in many European states and opposed by animal welfare organizations. 2.4.4 Representation Woof is the conventional representation in the English language of the barking of a dog. As with other examples of onomatopoeia or imitative sounds, other cultures “hear”the dog's barks differently and represent them in their own ways. Some of the equivalents of “woof”in other European and Asian languages are as follows: • English - woof woof; ruff ruff; arf arf (large dogs and also the sound of sea lions); yap yap; yip yip (small dogs), bow wow • Afrikaans - blaf blaf; woef woef; keff keff (small dogs) • Finnish - hau, hau; vuh, vuh; rauf, rauf • French - waouh, waouh; ouah, ouah; ouaf, ouaf; vaf, vaf; wouf, wouf; wouaf, wouaf; jappe jappe • German - wuff, wuff; wau, wau; • Greek - ghav, ghav (γαβ, γαβ / γαυ, γαυ), bhav, bhav (βαβ, βαβ) • Hebrew - hav, hav; hau, hau • Hindi - bho.n, bho.n (भों भों) • Hungarian - vau, vau • Icelandic - voff, voff • Indonesian - guk, guk • Irish - amh, amh • Italian - bau, bau • Japanese - wan-wan (ワンワン); kyan-kyan (キャ ンキャン)* [15] • Korean - meong, meong ( [mʌŋmʌŋ]) , pronounced 2.4. BARK (SOUND) • kurdi - hau hau (‫)حەو حەو‬ 73 2.4.6 Naturally “barkless”dog breeds • Latvian - vau, vau • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Compared to most domestic dogs, the bark of a dingo is short and monosyllabic. During observations, the barking Lithuanian - au, au of Australian dingoes was shown to have a relatively small Macedonian - av, av variability; sub-groups of bark types, common among doMalay - gong, gong (“menggonggong”means bark- mestic dogs, could not be found. Furthermore, only 5% of the observed vocalisations were made up of barking. ing) Australian dingoes bark only in swooshing noises or in a mixture atonal/tonal. Also, barking is almost exclusively Marathi - bhu, bhu (भू भू) used for giving warnings. Warn-barking in a homotypNorwegian - voff, voff or boff ical sequence and a kind of “warn-howling”in a heterotypical sequence has also been observed. The barkPersian - haap, haap (‫ هاپ‬،‫)هاپ‬ howling starts with several barks and then fades into a risPhilippines - Aw Aw, Aw ing and ebbing howl and is probably, similarly to coughing, used to warn the puppies and members of the pack. Polish - hau, hau Additionally, dingoes emit a sort of “wailing”sound, Portuguese - au, au; ão-ão (nasal diphthong); béu- which they mostly use when approaching a water hole, probably to warn already present dingoes.* [16] Accordbéu (toddler language); cain-cain (whining) ing to the present state of knowledge, it is not possible to Romanian - ham, ham; hau, hau get Australian dingoes to bark more frequently by makRussian - gav, gav (гав-гав); tyav, tyav (тяв-тяв, ing them associate with other domestic dogs. However, Alfred Brehm reported a dingo that completely learned small dogs) the more“typical”form of barking and knew how to use it, while its brother did not.* [17] Whether dingoes bark Serbian - av, av or bark-howl less frequently in general is not sure.* [18] Sinhala - බුඃ බුඃ buh, buh The now extinct Hare Indian dog of northern Canada was Slovak - haf, haf; hau, hau not known to bark in its native homeland, though puppies born in Europe learned how to imitate the barking Slovene - hov, hov of other dogs.* [19] When hurt or afraid, it howled like a wolf, and when curious, it made a sound described as a Spanish - guau-guau; gua, gua; jau, jau growl building up to a howl.* [20] Swedish - voff, voff; vov, vov; bjäbb, bjäbb The Basenji of central Africa produces an unusual yodelTagalog - aw, aw; baw, baw like sound, due to its unusually shaped larynx.* [21] This trait also gives the Basenji the nickname“Barkless Dog.” Tamil - வள் வள் - wal wal;லொள் லொள் - lol lol * [22] ;வௌ வௌ - wow wow • Thai - โฮ่ง โฮ่ง (pronounced [hôŋhôŋ]); บ๊อก บ๊อก (pronounced [bɔ́ kbɔ́ k]) 2.4.7 Barking in other animals • Turkish - hev hev; hav, hav Many animals communicate via various vocalizations. • Ukrainian - гав, гав (hau, hau); дзяв, дзяв (dzyau, While there is not a precise, consistent and functional acoustic definition for barking, researchers may clasdzyau) sify barks according to several criteria.* [23] University • Urdu - bow bow of Massachusetts Amherst researchers identified volume, pitch, tonality, noise, abrupt onset and pulse duration • Vietnamese - gâu gâu; ẳng ẳng are amongst the criteria that can be used to define a • Welsh - wff, wff bark.* [24] • Tamazight- hav hav; haw haw 2.4.5 Breeds The Huntaway is a working dog that has been selectively bred to drive stock (usually sheep), by using its voice. It was bred in New Zealand, and is still bred based on ability rather than appearance or lineage. Besides dogs and wolves, other canines like coyotes and jackals can bark. Their barks are quite similar to those of wolves and dogs. The bark of a dingo is short and monosyllabic. The warning bark of a fox sounds much like a dog's, but generally the vocalisation of foxes is higher and more drawn out than barks of other canids. There are also non-canine species with vocalizations that 74 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES could be described as barking. Because the Muntjac's [9] Coppinger, R; M. Feinstein. "'Hark! Hark! The dogs do bark...' and bark and bark”. Smithsonian (21): 119–128. alarm call resembles a dog's bark, they are sometimes known as Barking Deer. Eared seals are also known to [10] Feddersen-Petersen, D.U. (2000).“Vocalization of Eurobark. Prairie dogs employ a complex form of commupean wolves (Canus lupus lupus L.) and various dog breeds nication that involves barks and rhythmic chirps.* [25] A (Canus lupus f., fam.)". Arch. Tierz (Kiel, Germany: Inwide variety of bird species produce vocalizations that institut für Haustierkunde, Christian-Albrechts-University) clude the canonical features of barking, especially when 4: 387–397. avoiding predators.* [24] Some primate species, notably [11] Pongrácz, P; Molnár, C.; Miklósi, Á.; Csányi, V. (2005). gorillas, can and do vocalize in short barks. “Human Listeners Are Able to Classify Dog (Canis 2.4.8 See also • Animal communication • Debarking • Dog communication • Dog training • Growling 2.4.9 References [1] Schassburger, R.M. (1987). “Wolf vocalization: An integrated model of structure, motivation, and ontogeny”. In H. Frank. Man and Wolf. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Dr. W. Junk. [2] Coscia, E.M. “Ontogeny of timber wolf vocalizations: Acoustic properties and behavioral contexts.”. Ph.D. Dissertation. (Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Dalhousie University). [3] Fedderson-Peterson, D.U. (2000). “Vocalization of European wolves (Canus lupus lupus L.) and various dog breeds (Canus lupus f., fam.)". Arch. Tierz (Kiel, Germany: Institut für Haustierkunde, Christian-AlbrechtsUniversity) 4: 387–397. familiaris) Barks Recorded in Different Situations”. Journal of Comparative Psychology. 2 119: 136–144. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.119.2.136. [12] Yin, S (2002). “A New Perspective on Barking in Dogs (Canis familiaris)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 2 116: 189–193. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.116.2.189. [13] Juarbe-D'az, Soraya V; and Houpt, Katherine A.“Calming 'Nuisance-Barking' Dogs. [Web links]". myeducationresearch.org, The Pierian Press, 3 May 1996. Online. Internet. 18 May 1743. Retrieved 30 November 2010. [14] Richard Murray and Helen Penridge. Dogs in the Urban Environment. Chiron Media 1992, ISBN 0-646-07157-2, pp. 21–22. [15] Rikaichan Japanese-English dictionary extension, version 2.01 [16] Laurie Corbett (2004).“Dingo”. Canids: Foxes, Wolves, Jackals and Dogs. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Retrieved 8 April 2009. [17] Brehms Tierleben (in German). Leipzig, Wien: Bibliographisches Institut. 1900. pp. 82–85. [18] Feddersen-Petersen, Dorit Urd (2008). Ausdrucksverhalten beim Hund (in German). Stuttgart: Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co. KG. ISBN 978-3-440-09863-9. [4] Coppinger, R.; M. Feinstein (1991). "'Hark! Hark! The dogs do bark...' and bark and hark.”. Smithsonian 21: 119–128. [19] The Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society, Published, with the Sanction of the Council, Under the Superintendence of the Secretary and Vice-secretary of the Society, by Edward Turner Bennett, Zoological Society of London, William Harvey, Illustrated by John Jackson, William Harvey, G. B., S. S., Thomas Williams, Robert Edward Branston, George Thomas Wright. Published by Printed by C. Whittingham, 1830. [5] Belyaev, D.K.; I.Z. Plyusnina, L.N. Trut (1984). “Domestication in the silver fox (Vulpus fulvus desm.) changes in physiological boundaries of the sensitive period of primary socialization”. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 13 (4): 359–370. doi:10.1016/01681591(85)90015-2. [20] Fauna Boreali-americana, Or, The Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America: Containing Descriptions of the Objects of Natural History Collected on the Late Northern Land Expeditions, Under Command of Captain Sir John Franklin, R.N. By John Richardson, William Swainson, William Kirby, published by J. Murray, 1829. [6] Fox, M.W. (1986). Saunders, W.B., ed. “The influence of domestication upon behavior of animals”. Abnormal Behaviour in Animals (Philadelphia): 179–187. [21] Adapted from the book “Why Pandas Do Handstands,” 2006, by Augustus Brown. [22] BCOA African Stock Project - 1945 Letter from Africa [7] Dechambre, E. (1949). “La theorie de la foetalisation et la formation des races de chiens et de porcs”. Mammalia (in French) 13: 129–137. doi:10.1515/mamm.1949.13.3.129. [23] Not Only Dogs, But Deer, Monkeys And Birds Bark To Deal With Conflict. Science Daily. 15 July 2009. [8] Fox, M.W. (1971). “Behavior of wolves and related canids”. Malabar, FL. [25] Walker, Matt. Burrowing US prairie dogs use complex language. BBC Earth News. 2 February 2010. [24] Lord, Kathryn., Feinstein, Mark., Coppinger, Raymond. Barking and mobbing. Behavioral Processes. 2009. 2.5. BITE INHIBITION 2.4.10 External links (relationship building) • "Is the Bark Worse Than the Bite?". Jennifer K. Rudolph, BS, and Lawrence Myers, DVM, MS, PhD, Veterinary Forum, 1994 75 rior animal as an act of submission. The superior animal could, in theory, kill the other immediately, but he instead shows mercy as the alpha. Submission was thought to reduce losses for an animal that knows it cannot challenge the other.* [8] A few years later, this idea was challenged by Rudolf Schenkel, who suggests that, quite contrary to Lorenzʼ • “Article from ASPCA's Virtual Pet Behaviorist on s beliefs, the inferior dog is the one with his jaws open working with barking problems” near to the superiorʼs neck. The superior canine remains growling and his posture is erect, as though to prepare for • Sound of foxes barking. Wav file. an attack. Schenkel suggests that the bite inhibition in this instance is shown by the inferior to show that he does not dare to bite the superior.* [9] 2.5 Bite inhibition Bite inhibition, sometimes referred to as a soft mouth (a term which also has a distinct meaning), is a behavior in carnivorans (dogs, cats,* [1] etc.) whereby the animal learns to moderate the strength of its bite. It is an important factor in the socialization of pets.* [2] 2.5.2 Chemicals Involved in Aggression ity to monitor the strength of their bites. In addition to its role in domestication, bite inhibition is also a significant part of the development of dominance hierarchy in wild animals such as wolves.* [4] However, while short-term increases in GCs can be beneficial under stress, long-term increases are harmful to health, as GCs contribute to immune and reproductive system suppression, as well as loss in muscle mass.* [11] Therefore, being a dominant individual in the pack has a high cost(and high benefit), while accepting subordination is low cost-low benefit.* [12] Testosterone has a major effect on aggression in animals. Dogs with excess testosterone are found to act out violently, and are far less likely to practice bite inhibition, * Bite inhibition is typically learned as part of juvenile play especially without proper training. [10] behaviors, when the animal is still in the company of its In observations of a wild population of gray wolves, or mother and siblings: by biting each other during play, the canis lupus, levels of adrenal glucocorticoid(GCs) were young animals learn that biting a companion too strongly found to be elevated in dominant wolves. GCs affect the leads to the abrupt termination of play activities.* [3] stress responses in vertebrates, redirecting energy from Bite inhibition is an important factor in the socialization systems such as the digestive and reproductive to the of pets because many breeds do not innately have the abil- senses and heart to eliminate immediate threats. 2.5.1 Evolution of Bite Inhibition in Modern Dogs Modern dogs learn bite inhibition for the same reason that their ancestors, the wolves, did: in order to establish an effective dominance hierarchy. Dominance hierarchy is a term which describes the "pecking order" in groups of animals.* [5] It allows for tranquility in large groups when each individual knows its place. Dominance hierarchies are formed in groups of canines through intense displays of aggression.* [6] However, this type of vying for dominance has only been observed in forced groupings of captive wolves.* [7] In the wild, this trend is less common, as wolves tend to group off into family units instead of unrelated adults. Therefore, the alpha male and alpha female would simply be the parents, and the offspring would submit readily. Bite inhibition, then, naturally occurs as the pups learn not to bite their siblings and parents too hard. Catecholamines, such as epinephrine, or adrenaline, norepinephrine, and dopamine, also have effects on aggression. An increase in catecholamines assist with the body's fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to the muscles, decreasing pain sensitivity, and improving attention. Dogs with higher levels of these chemicals tend to be more aggressive, because they are more ready to fight.* [13] 2.5.3 Training Bite inhibition is typically learned as part of juvenile play behaviors, when the animal is still in the company of its mother and siblings: by biting each other during play, the young animals learn that biting a companion too strongly leads to the abrupt termination of play activities. This behavior is crucial later in life, as well, when dogs need Lorenz vs. Schenkel: Interpreting Canine Aggres- to maintain the carefully constructed dominance hierarchies. Therefore, a useful method for training a puppy or sion dog to monitor the strength of its bite would simply be Austrian scientist Konrad Lorenz explains that the infe- to ignore the dog immediately after the incident occurs. rior animal shows its most vulnerable part to the supe- This way, the dog learns that harmful biting will lead to 76 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES punishment. A dogʼ s first instinct to unpleasant stimulus is not a bite. A dog will use several techniques to stop what he perceives as a threat before he resorts to biting. Therefore, it is important to avoid suppressing important canine communications such as growling and snarling. If a dog learns that a growl is an inappropriate response to a threat, then humans may be encountered with an unexpected bite when they accidentally, for example, step on the dogʼs tail. Even a dog that would never bite out of anger can snap when met with a painful or threatening stimulus, so training in bite inhibition can be useful to keep them from accidentally hurting another dog or human.* [14] [14] Miller, Pat. “Teaching Bite Inhibition”. The Whole Dog Journal. Belvoir Media Group. Retrieved 12 November 2014. 2.6 BowLingual BowLingual (バウリンガル), or“Bow-Lingual”as the North American version is spelled, is a computer-based dog-to-human language translation device developed by Japanese toy company Takara and first sold in Japan in 2002. Versions for South Korea and the United States were launched in 2003. The device was named by Time magazine as a “Best Invention of 2002.”The inventors of BowLingual, Keita Satoh, Dr. Matsumi Suzuki and 2.5.4 References Dr. Norio Kogure were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize for “promoting peace and harmony between the species.” [1] Domestic Animal Behavior (4th edition) by Katherine A. Houpt, Wiley-Blackwell Publications, 2005 The device is presented as a “translator”but has been [2] Before & After Getting Your Puppy: The Positive Ap- called an “emotion analyzer”. It is said to use technolproach to Raising a Happy, Healthy, & Well-Behaved Dog ogy to categorize dog barks into one of six standardized emotional categories. BowLingual also provides a phrase by Ian Dunbar, New World Library, 2004 which is representative of that emotion. The product in[3] The Everything Dog Obedience Book: from bad dog to structions clearly state that these phrases “are for entergood dog -- a step-by-step guide to curbing misbehavior tainment purposes only”and are not meant to be accurate by Jennifer Bridwell, F+W Publications, 2007 translations of each bark. [4] Lindsay, Steven R. (2001). Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Volume 2: Etiology and assessment of behavior problems. Iowa State University Press. 2.6.1 Features [5] Ehrlich, Paul; Dobkin, David; Wheye, Darryl. “Dominance Hierarchies”. web.stanford.edu. Retrieved 28 October 2014. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] BowLingual has several functions which include dog training tips, a “Bow Wow Diary,”tips on understanding a dog's body language, a medical checklist and a Houpt, Katherine A. (2005). Domestic Animal Behavior. home alone bark recording function. The device conBlackwell Publishing. sists of a hand-held receiver that contains a LCD inforMech, L. David. “Alpha status, dominance, and division mation screen and functions as the controller and a wireof labor in wolf packs”. nrc research press. less microphone-transmitter which is attached to the dog's Lorenz, Konrad (2002). King Solomon's Ring. Routledge. collar. Retrieved 28 October 2014. When a dog barks, the microphone records and transmits Schenkel, Rudolf. Submission: Its Functions and Features the sound to the hand-held unit for computer analysis by a database with thousands of dog barks pre-recorded into in Wolf and Dog. Retrieved 28 October 2014. it. The unit then categorizes the bark into one of six disO'Heare, James. “The Effects of Spaying and Neutering tinct dog emotions (happy, sad, frustrated, on-guard, ason Canine Behavior”. Association of Animal Behavior sertive, needy) and displays the corresponding emotion Professionals. James O'Heare. Retrieved 12 November on the screen. After displaying the emotion, BowLingual 2014. then displays a phrase which has been categorized to fit Creel, Scott. “Social Dominance and Stress Hormones” within the range of each emotion. . Science Direct. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved 12 November 2014. [12] Creel, Scott; Sands, Jennifer.“Social dominance, aggression and faecal glucocorticoid levels in a wild population of wolves, Canis lupus”. Science Direct. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved 12 November 2014. 2.6.2 Versions Regional versionals of BowLingual have been released in Japan, South Korea, the US and Canada. The versions for [13] Haller, J; Makara, G.B.; Kruk, M.R. “Catecholaminer- South Korean South Korea, the US and Canada have difgic involvement in the control of aggression: hormones, ferent modifications in comparison to the Japanese verthe peripheral sympathetic, and central noradrenergic sys- sion. In May 2003, at the request of the Japan Foreign tems”. Science Direct. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved 12 Novem- Ministry, Takara provided Japanese Prime Minister Juber 2014. nichiro Koizumi with two prototypes of the English ver- 2.7. CANINE GOOD CITIZEN 77 sion of BowLingual several months before it had been re- 2.6.6 References leased in North America. Koizumi then presented these to Russian President Vladimir Putin, for each of his dogs [1] Gadget's bark is bigger than its hype / Vet puts 'bark translator' to the test. Verdict: nothing more than $120 curios(Tosca, a standard Poodle, and Connie, a Labrador Reity triever), at ceremonies celebrating the 300th anniversary of St. Petersburg. [2] Molnar et al. (2008) Classification of dog barks: a machine learning approach. Animal Cognition, 11, 389-400 2.6.3 Effectiveness BowLingual uses customized voice-print analysis technology which has been adapted for dog barks. The accuracy of this product can be affected by varying conditions and situations. Sound interference can occur when the wireless collar-microphone picks up noises made by chain collars and collars with dog tags attached. As a result, the dog owner may believe that the device is malfunctioning and not registering the dog bark correctly. 2.7 Canine Good Citizen In windy conditions, the microphone will sometimes interpret a gust of wind as a bark. Electrical equipment and certain radio signals may trigger false readouts. Due to improvements with the US and Canadian versions of the products, these problems are more common with the Japanese and South Korean versions. One reviewer of the product, vet Sophia Yin stated “it's not very useful because the translations aren't trustworthy Canine Good Citizen dog tag. and most don't make sense.”* [1] Csaba Molnar and colleagues at Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary proved by computer-based machine learning algorythms that there are consistent differences in the acoustics of dog barks according to the behavioural context and individuals.* [2] The Canine Good Citizen (CGC) program, established in 1989, is an American Kennel Club program to promote responsible dog ownership and to encourage the training of well-mannered dogs. A dog and handler team must take a short behavioral evaluation of less than half an hour; dogs who pass the evaluation earn the Canine Good Citizen certificate, which many people represent after the 2.6.4 Related products dog's name, abbreviating it as CGC; for example,“Fido, In 2003 Takara launched a follow-up product for cats CGC”. called Meowlingual (ミャウリンガル). It functioned The evaluation consists of ten objectives. All items must similarly to BowLingual; however, it did not use the wire- be completed satisfactorily or the team fails. Test items less microphone system. Instead, the microphone was include: contained in the main hand-held unit so that the user had to be close enough to, in effect, “interview”the cat. • Accepting a friendly stranger. Without the wireless component, Meowlingual was considerably cheaper than BowLingual. Meowlingual was • Sitting politely for petting. never launched in the U.S. or any other countries, so only Japanese language versions exist. • Allowing basic grooming procedures. 2.6.5 External links • Time Magazine Best Inventions 2002, Bowlingual • BowLingual Web page (archived) • MeowLingual Web page (archived) • Bowlingual presented by Japan prime minister to Russian president • Critical review • Walking on a loose lead. • Walking through a crowd. • Sitting and lying down on command and staying in place. • Coming when called. • Reacting appropriately to another dog. • Reacting appropriately to distractions. 78 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES • Calmly enduring supervised separation from the owner. Evaluators sometimes combine elements during the actual test. If all ten objectives are met, the handler can apply for a certificate and special dog tag from the AKC stating that the dog has earned the CGC. Dogs do not have to be registered with the AKC to earn a CGC, nor do they have to be purebred or, in fact, registered with any canine organization. The goal is to promote good citizenship for all dogs. Since its inception, the CGC program has become the model for similar programs around the world, is the back- Leather buckle collar with traditional buckle. bone of other exams, such as those given for therapy dogs, and is a good starting point for more advanced dog trainsays you should be able to get two fingers underneath ing. the collar.* [5] 2.7.1 External links • AKC Canine Good Citizen section 2.8 Dog collar For the detachable white collar worn by Christian clergy, see clerical collar. A dog collar is a piece of material put around the neck of a dog. A collar may be used for control, identification, fashion, or other purposes. Identification tags and medical information are often placed on dog collars.* [1] Collars are also useful for controlling a dog manually, as they provide a handle for grabbing. Collars are often used in conjunction with a leash, and a common alternative to a dog collar is a dog harness. Dog collars are the most Nylon quick-release buckle collar with identification and medical common form of directing and teaching dogs.* [2] tags. Dog collar is also an informal term for the clerical collar used by Anglican vicars and other clergy.* [3] 2.8.1 Basic collars • Buckle collars, also called flat collars, are usually made of nylon webbing* [4] or leather (less common materials can include polyester, hemp, or metal) with a buckle similar to a belt buckle, or a quick-release buckle, either of which holds the collar loosely around the dog's neck. Identification is commonly attached to such a collar; it also comes with a loop to which a leash can be fastened. This is the most standard collar for dogs. A flat collar should fit comfortably tight on your dog's neck. It should not be so tight as to choke your dog nor so loose that they can slip out of it. The rule of thumb • Flea collars are impregnated with chemicals that repel fleas.* [6] They are usually a supplementary collar, worn in addition to the conventional buckle collar. • Elizabethan collars, shaped like a truncated cone, can be fitted on a dog to prevent it from scratching a wound on its head or neck or licking a wound or infection on its body.* [7] • Break-away collars look similar to buckle collars, but have a safety mechanism installed that allows the dog to break free of the collar if excessive force is applied. These collars are useful in situations where a non-quick release collar could get snagged and strangle the dog.* [8] 2.8. DOG COLLAR 79 • Safety Stretch Collars an elastic panel in the sturdy nylon collar allows escape from potential strangulation dangers such as branches, fences, gates and other dogs. Unlike breakaways a stretch collar acts like a traditional static collar when clipped with a leash. • Stud collars are leather collars fitted with dulled points and/or metal studs that traditionally prevented another animal from biting the dog's neck. This type of collar dates back to ancient Greece, when sheepdogs were given nail-studded collars to protect them from wolves.* [9] In modern societies, stud collars are more commonly considered a fashion accessory. • Painted collars are leather collars with a pattern applied with safe water-resistant paint. Usually the paint is applied manually. These collars are more Martingale Collar with Chain Loop; martingale collars also come expensive than others because of handiwork. with a fabric loop instead of chain as well as optional buckles on both styles. • Oilcloth collars are made of vinyl woven with cotton. They are long-lasting, water resistant and stain Martingale collar resistant. The surface of the material can be wiped clean. These collars are sturdy and hard to tear. Martingale collars are recommended for Sighthounds because their heads are smaller than their necks and they can • Spiked collars are made of nylon or leather mate- often slip out of standard collars. They can, however, be rial and decorated with metal spikes. Commonly, used for any breed of dog. Their no-slip feature has made the spikes are hand-set and tightly riveted for extra them a safety standard at many kennels and animal shelsecurity. Spikes prevent other animals from biting ters. A martingale collar has 2 loops; the smaller loop the dog's neck and serve as fancy accessory. is the “control loop”that tightens the larger loop when pulled to prevent dogs from slipping out of the collar. A • Reflective collars are made with 3M reflective tape correctly adjusted martingale does not constrict the dog's that ensures the dog will be seen at night by ap- neck when pulled taut. proaching vehicles. These collars are usually made with nylon webbing and can provide reflection up to Head halters 1,000 feet in the dark.* [10] 2.8.2 Training collars Head halters, sold under the brand names “Comfort Trainer”,Halti or Gentle Leader or Snoot Loop, are similar in design to a halter for a horse. This device fastens around the back of the neck and over the top of the muzzle, giving more control over a dog's direction and the intensity of pulling on a leash than collars that fit strictly around the neck. Pressure on this type of collar pulls the dog's head towards the handler. These type of collars can stop a strong dog pulling an owner in an unsafe direction. They are also good for dogs that pull as the pressure will no longer be directly on their wind pipe.* [11] Several types of collars are used for the purposes of training dogs, though sometimes a collar is not used at all (such as in the case of dog agility training, where a collar could get caught on equipment and strangle the dog). Each training collar has its own set of advantages and disadvantages (briefly outlined below) which trainers might consider before using a select one. Training collars are typically used for training only and not left on the dog's neck all the time, as some collars can be harmful or danControversy Supporters of the head halter say that it gerous if left on a dog unsupervised. enables the handler to control the dog's head, and makes the dog unable to pull using its full strength. It is especially useful with reactive dogs, when control of the dog's Flat collars head can be a safety issue. Most dogs are trained on leash using a buckle or quick- Those who do not recommend use of the head halter say release collar. that some dogs find it unnatural and uncomfortable. If the 80 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Main article: Dog § Biology Most lighted collars utilize one or more light emitting diodes for the light source and can be of virtually any color, although red and blue are most common. Power is provided by one or more batteries, most common types being AAA and lithium coin cells to minimize the added weight to the collar. Flotation collar A flotation collar (or buoyant collar) is a buoyancy aid designed for dogs. Although it is not designed to be used as a life preserver or life jacket, it can provide additional buoyant support for the head of a dog when in the water. It is often used in canine hydrotherapy services to assist in the rehabilitation of injured dogs. The collar may be constructed of closed cell foam material that is inherently buoyant or be of a type that is inflated with air. Aversive collars The halter-style collar controls the dog's head but does not restrict its ability to pant, drink, or grasp objects. collar is too tight, it may dig too deeply into the skin or the strap around the muzzle may push into the dog's eyes. Cranial injury is a possible result from improper use of the head halter; if a dog is jerked suddenly by the leash attached to the head halter, the dog's neck is pulled sharply to the side, which might result in neck injury (though this can be true of all collars). If the nose strap is fitted too tightly, the hair on the muzzle can also be rubbed off, or the dog might paw and scratch at its face, causing injuries ranging from mere bare skin to severe abrasions. Aversive collars use discomfort or pain to cause a dog to stop doing unwanted behaviors.* [12] The use of aversive collars is controversial, with many humane and veterinary organizations recommending against them.* [13]* [14]* [15] • Shock collars (or training collars, remote training collars, e-collars, electronic collars* [16] and hunting collars) are electronic training aids developed to deliver an electrical signal, vibration, tone, through contact points attached to a dog collar.* [17]* [18] Shock collars are illegal in Wales* [19] and many other countries. Some research indicates that training using positive reinforcement achieves faster results than the same behavior trained using shock collars.* [20] Wolf collars Wolf collars or protection collars are metal collars fitted with large spikes radiating away from the dog, usually worn by dogs protecting livestock in case they are attacked by wolves or other predators. Such collars protect the neck of a dog from direct attack. It is rare to see these collars being used in modern societies. Lighted collar A lighted collar (or collar light, dog light) is a collar that emits light in order to make a dog more visible in the dark Prong collar; the looped chain limits how tightly the collar can pull in the same way that a Martingale functions. to their owners and more importantly, nearby motorists. It should be noted that it is not designed to help a dog see at night, as it is well documented that dogs have very good • Prong collars are a series of chain links with vision in low light conditions. blunted open ends turned towards the dog's neck. 2.8. DOG COLLAR The design of the prong collar is such that it has a limited circumference unlike choke chains which do not have a limit on how far they can constrict on a dog's neck. The limited traction of the martingale chain combined with the angle of the prongs prevents the prongs moving close enough to pinch. The collar is designed to prevent the dog from pulling by applying pressure at each point against the dog's neck. Prong collars must never be turned inside out (with the prongs facing away from the dog's skin), as this may cause injury against the body and head.* [21] Plastic tips are occasionally placed on the ends of the prongs to protect against tufts forming in the fur or, in the case of low quality manufactured collars with rough chisel cut ends, irritating the skin. Like the choke chain, the prong collar is placed high on the dog's neck, just behind the ears, at the most sensitive point.* [22] Some dogs can free themselves from prong collars with large wire looped sides by shaking their head so that the links pop out, so some trainers have come to use a second collar (usually an oversize check chain) in addition to the prong collar so when this happens the dog does not run loose. • Force collars are leather with metal prongs staggered along the inside; similar to a prong collar. 81 snap, or correction. This is supposed to correct a dog's unwanted behavior, such as leaving the“heel” position. Pulling harder or longer on the choke chain presses on the dog's esophagus and restricts breathing. Cesar Milan's“Illusion collar”is a choke collar wrapped in a buckle collar.* [24] • Fur saver collars are a kind of choke chains that provide less effect on the dog's hair, thus not damaging it. Fur saver collar can be used both for long and short-haired breeds without making any harm to the dog's fur. It can be used for training and daily life as well. 2.8.3 See also • Collar • Muzzle (device) • Shock collar 2.8.4 References [1] Clayden, Paul, ed. (2011-05-25). The Dog Law Handbook (2nd ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-414-04818-8. [2] Hodgson, Sarah (2006). Teach Yourself Visually Dog Training. Wiley Default. ISBN 0-471-74989-3. [3] “Dog collar clergy 'risk attack'". BBC News. 7 October 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2011. [4] Ogburn, Philip; Crouse, Stephanie, Martin, Frank, Houpt, Katherine (1 December 1998). “Comparison of behavioral and physiological responses of dogs wearing two different types of collars”. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 61 (2): 133–142. doi:10.1016/S01681591(98)00113-0. [5] http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/dogs/tips/ collars.html. Missing or empty |title= (help) Choke chain, showing how the chain pulls through the loop at one end. • Choke chains (also called choke collars or slip chains) are a length of chain with rings at either end such that the collar can be formed into a loop that slips over the dogs head and rests around the top of the dog's neck, just behind the ears.* [23] When the leash is attached to the dead ring, the collar does not constrict on the dog's neck. When the leash is attached to the live ring, the chain slips (adjusts) tighter when pulled and slips looser when tension is released. Training with this leash involves a quick jerk with an immediate release, called a leash pop, [6] Cronce, P. C.; Alden, H. S. (11 November 1968). “Flea-Collar Dermatitis”. JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association 206 (7): 1563–1564. doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03150070101023. [7] Swaim, Steven F.; Renberg, Walter C.; Shike, Kathy M. (2010-12-15). Small Animal Bandaging, Casting, and Splinting Techniques. Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-1962-4. [8] Monteiro, Melanie (2009). Safe Dog Handbook: A Complete Guide to Protecting Your Pooch, Indoors and Out. Beverly, Mass.: Quarry Books. p. 96. ISBN 978-159253-519-4. [9] http://www.dogcollarsboutique.com/ A-History-of-Dog-Collars-sp-17.html 82 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES [10] http://www.shopmimigreen.com/ Engraved-Buckle-Personalized-Dog-Collars/ Reflective-Dog-Collar-with-Engraved-Personalized-Name-Plate. html [11] https://www.sfspca.org/sites/default/files/dog_ head-halters-and-harnesses.pdf [12] Humane Society. “Dog Collars: Aversive Collars”. Retrieved 2014-08-01. [13] Humane Society. “Dog Collars: Aversive Collars”. Retrieved 2014-08-01. [14] American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior. “AVSAB Position Statement The Use of Punishment for Behavior Modification in Animals”. Retrieved 2014-0801. [15] San Francisco SPCA.“Trade in Your Pronged Dog Collar”. Retrieved 2014-08-01. Dogs communicating that their intentions are not aggression but play - a form of metacommunication The study of animal communication ̶sometimes called zoosemiotics (defined as the study of sign communication or semiosis in animals; distinguishable from [17] “Electric Dog Collars Hazardous”. The Milwaukee Jouranthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) nal. 20 April 1977. ̶has played an important part in ethology, sociobiology, [18] “Shocking dog collars recalled”. St. Petersburg Times. and the study of animal cognition. [16] “Electronic dog collars in stomach of alligator solve Florida mystery”. Toledo Blade. August 29, 1995. May 20, 1976. [19] “Ogmore illegal shock collar dog owner gets £2,000 fine” . BBC News. 18 July 2011. 2.9.1 Dog-human communication [20] http://blog.smartanimaltraining.com/2013/07/31/ Dogs were the first species to live so closely to hunew-findings-on-shock-collars-why-the-uk-wants-to-ban-them/ mans, starting between 35,000 and 100,000 years ago. vv They have developed a complex way of communicat[21] “Herm Sprenger Prong Collar Covering Caps”. Luvmydog.co.uk. Retrieved 30 December 2011. [22] “How to fit a Prong Collar”. Leerburg. Retrieved 30 December 2011. [23] “Dictionary of Dog Collar Terms”. bigdogboutique.com. Retrieved 12 August 2012. [24] “Illusion collar”. Retrieved 2014-08-01. 2.8.5 External links • A History of Dog Collars 2.9 Dog communication Dog communication is any transfer of information on the part of one or more dogs that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of the dog(s), or another animal. Dog communication occurs in a variety of forms and is part of the foundation of dog social behavior. Dogs use all the major sensory modalities to communicate, including visual (e.g. movements of their bodies and limbs), auditory (vocalizations), tactile (touch) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). ing with humans and forming relationships, giving rise to the English phrase “man's best friend”.* [1] There are many different definitions of communication.* [2] Communication between dogs and humans can take various forms. Since dogs were first domesticated by humans, dogs have learned to adapt to the social setting of humans. Dogs have either developed, or been artificially selected for, traits and skills which allow them to live successfully with humans. These behaviours include pointing, marking, body posture and eye gaze direction.* [2] Humans communicate with dogs by using audible and tactile signals. The pointing gesture is a human-specific signal, is referential in its nature, and is a foundational building-block of human communication. Human infants acquire it weeks before the first spoken word.* [3] In 2009, a study compared the responses to a range of pointing gestures by dogs and human infants. The study showed little difference in the performance of 2-year-old children and dogs, while 3-year-old childrenʼ s performance was higher. The results also showed that all subjects were able to generalize from their previous experience to respond to relatively novel pointing gestures. These findings suggest that dogs demonstrate a similar level of performance as 2-year-old children that can be explained as a joint outcome of their evolutionary history as well as their socialization in a hu- 2.9. DOG COMMUNICATION man environment.* [4] See also: coevolution 2.9.2 83 To signal dominance, a wolf or dog stands stiff-legged and tall. The ears are held erect and forward while the tail is held vertically with the hackles (erectile hairs along the back) slightly raised. * [10]* [11] Evolution of dog-human communi- A wolf or dog will show active submission by drawing back the lips and ears, and lowering the body. The tail cation is held low or completely tucked under the body, and the may partially arch down to further display deference. There are several hypotheses about how dog-human com- back * * [10] [11] munication evolved. It is believed that the ancestral precursor of the domestic dog was a wolf-like canid. Aspects of the wolfʼs social behavior have been artificially selected over many generations to the modern domestic dogs. Wolves live and hunt as a group. There are both positive and negative consequences of group-living and it is possible that the social communicative skills of dogs arose from the social behaviors of ancestral, group-living wolves.* [5] Dogs have been domesticated by humans for thousands of years. It is possible that during this period, dogs began to mimic the behaviors of humans. Dogs have been trained by humans and have become dependent on humans. It has been suggested that this dependency trait enables them to communicate better with their owners. When dogs are more exposed to humans, their communicative skills improve.* [6] The third reason is the domestication of dog which lead to their evolution domestic characteristics such as their tameness. This might be the most prominent reason of all. The tameness of dogs might have been naturally selected when they started to live with humans or were already selected for the tameness. By living together for thousands of years, the dogʼs skill eventually evolved over time whether they are by artificial selection or natural selection.* [7] High ability of dog understanding human comes from selection against fear and aggression towards human.* [8] A wolf or dog will communicate a more intense deference through passive submissive behaviours. The animal rolls on his back, exposing the vulnerable underside and throat. The paws are drawn into the body while eye contact is avoided. The tail may be tucked in and whimpering noises may be heard. * [10]* [11] 2.9.4 Visual communication See also: Wolf body language Tail: How high or low the tail is held, in relation to how the dog's breed naturally carries its tail, and how it is moved can signify the dog's mood. When the tail is held high, it shows that the dog is alert and aware; the tail between the legs means that the dog is frightened. If the fur on the tail is also bristled, the dog is saying it is willing to defend itself or pups. If the dog does not have a tail, or it has been shortened or removed via docking, then similar actions may occur with just the hind quarters. Small, slow wags of the tail say the dog is questioning things around the environment it is in. Either it is not sure whether it should submit, the other creature is friendly, or confused about its surroundings. Large, fast wags of the tail may be a sign of a happy, excited, or an energetic dog, but can also signal aggression. Dogs communicating with their tail were illustrated in The social behaviors and their social cognition of dogs Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man are not yet revealed fully. There are for sure, something and Animals published in 1872. special about dogs and the relationship between dogs and humans. It is important for the researchers to study more • Examples of tail position communicating different about social skills and the social relationship of dogs and emotions in dogs. humans. The research of the evolution of dogʼ s social behaviors might help in finding the evolution of social cog•“Small dog watching a cat on a table” nition in humans. •“Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions” 2.9.3 Dominance and submission •“Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind” Further information: Dog behavior •“Half-bred shepherd dog” Genetic research has indicated that domesticated dogs evolved from a now extinct wolf-like canid.* [9] Wolves primarily live in social family groups called “packs”in which they communicate in ways that can be observed in their domesticated descendants. Included in this are communications of dominance and submission.* [10] •“Dog caressing his master” Dogs are said to exhibit a left-right asymmetry of the tail when interacting with strangers, and will show the opposite, right-left motion with people and dogs they know.* [12] 84 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Ears: Ear position relates the dog's level of attention, and reaction, to a situation or animal. Erect ears facing forward means the dog is very attentive. They lay their ears back for the sounds surrounding them and also when in a submissive state. Dogs with drop ears, like Beagles, can't use these signals very well, as the signals first developed in wolves, whose ears are pricked. Wolf-like dogs (such as the Samoyed or Husky) will, when content and happy, often hold their ears in a horizontal position but still forward. This has been referred to as the “wolf smile”. Two dogs communicating aggression; note the teeth baring and lip curl. A dog communicating anxiety; note the white“half moon”eyes, nose licking and sideways glance. Mouth: Mouth expressions can provide information about the dog's mood. When a dog wants to be left alone, it might yawn (although yawning also might indicate sleepiness, confusion, or stress) or start licking its mouth without the presence of any food. When a dog is happy or wants to play, it might pant with lips relaxed, covering the teeth and with what sometimes appears to be a happy expression and might appear as a smile to some observers. This dog is not“smiling”but is communicating that it is defensive about its food treat. Teeth baring: When a dog's lips curl back this shows that the dog has a strong urge to bite. This is an unconscious reflex, designed to get the soft flesh of the lips away from the teeth before the dog bites, and is often misinterpreted as a way of communicating aggressive intent. For example, many dogs will curl their lips back into a “snarl”when they take a cookie or bone. A rare form of teeth baring is seen in the form as a submissive grin. This means that the dog will be submissive and friendly to the person it is grinning at. In this event the dog will also display other behavioral cues, including tail wagging and lowered posture. The dog sometimes will show a submissive grin when it has recently done something it knows its master would not like, or when it has been caught doing it. Mouth expressions that indicate aggression include the snarl, with lips retracting to expose the teeth, although some dogs also use this during play. However, some dogs will pull back their“top lips”in what looks like an aggressive way, when they are excited or happy. For example a dog prone to“smiling”may do so in greeting to a much loved owner and this should not be punished lest the dog become less affectionate. A very common form of communication as well, is for a dog to lick another dog, or a person. Dogs lick other dogs' faces and mouths when they greet each other to indicate friendliness. Dogs like to lick human skin not only for the salt from the sweat, but also as a form of greeting, such as by briefly licking a person's hand after sniffing it. Licking is also used as a social bonding analogous to primate social grooming and stroking. This can indicate intimacy. Such licking is longer and slower, as compared to the brief licking of faces during a greeting. 2.9. DOG COMMUNICATION 85 Eyes and eyebrows: While dogs do not have actual eyebrows, they do have a distinctive ridge above their eyes, and some breeds, like the Labrador Retriever, Gordon Setter, Rottweiler, Bernese Mountain Dog, German Shepherd, and Doberman have markings there. A dog's eyebrow movements usually express a similar emotion to that of a human's eyebrow movements. Raised eyebrows suggest interest, lowered brows suggest uncertainty or mild anger, and one eyebrow up suggests bewilderment. Eyes narrowed to slits indicate affection for the person or animal the dog is looking at. A dog holding its head to one side and its ears forward to focus on a sound. 2.9.5 Auditory communication Main article, including bark control training: Bark (utterance) Further information: Auditory communication in gray wolves Two dogs stamping their feet, (maybe) to gain attention. Barks: Dogs bark for many reasons, such as when perceived intruders (humans, dogs, or other animals unknown to them) approach their living space, when hearing an unfamiliar or unidentified noise, when seeing something that the dog doesn't expect to be there, or when playing. Barking also expresses such emotions as loneliness, fear, suspicion, stress, and pleasure. Playful or excited barks are often short and sharp and often made when a dog is attempting to get a person or another dog to play. Feet and legs: Although a dog's feet lack the dexterity of human hands, a dog can use them as an avenue of communication. A dog might stamp its feet, alternating its left and right front legs, while its back legs are still. This occurs when the dog is excited, wants something, or wants its owner's attention. Pointers tend to tuck one front leg Dogs generally try to avoid conflict; their vocalizations are up when they sense game nearby. part of what allows other dogs to tune into their emotions, This behavior is not communicative so much as the dog i.e., whether they're aggressive or are in a playful mood. exhibiting a fixed-action pattern called“the eye stalk.”It is also common for dogs to paw or scratch for objects they desire. Many dogs are trained to mimic a human handshake, offering a paw to a human stooping down and offering their own hand in exchange. Dogs might playfully slap each other with their paws to show gratitude toward one another. The bark of a distressed or stressed dog is high pitched, repetitive, and increases its pitch as the dog becomes more upset. For example, a dog that suffers separation anxiety may bark when left home alone. Some breeds of dogs have been bred to bark when chasing; for example, scent hounds whose handlers use the bark to follow the dog if it has run out of sight. Head: The leaning of a dog's head to the right or to the Coonhounds and Bloodhounds are good examples. Such left often indicates curiosity and/or a sound it has not barking is often called “singing”because the sound is heard before. It is also used to locate the source of the longer and more tonal. sound by adjusting the ears, so that sound waves might Some research has suggested that dogs have separate reach the ears at different times, enabling the source to barks for different animals, including dog, fox, deer, hube located. This, however, may also be a sign of recogni- man, squirrel and cat.* [13] tion to a familiar word. Growls: Growls can express aggression, a desire to play, If the dog's head is held high with its neck craning for- or simply that the dog doesn't want to participate in what's ward, it is showing interest, although, it could also mean about to happen next (being picked up for example). Most an aggressive mood if other body language is present. pet owners have therefore been urged to treat growls with A bowed head indicates submission and can be a request special attention: always consider the context of a growl for physical affection. and exercise caution. If the threat is very serious, then the 86 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES dog will usually start off with a very low toned but strong growl that rises in tone if ignored. Howls: Howling may provide long-range communication with other dogs or owners. Howling can be used to locate another pack member, to keep strangers away, or to call the pack for hunting. Some dogs howl when they have separation anxiety. Dogs howling can also be caused by musical instruments, like harmonicas. •“What is a 'Jewish Dog'? Konrad Lorenz and the Cult of Wildness.”Boria Sax, Society and Animals, Volume 5, Number 1, 1997, pp. 3–21(19) • My Doggie Says...; Messages from Jamie by Fred Haney ISBN 0-9785515-0-8 • On Talking Terms With Dogs: Calming Signals by Turid Rugaas ISBN 0-9674796-0-6 Further information: Twilight bark 2.9.8 References Whines: Whining is a high-pitched vocalization that is often produced nasally with the mouth closed. A dog may whine when it wants something (e.g., food) wants to go outside (possibly to excrete) wants to be let off the leash (possibly to greet another dog or a person) or just wants attention. A very insistent dog may add a bark at the end of a whine, in a whine-bark, whine-bark pattern. Whimpers: A whimper or a yelp often indicates the dog is in pain or distress and is often emitted by dogs that have been bitten too hard during a play-fight. The whimper or yelp is used only when the dog intends to communicate its distress to a pack member (or human) to whom they are submissive or friendly, and the other dog or human is expected to react positively to the communication; dogs engaged in serious fights do not whimper lest they betray weakness. Dogs also whimper when they are physically abused or neglected by people. Yelps are often associated with the lowering of the tail between the legs. Yelping can also indicate strong excitement when a dog is lonely and is suddenly met with affection, such as when a dog is left alone in a house during the day and its owner comes through the door late at night. Such yelping is often accompanied by licking, jumping, and barking. Yelping is distinct from barking in that it is softer, higher pitched, and lower volume. Dogs will often feign injury by yelping to gain the upper hand over other puppies during play. Play yelps are often confused for a sign of pain or distress: the dog not running away after the yelp occurs reveals the ruse. 2.9.6 See also • Talking animal 2.9.7 Bibliography • Consciousness Explained by Daniel C. Dennett, 1992, ISBN 978-0-316-18066-5 [1] Virányi, Zs., Topál, J., Gácsi, M., Miklósi, Á., Csányi, V. 2004. Dogs respond appropriately to cues of humans' attentional focus. Behavioural Processes, 66: 161-172 [2] Elgier, Angel M., Andriana Jakovcevic, Gabriela Barrera, Alba E. Mustaca, and Mariana Bentosela. “Communication between domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and humans: Dogs are good learners.” Behavioural Processes 81 (2009): 402-08. Web. 28 June 2014.. [3] [4] [5] Hare B, Tomasello M. 2005. Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in cognitive sciences. 9: 439-444. [6] Reid P, 2008. Adapting to the human world: Dogs' responsiveness to our social cues. Behavioural Processes, 80:325-333. [7] Monique U, Dorey N, Wynne C. 2009. What did domestication do to dogs? A new account of dogs' sensitivity to human actions. Biological Reviews. 85:327-345. [8] Hare, B. and Tomasello, M. 2005. Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9: 439-444. [9] Thalmann, O.; Shapiro, B.; Cui, P.; Schuenemann, V.J.; Sawyer, S.K.; Greenfield, D.L.; Germonpré, M.B.; Sablin, M.V.; López-Giráldez, F.; Domingo-Roura, X.; Napierala, H.; Uerpmann, H-P.; Loponte, D.M.; Acosta, A.A.; Giemsch, L.; Schmitz, R.W.; Worthington, B.; Buikstra, J.E.; Druzhkova, A.S.; Graphodatsky, A.S.; Ovodov, N.D.; Wahlberg, N.; Freedman, A.H.; Schweizer, R.M.; Koepfli, K.-P.; Leonard, J.A.; Meyer, M.; Krause, J.; Pääbo, S.; Green, R.E.; Wayne, Robert K. (15 November 2013). “Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Ancient Canids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs”. Science (AAAS) 342 (6160): 871–874. doi:10.1126/science.1243650. Retrieved 24 December 2014. [10] • DOGS: A Startling New Understanding... by Raymond and Lorna Coppinger, 2002, ISBN 978-0684-85530-1 [11] “Wolf Country, the pack, body postures and social structure”. Wolfcountry.net. Retrieved 2013-12-07. • Dog Language by Roger Abrantes, 3rd Ed. 2001, ISBN 978-0-9660484-0-7 [12]“Asymmetric tail-wagging responses by dogs to different emotive stimuli”, Current Biology, 17(6), 20 March 2007, pp R199-R201 2.10. COPROPHAGIA [13] Derr, Mark.“Dogs' Vocalizations Aren't All Bark”. New York Times News Service. Retrieved 2008-01-04. 87 2.10.2 Other animals Invertebrates 2.9.9 External links • Virtual Pet Behaviorist article on Canine Body Language (ASPCA) • Virtual Pet Behaviorist article on barking (ASPCA) • Virtual Pet Behaviorist article on howling (ASPCA) • International Association of Canine Professionals (IACP) 2.10 Coprophagia Two common blue butterflies lap at a small lump of feces lying on a rock. Not to be confused with Coprographia. Coprophagia /kɒp.rə.ˈfeɪ.dʒi.ə/* [1] or coprophagy A female fly feeding on feces A female Oriental latrine fly (Chrysomya megacephala) feeds on animal feces. /kəˈprɒfədʒiː/ is the consumption of feces. The word is derived from the Greek κόπρος copros, “feces”and φαγεῖν phagein, “to eat”. Coprophagy refers to many kinds of feces eating including eating feces of other species (heterospecifics), of other individuals (allocoprophagy), or its own (autocoprophagy), those once deposited or taken directly from the anus.* [2] Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food (herbivores' digestive systems are especially inefficient). A notable feces-eating insect is the dung-beetle and possibly the most common is the fly. Termites eat one another's feces as a means of obtaining their hindgut protists. Termites and protists have a symbiotic relationship (e.g. with the protozoan that allows the termites to digest the cellulose in their diet via the protists. For example, in one group of termites, there is a three-way symbiotic relationship - termites of the family Rhinotermitidae, cellulolytic protists of the genus PseuIn humans, coprophagia has been observed in individu- dotrichonympha in the guts of these termites, and intraals with mental illness. Some animal species eat feces as cellular bacterial symbionts of the protists.* [6] a normal behavior; other species may not normally consume feces but do so under very unusual conditions. Vertebrates 2.10.1 Humans Domesticated and wild mammals are known to consume feces. In the wild they either bury or eat waste to proCoprophagia has been observed in individuals with tect their trail from predators. Mother cats are known to schizophrenia,* [3] depression,* [4] and pica.* [5] eat the feces of their newborn kittens during the earliest Consuming feces carries the risk of contracting diseases phase after birth, presumably to eliminate cues to potenand bacteria spread such as E. coli, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis tial predators and to keep the den clean. E, pneumonia, polio, and influenza. Coprophagia also Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing carries a risk of contracting intestinal parasites. the cud as do cows and many other herbivores) to digest 88 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES their food and extract sufficient nutrients. Chewed plant material collects in a chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat.* [7] This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.* [8] Cattle in the United States are often fed chicken litter. There are concerns that the practice of feeding chicken litter to cattle could lead to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease) because of the crushed bone meal in chicken feed. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates this practice by attempting to prevent the introduction of any part of a cow's brain or spinal cord into livestock feed.* [9] Other countries, like Canada, have banned chicken litter for use as a livestock feed. remedy for bacterial dysentery; its efficacy (probably attributable to the antibiotic subtilisin from Bacillus subtilis) was anecdotally confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II”.* [12] Centuries ago, physicians tasted their patients' feces, to better judge their state and condition.* [13] 2.10.5 Society and culture Coprophagia is depicted in pornography, usually under the term scat (from scatology).* [14] The 120 Days of Sodom, a novel by the Marquis de Sade written in 1785, is replete with detailed descriptions of erotic sadomasochistic coprophagia.* [15] Thomas Pynchon's award winning 1973 novel Gravity's Rainbow contains a detailed scene of coprophagia.* [16] François Rabelais, in his classic Gargantua and Pantagruel, often employs the expression mâche-merde or mâchemerde, meaning shit-chewer. It is in turn a citation of the Greek comedians Aristophanes and particularly Menander, which often use the term skatophagos (σκατοϕάγος).* [17] In one dialogue, Rabelais speaks of coprophagia as a Christian gesture, saying that monks swallow the shit of the world, that is the sins, and for this they are ostracized by society.* [18] The young of elephants, giant pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the feces of their mothers or other animals in the herd to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest 2.10.6 See also vegetation found on their ecosystems.* [10] When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria, they • Fecal-oral route, a route of disease transmission are sterile. Without them, they would be unable to obtain • Fecal bacteriotherapy any nutritional value from plants. Hamsters, guinea pigs, chinchillas and naked mole-rat eat • Coprophilous fungi their own droppings, which are thought to be a source of • Scatophagidae vitamins B and K, produced by gut bacteria. Gorillas and chimpanzees eat their own feces and the feces of other gorillas and chimpanzees. This may serve to improve ab2.10.7 References sorption of vitamins or of nutritive elements made avail* able from the re-ingestion of seeds. [11] [1] Coprophagia. (2012). Dictionary.com September 2, 2012, from link Pigs sometimes eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semi-digested matter, including their [2] Hirakawa, H (2001). “Coprophagy in leporids and other own. In some cultures, it was common for poor families mammalian herbivores”. Mammal Review 31 (1): 61–80. to collect horse feces to feed their pigs, which contributes doi:10.1046/j.1365-2907.2001.00079.x. to the risk of parasite infection. 2.10.3 Plants Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes, obtain nourishment from the feces of commensal animals. 2.10.4 History Lewin reported that "... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a [3] Harada KI, Yamamoto K, Saito T. (2006). “Effective treatment of coprophagia in a patient with schizophrenia with the novel atypical antipsychotic drug perospirone” . Pharmacopsychiatry 39 (3): 113. doi:10.1055/s-2006941487. PMID 16721701. [4] Wise, T.N., and R.L. Goldberg (1995). “Escalation of a fetish: coprophagia in a nonpsychotic adult of normal intelligence”. J Sex Marital Ther 21 (4): 272–5. doi:10.1080/00926239508414647. PMID 8789509. [5] Rose, E.A., Porcerelli, J.H., & Neale, A.V. (2000).“Pica: Common but commonly missed”. The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 13 (5): 353–358. PMID 11001006. 2.11. CRATE TRAINING [6] Noda, S., Kitade, O., Inoue, T., Kawai, M., Kanuka, M., Hiroshima, K., Hongoh, Y., Constantino, R., Uys, V., Zhong, J., Kudo, T. and Ohkuma, M. (2007). “Cospeciation in the triplex symbiosis of termite gut protists (Pseudotrichonympha spp.), their hosts, and their bacterial endosymbionts.”. Molecular Ecology 16 (6): 1257–1266. 89 it is introduced properly. The initial stress from being confined can give way to“increased feelings of security, safety, and comfort”after repeated exposure to the crate. Long term or excessive crate confinement “may lead to emotional and behavioral deterioration over time.”* [1] [7]“rabbit”. Encyclopædia Britannica (Standard ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. [8] The Private Life of the Rabbit, R. M. Lockley, 1964. Chapter 10. [9] FDA Urged to Ban Feeding Chicken Litter to Cattle, 2009-11-02, L.A. Times [10] “BBC Nature ̶Dung eater videos, news and facts”. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-27. [11] “Nutritional Aspects of the Diet of Wild Gorillas”. Retrieved 2013-06-29. [12] Lewin, Ralph A. (2001). “More on merde”. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 44 (4): 594–607. doi:10.1353/pbm.2001.0067. PMID 11600805. [13] notes to The Works of Francis Rabelais, Volume II, Volume 2, p. 56 [14] Holmes, Ronald M. Sex Crimes: Patterns and Behavior. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. p. 244. ISBN 07619-2417-5. OCLC 47893709. [15] le Marquis de Sade (1785) Les 120 journées de Sodome, ou L'École du Libertinage [16] Thomas Pynchon (1973) Gravity's Rainbow, Part 2, episode 4. A dog in a wire crate strapped into a car for safe traveling. 2.11.1 Rationale Proponents of crate training argue that dogs are den animals and that the crate acts as a substitute for a den. While this is a widely held belief, there is little evidence to support it.* [1] Borchelt (1984) states:* [1] [17] Rabelais, Book 1, ch. 40 and Book 3 chap. 25 [18] Rabelais, Book 1, ch. 40 quote: “ilz mangent la merde du monde, c'est à dire, les pechez” 2.10.8 External links • King County, Washington, Animal Control Section. “Eating His Own or Other Animal Feces.” • Coprophagia in Dogs (ASPCA's Virtual Pet Behaviorist) The average dog book refers to dogs as “den dwelling”animals and presumes that confining imparts a feeling of security to a puppy. Dogs, in fact, are not den dwelling animals, although in a variety of canids the dam will construct a nest (often underground) for the pups. The nest is a defense against predators and protection against inclement weather. The pups use it as a“home base”from which they explore, investigate and play. There is no door on the den which encloses the pups for many hours.* [2] • Why Does My Dog Eat Feces? - Theresa A. Fuess, Nevertheless, once a dog gets used to a crate, they can Ph.D, College of Vet Medicine see it as a place of comfort and safety.* [1] The Humane Society recommends crate training to create a place of security and comfort for a dog, while cautioning that it is 2.11 Crate training not the best solution to animal behavior problems.* [3] Crate training is the process of teaching a pet to accept a dog crate or cage as a familiar and safe location. Advocates claim that dogs are den-dwelling animals and that a crate can become a den substitute. While this is a widely held belief, there is little evidence to support it. Regardless, most puppies can learn to tolerate crate training if 2.11.2 Crate selection It is important to pick a crate that is the correct size for the pet and is appropriate for its purpose. Often larger crates come with some sort of divider so that a crate can grow 90 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES with the pet. The correct size for a crate is just enough room for the animal to stand up without hitting their head, lay down and stretch out their paws and to turn around unimpeded. to dirty the place where they sleep, so they will try as much as possible to hold it while they are in their crate. Of course, young puppies can not control their bladders for long: about one hour for every month of age.* [9] A crate for use at home can be larger than one used Owners of young dogs will have to continue to take the for travel. Crates used for international transport puppy outside frequently. should adhere to international regulations stipulated by Locking the dog in a crate and letting it whine, bark and IATA.* [4]* [5] If the crate is too big the pet will be able attempt to escape is common but such attempts to into use one end for rest and sleep while using the other as troduce crate training may cause a negative association a toilet, it will undermine one of the purposes of crate with crating.* [1] The dog should become slowly accustraining.* [6]* [7] tomed to the crate. This can involve making a crate an A dogs natural instincts are to eliminate away from the inviting place by placing small familiar toys inside, movarea in which they eat and sleep. So if a crate is small ing the pet bed into crate, leaving unwashed items of the enough that they cannot possibly defecate while having owner's clothing inside, rewarding pets for entering the enough room to sleep well away from it, a dog will 'hold crate and remaining inside, incorporating the crate as part it' as long as they possibly can. It's this instinct we take of play, feeding the pet in the crate, allowing the pet to advantage of when using a crate as an aid for house train- explore and use the crate until it is no longer intimidating, and eventually building to the pet sleeping in the crate ing. overnight. During air travel, an oversized cage does not permit the pet to use the sides easily as a brace during turbu- Part of proper crate or cage training requires the pet lence.* [8] Likewise, crates that are too small pose a health owner to observe calm and relaxed behaviour around the crate. The pet will attribute any emotional responses such risk by restricting and preventing proper air-flow and ventilation. This is of particular concern to domestic pets as raised voices or other nervous behaviours to the foreign object in their normal environment. It is important of a brachycephalic (short-headed) breed where the requirement is to allow extra room due to the high inci- for the owner not to create any negative associations with the cage in order for the pet to accept the crate in a calm dence of death in these pets during transport. Due to their shortened airways and limited ability to cool themselves manner. through panting, overheating while traveling poses a risk to the health of such breeds. 2.11.4 Adverse effects Without proper conditioning, dogs may vocalize their distress and make efforts to escape the crates. Crating suppresses the dog's behavior, removes the dog's freedom of movement and is a negative punishment (removal of reward) under operant conditioning. Dogs who do not react well to negative punishment may find crating highly stressful. Long term or excessive crate confinement“may lead to emotional and behavioral deterioration over time.” To the extent that crating reduces the amount of exposure to different environmental and social situations, it can make dogs more reactive (fearful or aggressive) or intolerant of novel situations. Crating“may significantly exacerbate the distress and emotional reactivity associated with separation distress”. Behavioral problems that compels owners to crate train in the first place, may be exacerbated by the negative effects of crating.* [1] A dog may form a strong attachment to the crate eventually, feeling comfort and safety, after the initial feeling of distress and vulnerability. This behavioral effect has been A dog in a soft crate. compared to Stockholm syndrome. Dogs that are trained to sleep in a crate, when allowed to sleep in a bedroom, can show signs consistent with that of separation distress, 2.11.3 Training suggesting that dogs may love their crate “perhaps in some cases more than they love the owner.”This bond Crate training is often practiced with new puppies as a with the crate may interfere with the human-animal bond method of house-training. Puppies naturally do not want and exacerbate bond-related behavior problems such as 2.12. CYBER-ENHANCED WORKING DOG separation distress and owner-directed aggression.* [1] Steven Lindsay in Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training states that while“the role of crate confinement in the etiology of behavior problems has not been scientifically established [...] empirical impressions and logic dictate that it probably plays an important role in the development or exacerbation of many adjustment problems.”* [1] He argues that “the widespread practice of routinely caging a dog at night and then again during the day for periods totaling 16 to 18 hours (or more) is an extremely problematic practice that should not be condoned or encouraged, because it probably underlies the development of many adjustment problems, including aggression.”* [1] The purpose of crate training, he says,“should be to get the dog out of the crate as soon as possible, and to use the crate as little as possible in the service of training and space-management objectives.” 2.11.5 [8] http://www.dogfrt.co.nz/dog_cat_crate.htm [9] Spadafori, Gina (2001-02-25). “How long can a puppy “hold it”at night?". Petconnection.com. Retrieved 201111-03. [10] “How to look after your dog (in Swedish)". Swedish Board of Agriculture. 2012-09-24. Retrieved 2012-1009. [11] “Regulations and advice relating to the keeping of dogs and cats (in Swedish)". Swedish Board of Agriculture. Retrieved 6 January 2014. [12] “Reasons for regulations on the keeping of dogs and cats (in Swedish)". Swedish Board of Agriculture. Retrieved 6 January 2014. [13] “The cage is not a place for a dog (in Finnish)". Finnish Kennel Club. Retrieved 6 January 2014. Legislation In Sweden, regulations forbid keeping dogs in cages or other enclosures below a certain size. Exceptions are made for some situations, such as during travels or at dog shows/trials. Even then, the dogs have to be walked every two hours or three hours. The size required for an enclosure to be exempt from such regulations starts at 2m² (21.5 ft², about the area of a single/twin mattress.) for a small dog and up to 5.5m² (60 ft²) for a large dog.* [10]* [11]* [12] Similar regulations exist in Finland.* [13] 2.11.6 91 2.12 Cyber-Enhanced Dog Working The Cyber-Enhanced Working Dog (CEWD) is a fourpound dog harness that is wrapped around a work force dog, such as a search and rescue dog. In its current status, the apparatus is a prototype developed by computer tech researchers at North Carolina State University and it provides nearly 100 ways* [1] to communicate with a dog wearing one, through vibrations produced by the harness and voice commands sent through speakers. References The harness could help future dog search and rescues, it can detect for gas leaks and it is also equipped with mi[1] Lindsay, Steven R. (2005).“2: House Training, Destructive Behavior, and Appetitive Problems: Part 5: Crate crophones and cameras to help assist in rescues; it has training + 9: Cynopraxis: Theory, Philosophy, and Ethics: an eight hour battery life. The apparatus can also detect Part 3: Ethics and Philosophy”. Handbook of Applied the dog's stress level, which is considered both an imporDog Behavior and Training, 3 Procedures and Protocols. tant factor to establish how much to prolong a search and John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-8138-0754-9. rescue, as well as something that can shorten the dogʼs life. To work with a Cyber-Enhanced Working Dogs, it is [2] Borchelt, P. L.; Voith, V. L. (1982).“Diagnosis and treatnecessary for the dogs to be specifically trained.* [1]* [2] ment of separation-related behavior problems in dogs”. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Small animal practice 12 (4): 625–635. PMID 6984556. [3]“Crate Training,”Human Society of America,http://www.humanesociety.org/animals/dogs/ tips/crate_training.html [4] “Traveller's Pet Corner”. Iata.org. 2010-10-01. Retrieved 2011-11-03. [5] http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/cargo/live_animals/pets. htm [6] “Crate Training”. Thedogtrainingsecret.com. Retrieved 2011-11-03. [7] “Why use a dog crate”. labradortraininghq.com. Retrieved 2014-09-26. 2.12.1 References [1] Hahn, Jason. “This High-tech Harness Lets Humans and Dogs Communicate with Each Other.”. Digital Trends. Retrieved 10 November 2014. [2] Raphelson, Samantha (6 November 2014). “Weekly Innovation: Harness Could Allow Dogs, Humans To Communicate”. NPR. Retrieved 15 November 2014. 2.12.2 External links • Official press release 92 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.13 Defence Animal Centre Detection skills The Defence Animal Centre (DAC) is a training centre, based in Melton Mowbray, east Leicestershire, that trains animals (mainly dogs) for all three armedforces. It is also home of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps. The DAC now comes under command of the Royal School of Military Engineering. The dogs, often springer spaniels, Labradors and Belgian Shepherds are mainly trained as Detection dogs to detect drugs, bombs and ancillary parts. Substances the dogs are trained to detect include TNT, Cordtex, C-4 and Semtex.* [3] Supply of animals 2.13.1 History The Army moved in in 1946. RAF Police dogs began to be trained at the Centre from 1994, after merging RAF and Army dog training in April 1991. The Army School of Equitation's indoor riding school was opened by Princess Anne on 28 February 2008.* [1] 2.13.2 Function Organisation requirements It trains about 300 dogs a year, taking about four to six months to train. Some dogs are donated by the general public with the rest often purchased from both national and international vendors. The Services Veterinary Hospital looks after the health of all the dogs (Canine Training Squadron) and horses (Equine Training Squadron) of the UK armed forces (mainly the British Army). The site was used as a training ground for the London Olympics 2012 for cycling and equestrian events.* [4] In Combat In the field, some military (and police) dogs can be fitted with special bullet-proof vests to protect them.* [5] Army School of Farriery At the Centre is a School of Farriery (training to repair horseshoes), recognised by the Worshipful Company of Farriers and Farriers Registered Council. International farrier competitions are held at the Centre annually. 140 horses can be stabled at the Centre, with 260 out at grass in 240 acres (0.97 km2 ) of grazing.* [6] 2.13.3 References [1] “Calendar of the British Royals (February 2008)". Retrieved 15 April 2014. [2]“Pollok Country Park”. Glasgow City Council. Retrieved 15 April 2014. [3] “Bomb dogs”. Retrieved 15 April 2014. British Army Horse (Household Cavalry) on duty in London. [4] “Training camps of Leicester and Leicestershire”. Retrieved 15 April 2014. [5] “Canine vests”. Retrieved 15 April 2014. As well as British defence organisations, it prepares dogs for the UK Immigration Service, HM Prison Service, HM [6] “England Farriery team has a new manager”. Retrieved 15 April 2014. Revenue and Customs (former HM Customs and Excise), other UK government agencies and overseas agencies including Irish Revenue Customs Service. UK police dogs are trained in-house at nine regional training centres, such 2.13.4 External links as the Met's site at Keston and Scotland's centre at Pollok Country Park.* [2] • Defence Animal Centre 2.14. DETECTION DOG 2.14 Detection dog Detection dog training in U.S. Navy military for drug detection 93 A detection dog or sniffer dog is a dog that is trained to and works at using its senses (almost always the sense of smell) to detect substances such as explosives, illegal drugs, wildlife scat, or blood. Hunting dogs that search for game and search dogs that search for missing humans are generally not considered detection dogs. There is some overlap, as in the case of cadaver dogs, trained to search for human remains. Some police dogs that are used in drug raids are trained not only to locate narcotics, but also persons who may be hiding from the police, as well as stashed currency. Some detector dogs can locate contraband electronics, such as illicit mobile phones in prisons.* [2] In recent years, detection dogs have emerged as a valuable research tool for wildlife biologists. In California, dogs are trained to detect the quagga mussel on boats at public boat ramps, as it is an invasive species. Sniffer dogs have also been enlisted to find bumblebee nests. Other studies have employed detection dogs for the purposes of finding and collecting the feces of a diverse array of species, including caribou,* [3] black-footed ferret, killer whale, and Oregon spotted frog. 2.14.1 Functions An explosive detection dog with a member of the British Royal Engineers (France, 1944). Such dogs were used during World War 2 to find German "Shoe Mines", which were made from wood and otherwise difficult to detect* [1] A detection dog searches a car for explosives at a checkpoint in Washington DC Detection dogs have been trained to search for many things, both animate and inanimate, including: • Endangered animal species (e.g., black-footed ferret,;* [4]* [5] The Bumblebee Conservation Trust has trained an English Springer Spaniel to detect bee colonies) • Invasive species (e.g., quagga mussel) • Human remains • Crime evidence A US Army handler and his scout dog in Vietnam (1960's) • Fire accelerants (i.e., arson investigation)* [6] 94 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES smeared with coffee, pepper and Vicks Vapo-rub. A sniffer dog can detect blood even if it has been scrubbed off surfaces. In one case, a sniffer dog sniffed a drop of blood on a wall although an attempt had been made to scrub it off. It was so small that it couldn't be seen without a microscope. In one study, sniffer dogs had a 97.5% correct positive indication rate on detecting bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and their eggs – with zero false positives – all while accurately distinguishing them from carpenter ants, cockroaches and termites. They could detect as few as a single adult specimen or 5 viable eggs, and were also able to discriminate live bed bugs and viable bed bug eggs from dead bed bugs, cast skins, and feces, with a 95% correct positive indication rate, with only a 3% false positive rate on bed bug feces.* [8] 2.14.2 Criticism Fruit inspection line-up in Devonport, Tasmania. Passengers leave their luggage between the yellow lines and the dog searches the luggage by smelling for fruit (2008) • Currency Their use has been criticized as allowing the police to conduct searches without cause, in a manner that is unregulated.* [9]* [10] They have been criticized as a form of show-policing, motivated more by the state's desire to be seen to be doing something than any serious attempt to respond to the dangers of drug use.* [11] In 2001 the Australian state of New South Wales introduced legislation to provide police with powers to use Explosives drug detection dogs without a warrant in public places such as licensed venues, music festivals and public transFirearms port.* [12] Repealed in 2005, it was reviewed in 2006 by * the New South Wales Ombudsman, who handed down a Mobile phones (as contraband in prisons) [7] report highly critical of the use of dogs for drug detection. The report stated that prohibited drugs were found Mold in only 26% of searches following an indication by a drug Plants, animals, produce, and agricultural items sniffer dog. Of these, 84% were for small amounts of (used by customs services) cannabis deemed for personal use. The report also found that the legislation was ineffective at detecting persons Polycarbonate optical discs such as DVDs (e.g., in supply of prohibited drugs, with only 0.19% of indibootleg recordings) cations ultimately leading to a successful prosecution for supply.* [13]* [14] Termites • Drugs • • • • • • • • Bed bugs • Wildlife scat • Cancerous tumors in humans Norway • Hypoglycemic (low blood sugar) emergencies in hu- During a 3-year period (from 2008)“probably more than mans 1000 pupils in about 90 classrooms”had been subjected to a drug dog coming into a classroom”where it was“volOne notable quality of detection dogs is that they are untary for pupils to be present with the drug dog, but those able to discern individual scents even when the scents are who want to leave the classroom must answer some quescombined or masked by other odors. In one case at an tions to police”.* [15] An article in Tidsskrift for strafAustralian prison, a detection dog foiled an attempt to ferett, Norway's journal of criminal law, claims that such smuggle drugs that had been hidden in a woman's bra and searches breach Norwegian law.* [15] 2.14. DETECTION DOG 95 dogs by stating that the “reliability of the dogs has been impressive provided they are properly trained.”* [19] SciIn 2011, the Chicago Tribune reviewed the traffic stop entists at the university reviewed studies on the dogs and data from Chicago-area police departments, and found concluded that although expensive for operators, canine that “false alerts”were strongly biased against Hispanic detection dogs were promising. suspects.* [16] For example, in Naperville, Illinois, an Bed bug detection is complicated by the fact that the inaverage of 47% of all positive detection dog alerts resects can hide almost anywhere. Bed bug detection dogs sulted in subsequent discovery of narcotic drugs or drug solve this problem because they are small and agile, findparaphernalia. Looking specifically at Hispanic suspects, ing bugs in places humans cannot such as wall voids, however, only 8% of the dogs' positive alerts resulted in crevices and furniture gaps. similarly fruitful searches. The report concedes that some – but not all – of this disparity can be attributed to“resid- With the increase in global travel and shared living acual odors”, which linger even after contraband is removed commodations, bed bugs have become more prevalent. from the vehicle. But given that the dogs themselves har- The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency held a bed * bor no racial bias, the Tribune concludes that the dogs' re- bug summit [20] in April 2009 to address the ongoing sponse is influenced by the biases and behaviors of their problem of bed bugs and how to eradicate them. The handlers. Further still, the report points to the fact that certification of bed bug detection dogs was discussed. very few states have mandatory training, testing or certification standards.* [16] • NPR's All Things Considered Using Dogs to Sniff Out Bed Bugs In June 2012, three Nevada Highway Patrol officers filed suit against Nevada's Director of Public Safety, alleging • Fox Philadelphia Bed Bug Dog and Bed Bug Control that he destroyed the police dog program by intentionally Experts discussing use of Bed Bug Dogs training canines to be “trick ponies”– to falsely alert based on cues from their handlers – so as to enable officers to conduct illegal searches of vehicles. The lawsuit claims that in so doing, he and other top Highway Patrol 2.14.4 Wildlife scat detection officers had violated the federal Racketeer Influenced and Scat is abundant in the wild and contains valuable Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act.* [17] data.* [21]* [22] Additionally, it represents a fairly noninvasive method of study for many species where previously live-capture predominated. Compared with other 2.14.3 Bed bug detection dogs methods of scat collection, dogs are able to survey larger * Bed bug detection dogs are specially trained by handlers areas in less time, at decreased costs. [23] Detection dogs have also been used with success to locate killer to identify the scent of bed bugs. whale feces,* [24] northern spotted owl pellets,* [25] and With the increased focus on green pest management and salamanders.* [26] integrated pest management, bed bug detection dogs are gaining popularity in North America. Dogs are a safer alternative to pesticide use as a management strategy. If 2.14.5 See also operators can find out exactly where bed bugs are located, they can minimize the area that needs to be sprayed. Dogs • Canine cancer detection smell in parts per trillion, something a human cannot do, and detect bed bugs through all life cycle phases from eggs • Demining to nymphs to adults. • Dogs in warfare Bed bug detection dogs are quickly becoming mainUnited States stream. In 2011 the National Pest Management Association released their“Bed Bug Best Management Practices” * [18] which outline the minimum recommendations regarding not only treatment, but the certification and use of bed bug detection canines. The NPMA Best Management Practices emphasize the importance of having a bed bug detection dog team certified by a third party organization with no affiliation to the trainer or company that sold the canine. Bed bug detection dogs are a viable and scientificallyproven alternative to traditional methods of pest detection. A 2008 report by the University of Kentucky Department of Entomology endorsed bed bug detection • Florida v. Harris • Florida v. Jardines • Hypo alert dog • Lucky and Flo – The world's first optical disc-detecting dogs. • Mine clearance agency • Nosework • Police dog 96 2.14.6 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES References [1] “THE BRITISH ARMY IN NORMANDY 1944”. Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 22 September 2014. [2] Jenkins, Austin (22 July 2009). “KPLU: Dogs Used to Sniff Out Cell Phones in NW Prisons”. Publicbroadcasting.net. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2010. [3] Wasser, Samuel K; Keim, Jonah L; Taper, Mark L; Lele, Subhash R (2011). “The influences of wolf predation, habitat loss, and human activity on caribou and moose in the Alberta oil sands”. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9 (10): 546–51. doi:10.1890/100071. [4] Reindl-Thompson, Sara A.; Shivik, John A.; Whitelaw, Alice; Hurt, Aimee; Higgins, Kenneth F. (2006). “Efficacy of Scent Dogs in Detecting Black-Footed Ferrets at a Reintroduction Site in South Dakota”. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34 (5): 1435–9. doi:10.2193/00917648(2006)34[1435:EOSDID]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4134282. [5] King, Anthony (24 August 2013). “The nose knows”. New Scientist. [6] “CADA Home Page”. Canine Accelerant Detection Association (CADA). Retrieved 10 November 2013. [7] Anderson, Jessica (10 July 2008). “Prisons enlist dogs to keep out phones: Canines part of effort to keep contraband out of state facilities”. Baltimore Sun. [8] Tsutsui, Neil D.; Choe, Dong-Hwan; Sutherland, Andrew M.; Tabuchi, Robin L.; Moore, Sara E.; Lewis, Vernard R. (2013). “Researchers combat resurgence of bed bug in behavioral studies and monitor trials”. California Agriculture 67 (3): 172–8. doi:10.3733/ca.v067n03p172. [9] Saville, Sebastian (9 July 2008). “Sniffer dog checks bite into our civil liberties”. The Guardian. Retrieved 1 May 2010. [10] Marks, Amber (31 March 2008). “Smells suspicious”. The Guardian. Retrieved 1 May 2010. [11] Race, K (2009). Pleasure Consuming Medicine: The queer politics of drugs. Durham: Duke University Press. [12] “Police Powers (Drug Detection Dogs) Act 2001 No 115” . New South Wales. 14 December 2001. Retrieved 10 November 2013. [13] “Review of the Police Powers (Drug Detection Dogs) Act 2001 No 115”. New South Wales Ombudsman. 14 September 2006. ISBN 1-921131-36-5. [14] Dunn, Matthew; Degenhardt, Louisa (2009). “The use of drug detection dogs in Sydney, Australia”. Drug and Alcohol Review 28 (6): 658–62. doi:10.1111/j.14653362.2009.00065.x. PMID 19930020. [15] Svarstad, Jørgen (19 November 2011). “Over 1000 osloelever narkosjekket”[Over 1000 Oslo students drug checked]. Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Retrieved 11 September 2012. [16] Hinkel, Dan; Mahr, Joe (6 January 2011).“Tribune analysis: Drug-sniffing dogs in traffic stops often wrong”. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 5 July 2014. [17] Vogel, Ed (26 June 2012). “Officers file suit alleging wrongdoing in police dog training program”. Las Vegas Review Journal. Retrieved 11 September 2012. [18] “NPMA Bed Bugs Best Management Practices website home page”. National Pest Management Association. 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2014. [19] Potter, Michael F; Romero, Alvero; Haynes, Kenneth F. “BATTLING BED BUGS IN THE USA” (PDF). International Conference on Urban Pests. Retrieved 5 July 2014. [20] “EPA's National Bed Bug Summit – April 14–15, 2009” (PDF). Retrieved 11 November 2010. [21] Wasser, S K; Risler, L; Wasser, L M (1986). “Use of techniques to extract steroid hormones from primate feces”. Primate Report 14: 194–195. [22] Wasser, S. K.; Monfort, S. L.; Wildt, D. E. (1991). “Rapid extraction of faecal steroids for measuring reproductive cyclicity and early pregnancy in free-ranging yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus)". Reproduction 92 (2): 415–23. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0920415. PMID 1886098. [23] Wasser, Samuel K; Davenport, Barbara; Ramage, Elizabeth R; Hunt, Kathleen E; Parker, Margaret; Clarke, Christine; Stenhouse, Gordon (2004). “Scat detection dogs in wildlife research and management: Application to grizzly and black bears in the Yellowhead Ecosystem, Alberta, Canada”. Canadian Journal of Zoology 82 (3): 475–92. doi:10.1139/z04-020. [24] Ayres, Katherine L.; Booth, Rebecca K.; Hempelmann, Jennifer A.; Koski, Kari L.; Emmons, Candice K.; Baird, Robin W.; Balcomb-Bartok, Kelley; Hanson, M. Bradley; Ford, Michael J.; Wasser, Samuel K. (2012). “Distinguishing the Impacts of Inadequate Prey and Vessel Traffic on an Endangered Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) Population”. PLoS ONE 7 (6): e36842. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736842A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036842. PMC 3368900. PMID 22701560. [25] Wasser, Samuel K.; Hayward, Lisa S.; Hartman, Jennifer; Booth, Rebecca K.; Broms, Kristin; Berg, Jodi; Seely, Elizabeth; Lewis, Lyle; Smith, Heath (2012). “Using Detection Dogs to Conduct Simultaneous Surveys of Northern Spotted (Strix occidentalis caurina) and Barred Owls (Strix varia)". PLoS ONE 7 (8): e42892. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742892W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042892. PMC 3419739. PMID 22916175. [26] “New Mexico Shelter Dogs Come to the Rescue for Rare Salamanders”. The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 5 July 2014. • Pentagon admits – Dogs are the best bomb detectors Media related to Detection dogs at Wikimedia Commons 2.15. DOG AGGRESSION 2.15 Dog aggression 97 level of aggression that their breed standard suggests. As well as breeding, a dog's experiences may affect his chance of developing dog aggression. A dog that is attacked as a puppy may develop fear-based dog aggression towards all dogs, or perhaps only towards dogs that resemble the dog that attacked him. Although people tend to bring these reactions out of dogs more often than dogs themselves, dogs only pay attention to what their owners allow. Dogs that display dog-aggressive behaviour do not necessarily show aggressive behaviour towards humans. The two types of aggression are not necessarily related, and do not always occur in the same animal. 2.15.1 Factors contributing to aggression Dog aggression as shown by Charles Darwin in his The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Dog aggression is a term used by dog owners and breeders to describe canine-to-canine antipathy. Aggression itself is usually defined by canine behaviorists as“the intent to do harm”. Many dogs show“displays of aggression”such as barking, growling, or snapping in the air, which are considered distance-increasing actions, those that intend to get the person or dog to move away from the dog. Some dog-aggressive dogs display aggression that is mainly defensive, and they harm another dog only if they perceive that they have no option. Yet, other dogs may develop dog-aggressive behaviour due to medical reasons, such as hormonal imbalances. Factors contributing to the likelihood of the development of dog aggression include:* [1]* [2] • Anxiety, fear or phobia • Lack of structure • Lack of proper exposure to other dogs during the critical socialization period • Early imprinting by an aggressive or nervous dam • A traumatic experience • Territorial behavior • Thyroid malfunction or other medical conditions • Abuse from owners • Medical or physical ailments • Breeding and genetic predisposition • Taken from mother too soon • Lack of clear direction from owner Tosa (dog) Dog aggression manifests at the age of adolescence to social maturity (6 months to 4 years). Warning signs such as fear and/or nervousness around other dogs, displays of aggression only under certain circumstances (while on leash, in the presence of food, in the presence of the owner, etc.), or most commonly, over-the-top play behavior can be seen at any stage of the dog's development. Play behavior such as tackling, chasing, mouthing, nipping, pawing, and wrestling are all normal canine behaviors that serve the evolutionary function of preparing the young dog for later combat and hunting. Young dogs that engage in excessive amounts of these behaviors are much more likely to develop dog aggression as they age. Dog aggression is a common dog behavior, and can be seen in all breeds of dogs. The breed standard usually spells out whether dog aggression is common in the breed and to what degree it is allowed. Most of the terrier breeds and the bull breeds are believed to have a higher likelihood of developing dog-aggression upon reaching Dog-dog aggression should not be confused with dogmaturity. Individual dogs may or may not display the human aggression (in the past, this was referred to as 98 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES “dominance”aggression when directed at the owner, but sociation to the stimulus than before. The final risk with is now simply called owner-directed aggression). punishment in treating aggression is that it runs the risk of Many people commonly mistake fear and anxiety-related punishing the aggressive display, such as growling, barkaggression as “dominance aggression,”which is inac- ing, baring teeth, etc., which are all warnings. Punishcurate. Dominance is rarely the cause of aggressive be- ment decreases behavior, but does not modify it, so the haviors in dogs, with fear and anxiety being the greatest dog may stop exhibiting aggressive displays (designed to increase distance between the dog and the stimulus) and cause of both dog- and human-directed aggression. skip straight to aggressive actions, such as biting. Lack of exercise is not a cause of aggressive behavior, although exercise boosts serotonin levels, which offsets “Dominance”based approaches are highly controversial stress hormones such as cortisol, and can complement a and more formal study is needed to validate these methbehavior modification program. However, it is a com- ods. Further, these approaches carry a greater risk of mon misbelief that aggressive dogs are “not exercised behavioral fallout, such as the escalation of the aggresenough.”Many aggressive dogs are exercised regularly. sive behavior and/or redirected aggression on the owner or other family members. Fading dog aggression 2.15.2 See also • Dog behaviourist The form that treatment for dog aggression takes depends on the underlying cause of the aggression, and an accurate • Game (dog) assessment is therefore essential. Most reputable trainers recommend that a dog has a vet screen for medical changes that may cause aggression before attempting any 2.15.3 References form of behavioural modification. [1] “Dog Aggression”. The Humane Society of the United Dogs that are aggressive from fear can be that way either States. 14 June 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2015. from genetic predisposition (“weak nerves”), or from a traumatic experience. With these dogs, a programme [2] “Aggressive Dog Training”. Help With Problem Dogs. K-9 Basics Dog Training. Retrieved 17 January 2015. of gradual desensitisation (DS) and counter-conditioning (CC) is often used to reduce the dog's reactivity to the stimulus that triggers the aggression. This can be accomplished through management (minimizing the dog's expo- 2.15.4 External links sure to situations where he can practice the behavior while • American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior working on the training program) food rewards, toy/play rewards and praise as a reward. Ignoring aggressive be• American College of Veterinary Behaviorists haviors is not standard or sound advice when implement• Article from ASPCA Virtual Pet Behaviorist on aging a DS/CC program. gression in dogs Behavior Adjustment Training (BAT) is a newly publicized treatment option that uses functional analysis and • Article from ASPCA Virtual Pet Behaviorist on systematic desensitization. With BAT, the dog's original working with dogs who are aggressive while on leash function of increasing (or decreasing) distance is used as a reinforcement for alternate behavior (head turns, ground sniffing, body turns, etc.). This is done by creating set-up 2.16 Dog behavior situations in which the dog is able to offer alternate behavior, and allowing/encouraging the dog to walk away. Dog behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms With repetition, the dog learns to turn her head, sniff the made by the domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, in conground, etc. as a way to increase distance without aggresjunction with themselves or their environment, which insion, and gradually becomes comfortable with the former cludes other organisms as well as the inanimate physical trigger. environment. It is the response of dogs to various stimuli Punishing aggressive behaviors through the use of leash or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or sub“corrections”or leash “pops”and/or the use of train- conscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. ing collars such as choke, prong or shock, is not recommended in cases of fear-based aggression, as these measures run a high risk of increasing the dog's anxiety in 2.16.1 Evolution/Domestication/Cothose situations. Further, it is difficult to control what the evolution with humans dog associates the punishment to, as it is often what the dog is looking at the moment it is corrected, so sloppy Main article: Origin of the domestic dog application of punishment can create a more negative as- 2.16. DOG BEHAVIOR 99 humans.* [9]* [10] As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. A resurgence of research in canine cognition has revealed the range (and variability) of skills such as following pointing and gaze cues* [11]* [12]* [13] fast mapping of novel words* [14] and the conjecture that dogs have emotions.* [15] In a problem solving experiment dominant dogs generally performed better than subordinate ones, but only when they observed a human demonstratorʼs action. This suggests that social rank affects performance in social learning situations and that in social groups with clear hierarchy, dominant individuals will be the more influential demonstrators and the knowledge transfer will, therefore, Dogs roughhousing. be unidirectional. If dog-human groups are regarded as social units with some type of internal hierarchy, humans The origin of the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris are usually considered as the leaders. In this scenario, or Canis familiaris) is not clear. Nuclear DNA evidence the human will be the most influential demonstrator for points to a single domestication 11,000-16,000 years ago the dominant dog. The subordinate dogs will learn better * that predates the rise of agriculture and implies that the from the dominant dog that is next in the hierarchy. [16] earliest dogs arose along with hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists.* [1] Mitochondrial DNA evidence points to a domestication 18,800-32,100 years ago and that all 2.16.3 Senses modern dogs are most closely related to ancient wolf fossils that have been found in Europe,* [2]* [3] compared Further information: Dog § senses to earlier hypotheses which proposed origins in Eurasia as well as Eastern Asia.* [4]* [5]* [6] The 2 recent genetic analyses indicate that the dog is not a descendant of the extant (i.e. living) gray wolf but forms a sister Vision clade, that the ancestor is an extinct wolf-like canid and the dog's genetic closeness to modern wolves is due to admixture.* [1]* [7] How dogs became domesticated is not clear, however the two main hypothesis are self-domestication or human domestication. There exists evidence of human-canine coevolution. 2.16.2 Cognition Frequency sensitivity compared with humans. Further information: Animal cognition Cognition is the set of all mental abilities and processes related to knowledge: attention, memory and working memory, judgement and evaluation, reasoning and "computation", problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of communication. Although dogs have been the subject of a great deal of behaviorist psychology (e.g. Pavlov's dog), they do not enter the world with a psychological “blank slate”. Rather, dog behavior is affected by genetic as well as environmental factors.* [8] As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000–30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with Like most mammals, dogs have only two types of cone photoreceptor, making them dichromats.* [17]* [18]* [19]* [20] These cone cells are maximally sensitive between 429 nm and 555 nm. Behavioural studies have shown that the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues and grays,* [20] but they have difficulty differentiating red and green making their color vision equivalent to red–green color blindness in humans (deuteranopia). When a human perceives an object as “red”, this object appears as “yellow”to the dog and the human perception of “green”appears as “white”, a shade of gray. This white region (the neutral point) occurs around 480 nm, the part of the spectrum which appears blue-green to humans. For dogs, wavelengths longer than the neutral point cannot 100 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES be distinguished from each other and all appear as Play yellow.* [20] The dog's visual system has evolved to aid proficient hunting.* [17] While a dog's visual acuity is poor (that of a poodle's has been estimated to translate to a Snellen rating of 20/75* [17]), their visual discrimination for moving objects is very high; dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate between humans (e.g., identifying their human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 metres (2,600 and 3,000 ft), however this range decreases to 500–600 metres (1,600–2,000 ft) if the object is stationary.* [17] Olfaction While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, the dog brain is dominated by an olfactory cortex. The olfactory bulb in dogs is roughly forty times bigger than the olfactory bulb in humans, relative to total brain size, with 125 to 220 million smell-sensitive receptors. The bloodhound exceeds this standard with nearly 300 million receptors.* [8] Hearing Playtime Dog-dog Play between dogs usually involves several behaviours that are often seen in aggressive encounters, for example, nipping, biting, growling and biting. It is therefore important for the dogs to place these behaviours in the context of play, rather than aggression. Dogs signal their intent to play with a range of behaviours including a “play-bow”,“face-paw” “open-mouthed play face”and postures inviting the other dog to chase the initiator. Similar signals are given throughout the play bout to maintain the context of the potentially aggressive activities.* [24] From a young age, dogs engage in play with one another. Dog play is made up primarily of mock fights. It is believed that this behavior, which is most common in puppies, is training for important behaviors later in life. Play between puppies is not necessarily a 50:50 symmetry of dominant and submissive roles between the individuals; dogs who engage in greater rates of dominant behaviours (e.g. chasing, forcing partners down) at later ages also initiate play at higher rates. This could imply that winning during play becomes more important as puppies mature.* [25] Anatomy of the ear. Dog-human The motivation for a dog to play with another dog is distinct from that of a dog playing with a human. Dogs walked together with opportunities to play with one another, play with their owners with the same frequency as dogs being walked alone. Dogs in households with two or more dogs play more often with their owners than dogs in households with a single dog, indicating the motivation to play with other dogs does not substitute for the motivation to play with humans.* [26] The frequency range of dog hearing is approximately 40 Hz to 60,000 Hz,* [21] which means that dogs can detect sounds far beyond the upper limit of the human auditory spectrum.* [19]* [21]* [22] In addition, dogs have ear mobility, which allows them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound.* [23] Eighteen or more muscles can tilt, rotate, raise, or lower a dog's ear. The ears are often used in communication of, for example, the dog's mood. A dog can identify a sound's location much faster It is a common misconception that winning and losing than a human can, as well as hear sounds at four times the games such as “tug-of-war”and “rough-and-tumble” distance.* [23] can can influence a dog's dominance relationship with humans. Rather, the way in which dogs play indicates their temperament and relationship with their owner. Dogs 2.16.4 Social behavior that play rough-and-tumble are more amenable and show lower separation anxiety than dogs which play other types Further information: Dog communication of games, and dogs playing tug-of-war and “fetch”are more confident. Dogs which start the majority of games 2.16. DOG BEHAVIOR are less amenable and more likely to be aggressive.* [27] Playing with humans can affect the cortisol levels of dogs. In one study, the cortisol responses of police dogs and border guard dogs was assessed after playing with their handlers. The cortisol concentrations of the police dogs increased, whereas the border guard dogs' hormone levels decreased. The researchers noted that during the play sessions, police officers were disciplining their dogs, whereas the border guards were truly playing with them, i.e this included bonding and affectionate behaviours. They commented that several studies have shown that behaviours associated with control, authority or aggression increase cortisol, whereas play and affiliative behaviour decrease cortisol levels.* [28] Empathy In 2012, a study found that dogs oriented toward their owner or a stranger more often when the person was pretending to cry than when they were talking or humming. When the stranger pre-tended to cry, rather than approaching their usual source of comfort, their owner, dogs sniffed, nuzzled and licked the stranger instead. The dogsʼ pattern of response was behaviorally consistent with an expression of empathic concern.* [29] Personalities 101 tus of the consistent winner is dominant and that of the loser subordinate.ʼʼ* [32] There is no reason to assume that a high-ranking individual in one group would also become high ranking if moved to another. Nor is there any good evidence thatʻʻdominanceʼʼis a lifelong character trait. Competitive behavior was characterized by confident (e.g. growl, inhibited bite, stand over, mount, stare at, chase, bark at) and submissive (e.g. crouch, avoid, displacement lick/yawn, run away) patterns exchanged.* [33] One test to ascertain which in a group was the dominant dog used the following criteria: When a stranger comes to the house, which dog starts to bark first or if they start to bark together, which dog barks more or longer? Which dog licks more often the other dogʼs mouth? If the dogs get food at the same time and at the same spot, which dog starts to eat first or eats the other dogʼs food? If the dogs start to fight, which dog wins usually?* [34] Domestic dogs appear to pay little attention to relative size, despite the large weight differences between the largest and smallest individuals; for example, size was not a predictor of the outcome of encounters between dogs meeting while being exercised by their owners nor was size correlated with neutered male dogs.* [35] Therefore, many dogs do not appear to pay much attention to the actual fighting ability of their opponent, presumably allowing differences in motivation (how much the dog values the resource) and perceived motivation (what the behavior of the other dog signifies about the likelihood that it will escalate) to play a much greater role.* [33] Several personality traits in dogs are recognised. These include“Playfulness”,“Curiosity/Fearlessness,“Chase- Two dogs that are contesting possession of a highly valued proneness”, “Sociability and Aggressiveness”and resource for the first time, if one is in a state of emotional arousal, or if one is in pain, or if reactivity is influenced “Shyness–Boldness”.* [30]* [31] by recent endocrine changes or motivational states such as hunger, then the outcome of the interaction may be different than if none of these factors were present. Equally, Leadership, dominance and social groups the threshold at which aggression is shown may be influenced by a range of medical factors, or, in some cases, precipitated entirely by pathological disorders. Hence, the contextual and physiological factors present when 2 dogs first encounter each other may profoundly influence the long-term nature of the relationship between those dogs. The complexity of the factors involved in this type of learning means that dogs may develop differentʻʻexpectationsʼʼabout the likely response of another individual for each resource in a range of different situations. Puppies learn early not to challenge an older dog and this respect stays with them into adulthood. When adult animals meet for the first time, they have no expectations of the behavior of the other: they will both, therefore, be Follow the leader initially anxious and vigilant in this encounter (characterDominance is a descriptive term for the relationships be- ized by the tense body posture and sudden movements tween pairs of individuals. Among ethologists, domi- typically seen when 2 dogs first meet), until they start to nance is normally defined as ʻ ʻan attribute of the pat- be able to predict the responses of the other individual. tern of repeated, agonistic interactions between two in- The outcome of these early adult–adult interactions will dividuals, characterized by a consistent outcome in fa- be influenced by the specific factors present at the time of vor of the same dyad member and a default yielding re- the initial encounters. As well as contextual and physiosponse of its opponent rather than escalation. The sta- logical factors, the previous experiences of each member 102 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES of the dyad of other dogs will also influence their behav- of humans, rather than their canine foster mother, though ior.* [33] the wolf puppies were the exact opposite, spending more time with their foster mother. The dogs also showed a greater interest in the food given to them and paid litFeral dogs tle attention to their surroundings, while the wolf puppies found their surroundings to be much more intriguing than In 2004, a study reviewed 5 other studies of feral dogs their food or food bowl. The wolf puppies were observed published between 1975 and 1995 and concluded that taking part in agonistic play at a younger age, while the their pack structure is very loose and rarely involves any dog puppies did not display dominant/submissive roles cooperative behavior, either in raising young or in obtain- until they were much older. The wolf puppies were rarely ing food.* [36] Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with seen as being aggressive to each other or towards the studies showing that unlike their wild cousins, they are other canines. On the other hand, the dog puppies were poor ungulate hunters, having little impact on wildlife much more aggressive to each other and other canines, populations where they are sympatric. However, feral often seen full-on attacking their foster mother or one andogs have been reported to be effective hunters of rep- other.* [41] tiles in the Galápagos Islands.* [37]* :267 2.16.5 Reproduction behavior Further information: Canine reproduction § The reproductive cycle and Canine reproduction § Copulation 2.16.8 Dogs in human society Further information: Human-canine bond Research has shown that there are individual differences in the interactions between dogs and their human masters that have significant effects on dog behavior. In 1997, a study showed that the type of relationship be2.16.6 Behavior problems tween dog and master, characterized as either companA survey of 203 dog owners in Melboourne, Australia, ionship or working relationship, significantly affected the found that the main behaviour problems reported by own- dog's performance on a cognitive problem-solving task. ers were overexcitement (63%) and jumping up on people They speculate that companion dogs have a more dependent relationship with their owners, and look to them to (56%).* [38] solve problems. In contrast, working dogs are more independent.* [42] Separation anxiety When dogs are separated from humans, usually the owner, they often display behaviours such as destructiveness, faecal or urinary elimination, hypersalivation or vocalisation. Dogs from single-owner homes are approximately 2.5 times more likely to have separation anxiety compared to dogs from multiple-owner homes. Futhermore, sexually intact dogs are only one third as likely to have separation anxiety as neutered dogs. The sex of dogs and whether their is another pet in the home do not have an affect on separation anxiety.* [39] 2.16.7 Dogs in the family Further information: Companion dog Dogs at work Service dogs are those that are trained to help people with disabilities. Detection dogs are trained to using their sense of smell to detect substances such as explosives, illegal drugs, wildlife scat, or blood. In science, dogs have Comparison of behavior with other helped humans understand about the conditioned reflex. canids 2.16.9 Attacks After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the Main article: Dog attack same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves In the UK between 2005 and 2013, there were 17 fatal do not.* [40] dog attacks. In 2007-08 there were 4,611 hospital adIn 1982, a study to observe the differences between dogs missions due to dog attacks, which increased to 5,221 in and wolves raised in similar conditions took place. The 2008-09. It has been estimated that more than 200,000 dog puppies preferred larger amounts of sleep at the be- people a year are bitten by dogs in England, with the anginning of their lives, while the wolf puppies were much nual cost to the National Health Service of treating inmore active. The dog puppies also preferred the company juries about £3 million.* [43] A report published in 2014 2.16. DOG BEHAVIOR 103 [2] Thalmann, O.; Shapiro, B.; Cui, P.; Schuenemann, V.J.; Sawyer, S.K.; Greenfield, D.L.; Germonpré, M.B.; Sablin, M.V.; López-Giráldez, F.; Domingo-Roura, X.; Napierala, H.; Uerpmann, H-P.; Loponte, D.M.; Acosta, A.A.; Giemsch, L.; Schmitz, R.W.; Worthington, B.; Buikstra, J.E.; Druzhkova, A.S.; Graphodatsky, A.S.; Ovodov, N.D.; Wahlberg, N.; Freedman, A.H.; Schweizer, R.M.; Koepfli, K.-P.; Leonard, J.A.; Meyer, M.; Krause, J.; Pääbo, S.; Green, R.E.; Wayne, Robert K. (15 November 2013). “Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Ancient Canids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs”. Science (AAAS) 342 (6160): 871–874. doi:10.1126/science.1243650. Retrieved 24 December 2014. A dog's teeth can inflict serious injuries stated there were 6,743 hospital admissions specifically caused by dog bites, a 5.8% increase from the 6,372 admissions in the previous 12 months.* [44] In the US between 1979 and 1996, there were more than 300 human dog bite-related fatalities.* [45] It is estimated that two percent of the US population, 4.7 million people, are bitten each year.* [46] In the US in 2013, there were 31 dog-bite related deaths. Each year, more than 4.5 million people in the US are bitten by dogs and almost 1 in 5 require medical attention.* [47] 2.16.10 See also • Alpha roll • Dog communication • Dog intelligence • Pack (canine) • Pack hunter • Separation anxiety disorder (humans) 2.16.11 References [1] Freedman, Adam H.; Gronau, Ilan; Schweizer, Rena M.; Ortega-Del Vecchyo, Diego; Han, Eunjung; Silva, Pedro M.; Galaverni, Marco; Fan, Zhenxin; Marx, Peter; Lorente-Galdos, Belen; Beale, Holly; Ramirez, Oscar; Hormozdiari, Farhad; Alkan, Can; Vilà, Carles; Squire, Kevin; Geffen, Eli; Kusak, Josip; Boyko, Adam R.; Parker, Heidi G.; Lee, Clarence; Tadigotla, Vasisht; Siepel, Adam; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Harkins, Timothy T.; Nelson, Stanley F.; Ostrander, Elaine A.; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Wayne, Robert K.; Novembre, John (16 January 2014). “Genome Sequencing Highlights Genes Under Selection and the Dynamic Early History of Dogs”. PLOS Genetics (PLOS Org) 10 (1): e1004016. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016. PMC 3894170. PMID 24453982. Retrieved December 8, 2014. [3] Wolpert, Stuart (November 14, 2013),“Dogs likely originated in Europe more than 18,000 years ago, UCLA biologists report”, UCLA News Room, retrieved December 10, 2014 [4] Wang, Xiaoming. Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History. Columbia University Press. pp. 233– 236. [5] Miklósi, Ãdám. Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. Oxford. p. 167. [6] Cossins, Dan (May 16, 2013),“Dogs and Human Evolving Together”, The Scientist, retrieved January 12, 2014 [7] Viegas, Jennifer (January 16, 2014),“Dogs Not as Close Kin to Wolves as Thought”, Discovery News, retrieved December 10, 2014 [8] Coren, Stanley (2004). How Dogs Think. First Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2232-6. [9] Shipman P (2011) The Animal Connection. A New Perspective on What Makes Us Human. New York: W.W. Norton and Co [10] Bradshaw J (2011) Dog Sense. How the New Science of Dog Behavior Can Make You a Better Friend. New York: Basic Books [11] Hare B, Brown M, Williamson C, Tomasello M (2002) The domestication of social cognition in dogs. Science 398: 1634–1636 [12] Hare B, Tomasello M (2005) Human-like social skills in dogs? Trends Cogn Sci 9: 439–444 [13] Teglas E, Gergely A, Kupan K, Miklosi A, Topal J (2012) Dogs' gaze following is tuned to human communicative signals. Current Biology 22: 209–212 [14] Kaminski J, Call J, Fischer J (2004) Word learning in a domestic dog: evidence for “fast mapping”. Science 304: 1682–1683 [15] Bekoff M (2007) The Emotional Lives of Animals. Novato: New World Publishers [16] Péter Pongrácz, Petra Bánhegyi and Ádám Miklósi (2012) When rank counts̶dominant dogs learn better from a human demonstrator in a two-action test ̶Behaviour 149 (2012) 111–132 104 [17] Coren, Stanley (2004). How Dogs Think. First Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2232-6. [18] A&E Television Networks (1998). Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E special presentation. A Lookout Book. GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9. [19] Alderton, David (1984). The Dog. Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0. [20] Jennifer Davis (1998). “Dr. P's Dog Training: Vision in Dogs & People”. Retrieved February 20, 2015. [21] Elert, Glenn; Timothy Condon (2003). “Frequency Range of Dog Hearing”. The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 22 October 2008. [22] “How well do dogs and other animals hear”. Retrieved 7 January 2008. [23] “Dog Sense of Hearing”. seefido.com. Retrieved 22 October 2008. [24] Horowitz, A. (2009). “Attention to attention in domestic dog Canis familiaris dyadic play.”. Animal Cognition 12: 107–118. [25] Ward, C., Bauer, E.B. and Smuts, B.B. (2008). “Partner preferences and asymmetries in social play among domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, littermates”. Animal Behaviour 76 (4): 1187–1199. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.06.004. [26] Rooney, N.J., Bradshaw, J.W.S. and Robinson, I.H. (2000).“A comparison of dog–dog and dog–human play behaviour.”. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 66 (3): 235–248. [27] Rooney, N.J. and Bradshaw, Jv.W.S. (2003). “Links between play and dominance and attachment dimensions of dog-human relationships.”. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6 (2): 67–94. doi:10.1207/S15327604JAWS0602_01. [28] Horváth, Z., Dóka, A. and Miklósi A. (2008).“Affiliative and disciplinary behavior of human handlers during play with their dog affects cortisol concentrations in opposite directions.”. Hormones and Behavior 54 (1): 107–114. [29] Custance, D; Mayer, J (2012). “Empathic-like responding by domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) to distress in humans: an exploratory study”. Anim Cogn.: 851–9. doi:10.1007/s10071-012-0510-1. [30] Svartberga, K. and Forkman, B. (2002). “Personality traits in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)". Applied Animal Behaviour Science 79 (2): 133–155. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00121-1. [31] Svartberg, K; Tapper, I; Temrin, H; Radesater, T; Thorman, S (February 2005). “Consistency of personality traits in dogs”. Animal Behaviour 69 (2): 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.04.011. [32] Drews, C., 1993. The concept and definition of dominance in animal behaviour. Behaviour. 125, 283-313 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES [33] John W. S. Bradshaw, Emily J. Blackwell, Rachel A. Casey (2009) Dominance in domestic dogs - useful construct or bad habit? Journal of Veterinary Behavior (2009) 4, 135-144 [34] Pongrácz, P., Vida, V., Bánhegyi, P. & Miklósi, Á. (2008). How does dominance rank status affect individual and social learning performance in the dog (Canis familiaris)?̶Anim. Cogn. 11: 75-82. [35] Bradshaw, J.W.S., Lea, A.M., 1993. Dyadic interactions between domestic dogs during exercise. Anthrozoo¨s. 5, 245-253 [36] van Kerkhove, W., 2004. A fresh look at the wolf-pack theory of companion-animal dog social behavior. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 7, 279-285 [37] Serpell, James (1995). “Origins of the dog: domestication and early history”. The Domestic Dog. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-41529-2. [38] Kobelt, A.J., Hemsworth, P.H., Barnett, J.L. and Coleman, G.J. (2003). “A survey of dog ownership in suburban Australia ̶conditions and behaviour problems.” . Applied Animal Behaviour Science 82 (2): 137–148. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(03)00062-5. [39] Flannigan, G. and Dodman, N.H.A (2001).“Risk factors and behaviors associated with separation anxiety in dogs” . Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219 (4): 460–466. doi:10.2460/javma.2001.219.460. [40] Miklósi, Adam; Kubinyi E; Topál J; Gácsi M; Virányi Z; Csányi V. (29 April 2003).“A simple reason for a big difference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do” . Current Biology;13(9) 13 (9): 763–6. PMID 12725735. [41] Frank H; Frank MG (1982). “On the effects of domestication on canine social development and behavior”. Applied Animal Ethology 8 (6): 507–525. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(82)90215-2. [42] Topál, J., Miklósi, Á. and Csányi, V. (1997). “Doghuman relationship affects problem solving behavior in the dog.”. Anthrozoös 10: 214–224. [43] Prynne, M. “Dog attack laws and statistics”. The Telegraph. Retrieved April 14, 2015. [44] “Dog bite hospitalisations highest in deprived areas”. NHS Choices. 2014. Retrieved April 14, 2015. [45] Sacks, J.J. (2000). “Breeds of dogs involved in fatal human attacks”. JAVMA 217 (6): 836–840. Retrieved April 14, 2015. [46] Questions and Answers about Dog Bites [47] “Infographic: Dog bites by the numbers”. AVMA. 2014. Retrieved April 14, 2015. [48] Statistics about dog bites in the USA and elsewhere 2.17. DOG BEHAVIOURIST 2.16.12 External links • • • 2.17 Dog behaviourist 105 and quantifiable behavioural events, in contrast with subjective mental states. A dog practitioner using a behavioural approach, regardless of title, typically works one-on-one with a dog and its owner. This may be carried out in the dog's home, the practitioner's office or the place where the dog is showing behavioural problems or a variety of these locations for different sessions during the treatment time. By observing the dog in his/her environment and skillfully interviewing the owner, the behaviourist creates a working hypothesis on what is motivating, and thus sustaining, the behaviour. Office bound behaviourists may be disadvantaged when it comes to assessing behavioural modification, as the dog may act very differently in different locations and interviewing owners, no matter how thorough, may not provide enough details. After establishing a motivating cause, the practitioner will develop a step-wise, goal-based plan to alter the behaviour in stages, continue their work with the pet owner to guide and make changes in the plan as the goals are met (or not) and conclude with a final write up of the case and its outcome. A dog behaviourist is a person who works in modifying or changing behavior in dogs. They can be experienced dog handlers, who have developed their experience over many years of hands-on experience, or have formal training up to degree level. Some have backgrounds in veterinary science, animal science, zoology, sociology, biology, or animal behavior, and have applied their experience and knowledge to the interaction between humans and dogs. Professional certification may be offered through either industry associations or local educational institutions. There is however no compulsion for behaviorists to be a member of a professional body nor to take The methods and tools of the behaviourist will depend on several factors including the dog's temperament, the formal training. behaviourist's personal philosophy on training, the behaviourist's experience, and the behavioural problems be2.17.1 Overview ing addressed. At one end of the spectrum, some behaviourists attempt to train dogs, refraining from the While any person who works to modify a dog's behaviour use of aversive or coercive methods (and the tools asmight be considered a dog behaviourist in the broadest sociated with them, such as choke, prong/pinch or elecsense of the term, an animal behaviourist, is a title given tric shock collars, kicking, hitting, poking, staring, shakonly to individuals who have obtained graduate degrees ing, or rolling), choosing instead to rely on reward-based in a related field and obtained post-graduate certifica- methods. Dog behaviourists and dog trainers with a tion.* [1] The professional fields and course of study for knowledge of how to approach training in a behavioural dog behaviorists include, but are not limited to animal sci- way usually do not offer guaranteed results. ence, zoology, sociology, biology, psychology, ethology, Other behaviourists believe that the use of verbal correcand veterinary science. People with these credentials usutions, head collars, correction collars, or electric collars ally refer to themselves as Applied Animal Behaviourists are necessary or useful when treating particular dogs or (PhD) or Veterinary Behaviorists (veterinary degree). If particular behavioural problems. The general philosophy they limit their practice to a particular species, they might in use is to avoid methods that could cause confusion, refer to themselves as a dog/cat/bird behaviorist. fear, pain and anything other than mild stressors. Dog While there are many dog trainers who work with be- trainers who use these techniques may or may not be utilhavioral issues, there are relatively few actual dog behav- ising a behavioural approach and may or may not have an iorists. For the majority of the general public, the cost understanding of the science behind behaviour modificaof the services of a dog behaviorist usually reflects both tion. Dog behaviourists who lack professional credentials the supply/demand inequity, as well as the level of train- are generally dog trainers who have developed their exing they have obtained, generally making their fees cost- pertise for working with problem dogs over many years of prohibitive. Professional behaviorists can be identified by hands-on experience. They may or may not have studied the post-nominals“CAAB”, indicating that they are Cer- behaviour formally in college or any dog training school. tified Applied Animal Behaviorists, or “AVSAB CertiThe differences between a dog behavioural problem and a fied”, which represents the term, American Veterinary dog training problem may be difficult for some dog ownSociety of Animal Behaviour Certified. ers to understand, due to the lack of a formal definition. At the same time, the dog training techniques utilised by dog trainers and behaviourists may often compete when 2.17.2 Discipline considering which practitioner is better qualified to meet Behaviourism is the theory or doctrine that human or an- the dog's or owner's needs. The disciplines of dog trainimal psychology can be accurately studied only through ers who follow a behavioural approach, informed by the the examination and analysis of objectively observable study of the science of behaviour modification, is often 106 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES juxtaposed against dog trainers who present themselves as experts at solving behavioural problems. The discussion and assessment, for some, may be more about appropriate methods and tools, rather than use of the term behaviourist. It is thought that dog trainers who study behaviour, tend to refrain from referring to themselves as behaviourists, because they are aware that the title would be inappropriate. 2.17.3 2.18 Dog bite tug Professional associations In order to assist dog owners and trainers understand and utilise this behavioural training or become certified in the practice, professional associations dedicated to the development of behavioural dog training offer tools to further their development. Different associations have different standards, goals, and requirements for membership. Board-certified veterinary behaviourists are required to pass a credentialing application and exam to be recognised as board-certified in the view of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Behaviourists may work and study towards formal accreditation with one of the many colleges providing training. Some associations might require accreditation to join, while others Malinois playing with dog bite tug made of French linen may require a declaration of intent for continuing personal development. Accreditation, may also be offered through local colleges and educational institutions. 2.17.4 See also • B.F. Skinner • Ivan Pavlov • John Broadus Watson • Dr. Tarek Sabrouty 2.17.5 References [1] “Behaviorism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-06-18. 2.17.6 External links • http://paact.co.uk • http://iaabc.org • http://cfba.co.uk • http://www.petfinder.com/dogs/dog-health/ veterinary-behaviorist Dog bite tug made of fire hose for puppy and adult dog training A bite tug is an important drive and retrieve building tool used in dog training. It is used for police, military and Schutzhund dog training.* [1] Bite tugs are perfect for puppies but can be used for training adult dogs as well.* [2] A bite tug is a good alternative to a solid rubber ball. The latter one is hard on dog's teeth and in situation when a puppy is accidentally hit in the head with a hard rubber ball he can lose drive. If the same dog is hit by a tug he disregards the situation and keeps chasing in drive. Bite pillows are larger tugs which are used for precision bite work training. Bite pillows are more safe and increase accuracy in bite work.* [3] 2.18.1 Materials • http://whentostarttrainingapuppy.com/dogs/ dog-training/The Best Guide Review When Start Traditionally, bite tugs are made of leather, jute, fire hose, Training A puppy synthetic fibers, etc.* [4] The harder the material a bite tug 2.19. DOG SURFING is made of the more efforts a dog needs to exert. Durability of a bite tug depends upon quality of materials used to make it. Natural fabrics like leather and jute are safe and non-toxic. Bite tugs made of the natural materials will not endanger a dog's health and dog's teeth in particular. Bite tugs are heavy stuffed with safe materials. Still, it is prohibited to leave a dog with a bite tug alone because a dog can tear it apart and have serious health problems or even choke with the stuffing. 2.18.2 Size and design 107 ment can be with treats or the bite tug can be given to a dog for some time as a reward. 2.18.4 Adult dog training The smallest tug is suitable for the training of the kind. Long tugs will not be effective as adult dogs can easily grab them. Bite tugs with handles are easy to use. Tug should be moved very fast so that a dog can not get at it. Short quick movements make a dog move fast. Exercises of this kind help to develop drive. 2.18.5 See also • Dog training • Obedience training • Police dog 2.18.6 References [1] Police dog equipment Jute bite pad for dog training [2] “Bite Training Puppies 8 Weeks and Older”. Leerburg. Retrieved 7 December 2012. [3] “Bite Tugs & Pillows”. ActiveDogs. Retrieved 20 March There are various dimensions of dog bite tugs. They vary 2014. in length and diameter. There are bite tugs with one, two, three handles or with no handle at all. Usually, a dog [4] “Materials that are used in bite tug production”. ForDogTrainers. Retrieved 7 December 2012. trainer chooses a bite tug and its design himself relying on his preferences. There are bite tugs with special bags in which treats can be stored. 2.18.7 External links 2.18.3 Puppy training with a bite tug • GSD bite training 2.19 Dog surfing Leather bite tug for prey drive and retrieve skills building Long bite tugs are used for puppies. The longer it is the easier for a puppy to bite it. Two-month-old puppy can A dog surfing with a person in Maui, Hawaii be already trained with a bite tug. Bite tugs suitable for obedience training as well. It is always necessary to en- Dog surfing involves dogs that are trained to surf on courage a dog for his efforts and attention. Encourage- surfboards, bodyboards, skimboards, windsurf boards 108 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES or to bodysurf. Historically, surfing dogs have been documented as occurring as early as the 1920s in the United States. Competitions and exhibitions that feature surfing dogs have occurred in various coastal areas of the United States,* [1]* [2]* [3] such as Del Mar, California,* [4] Imperial Beach, California and Jupiter, Florida.* [2] surfing together on one surfboard.* [16] In June 2012, fifty dogs participated, and three Guinness World Records were broken, including a new record of eighteen for the most dogs photographed on a surfboard.* [17] 2.19.1 In 2012, the Incredible Dog Challenge dog surfing competition was held in San Diego, California.* [20] Overview Dog surfing involves dogs that are trained to surf on surfboards or bodyboards,* [5] either alone* [1]* [6] or with a human on the board.* [7] Some dogs have been trained to ride a skimboard on the shore (after the board is initially skimmed by a human) and to windsurf with a human,* [8] and bodysurfing dogs have also been documented in surfing media.* [5] Additionally, some dogs have been trained to ride on paddleboards with people.* [9] An annual dog surfing competition titled “Surf City Surf Dog competition”is held in Huntington Beach, California.* [18] The first competition occurred in October 2009.* [19] In July 2013, the Big Dog Ranch Rescue in Wellington, Florida presented its first“Surfs Up, Dogs”competition as a fundraiser for the non-profit organization.* [21] The competition was held in Jupiter, Florida.* [2] Since 2012, the Noosa Festival of Surfing held each March in Noosa, Australia has played host to the Surfing Dog Spectacular sponsored by local business VetShopAustralia.com.au. The Noosa Surfing Dog Spectacular is an invitational event, where dogs and humans work together on stand up paddle boards (SUPs) with the prize 2.19.2 History chosen by surfing legends such as Layne Beachley, and Dog surfing has been documented as occurring in the given to the dog/person combination that catches the best * * 1920s in California and Hawaii.* [10] In the 1930s, a wave. [22] [23] The winner of the 2015 event, was a dog silent film titled On The Waves in Waikiki depicts Phillip called Hugsley, surfing with his owner Paul Jones and his * K. Auna and Night Hawk, his terrier, surfing together on daughter Opal. [24] * a wooden surfboard in Hawaii. [11] The terrier was able to perform the hang ten surfing maneuver on the surfboard.* [11] In 1944, a full page image of a surfing dog 2.19.4 See also named “Rusty”was published in National Geographic • Index of surfing articles magazine.* [5] In the 1950s, UPI published a photograph of Joseph “Scooter Boy”Kaopuiki and his dog Sandy • List of dog sports surfing in Hawaii, which was published in newspapers throughout the United States.* [5] During this time, they • Skateboarding dog were also reported about on the television show You Asked For It!.* [5] Dave Chalmers and his surfing terrier mix named Max, both from San Diego, California, were fea- 2.19.5 References tured in several forms of media in the late 1970s through the 1980s, including surf movies and a television appear- [1] Lloyd, Janice (January 25, 2010). "'Marmaduke' catches a wave with owners that surf with dogs”. USA Today. ance on the show Amazing Animals.* [5] A Labrador Retriever named Kam was documented in Honolulu, Hawaii surfing partially lying down while simultaneously drinking from a bottle of beer.* [5] 2.19.3 Competitions In dog surfing competitions, judging criteria may include the dog's overall certainty on the board, wave size and ride length.* [12] The Loews Coronado Bay Resort Surf Dog Competition at Imperial Beach in California has been described as the largest dog surfing competition in the United States.* [13] The first competition was held in 2006.* [10] In 2011, over fifty dogs participated,* [14] and the competition categorized entries by small dogs, large dogs and tandem dogs.* [15] Tandem surfing involves two or more dogs Retrieved 28 July 2013. [2] Sorentrue, Jennifer (July 6, 2013). “Dogs hang 10 at Jupiter surfing competition”. The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved 28 July 2013. (subscription required) [3] “Surfing season goes to the dogs”. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. May 22, 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [4] “Dogs learn to surf in Del Mar”. ABC Channel 10 News (San Diego). June 29, 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [5] Warshaw, Matt (2005). The Encyclopedia Of Surfing. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 159. ISBN 0156032511 [6] Goldish 2012, pp. 10–11. [7] “New breed of surfer hits the waves as dog boardriding features at Noosa Festival of Surfing”. The Courier Mail. March 10, 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2013. 2.20. DOG–CAT RELATIONSHIP 109 [8] Sundance, Kyra (October 1, 2010). 101 Ways to Do More with Your Dog! Quarry Books. pp. 69–70. ISBN 1610580702 [9] Rhodes-Delgado, Gabriella (July 16, 2013). “We knew she was barking! Leilani takes her dog surfing in a lifejacket”. The Sun. Retrieved 29 July 2013. [10] Goldish 2012, p. 8. 2.19.7 Further reading • “1st Annual Dog Surfing Competition at Jupiter Beach (gallery)". The Palm Beach Post. Retrieved 28 July 2013. 2.19.8 External links [11] Goldish 2012, p. 9. [12] Cole-MacMurray, Kirsten; Nishimoto, Stephanie (January 19, 2011). See Spot Run: 100 Ways to Work Out with Your Dog. Quarry Books. p. 122. ISBN 1610580974 [13] (staff reporter) (July 2, 2008). “Some old sea dogs show they're really cool canines by taking part in a surf competition for mutts”. Daily Mail. Retrieved 28 July 2013. • Surf Dogs USA 2.20 Dog–cat relationship [14] Gillis, Carly (June 6, 2011). “Loews Coronado Bay Resort Surf Dog Competition Supports DonorsChoose.org” . Huffington Post. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [15] “Dogs take to the waves for Californian surfing competition”. The Daily Telegraph. June 5, 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [16] Goldish 2012, p. 6. [17] Harding, Jillian (June 18, 2012). “Loews Coronado Bay Resort Surf Dog event saw spirited canine competition”. PhillyBurbs.com. Retrieved 28 July 2013. A dog and a cat face off. The cat is displaying defensive posture typical of interactions between a cat and dog that have not been socialized. [18] Goldish 2012, p. 4. [19] Barnett, Lindsay (October 13, 2009). “Your morning adorable: Dogs compete for charity at Huntington Beach's Surf City Surf Dog event”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [20] “King, a nine-year-old golden retriever rides a wave while surfing in the Incredible Dog Challenge dog surfing competition in San Diego”. Yahoo News. May 21, 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [21] Randall, Mark (July 28, 2013). “Surfing dogs hang ten” . Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 28 July 2013. [22] http://www.surfingdogspectacular.com. empty |title= (help) Missing or A kitten and a dog that have been socialized and interact with [23] http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/queensland/ each other without aggression. pets-become-surfing-stars-in-the-2015-surfing-dog-spectacular-20150304-13vanw. html. Missing or empty |title= (help) [24] http://www.surfingdogspectacular.com. empty |title= (help) 2.19.6 Bibliography Missing or Dogs and cats have a range of interactions,* [1] with natural instincts of each species leading towards antagonistic interactions; while individual animals can have non-aggressive relationships with each other, particularly under conditions where humans have socialized nonaggressive behaviors. • Goldish, Meish (August 1, 2012). Surf Dog Mira- The generally aggressive interactions between the species cles. Bearport Publishing. ISBN 1617726443 have been noted in cultural expressions. 110 2.20.1 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Range of relationships The signals and behaviors that cats and dogs use to communicate are different and can lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species.* [2] Dogs have a natural instinct to chase small prey that flee, an instinct common among cats.* [3] Most cats will flee from a dog, while others will take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog.* [3] After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.* [4] If appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic,* [4] and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs.* [5] Even cats and dogs that have gotten along together in the same household may revert to aggressive reactions due to external stimuli, illness, or play that escalates.* [6] 2.20.2 Cultural impact 2.20.4 References [1] Mikkel Becker (6 May 2012). “Cats and dogs can live together ̶with some help - today > pets - TODAY.com” . Today. Retrieved 25 June 2014. [2] Coren, Stanley (2008-12-02).“17 Are Dogs and Cats Incompetable (sic)". The Modern Dog: A Joyful Exploration of How We Live with Dogs Today. Simon and Schuster. pp. 139–. ISBN 9781416593683. Retrieved 2 November 2014. [3] Hotchner, Tracie (2005-11-03). The Dog Bible: Everything Your Dog Wants You to Know. Penguin Group US. pp. 792–. ISBN 9781440623080. Retrieved 23 June 2014. [4] Johnson-Bennett, Pam (2007-11-27). Starting from Scratch: How to Correct Behavior Problems in Your Adult Cat. Penguin. pp. 294–. ISBN 9781101201817. Retrieved 3 November 2014. [5] Houpt, Katherine A. (2011-01-25). Domestic Animal Behavior for Veterinarians and Animal Scientists. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 227–. ISBN 9780470958438. Retrieved 22 July 2014. The phrase “fight like cats and dogs”reflects a natural [6] Society, Best Friends Animal (2010-10-19). Dog Tips tendency for the relationship between the two species to From DogTown: A Relationship Manual for You and Your Dog. National Geographic Society. pp. 67–. ISBN be antagonistic.* [7] The phrase “to rain cats and dogs” 9781426206696. Retrieved 22 July 2014. comes from ancient beliefs that cats could make it rain and dogs controlled the wind.* [8]* [9] Other phrases and [7] Lang, J. Stephen (2004-11-08). 1,001 Things You Always proverbs include “The cat is mighty dignified until the Wanted To Know About Cats. John Wiley & Sons. pp. dog comes by”and “The cat and dog may kiss, but are 322–. ISBN 9780764573248. Retrieved 23 June 2014. none the better friends”.* [10] A Russian legend explains the antipathy between dogs and cats by stating that the devil has tricked the dog and cat into thinking the other has its rightful fur.* [11] Eugene Field's children's poem,“The Duel”, projects and amplifies the real life antipathy between cats and dogs on to a stuffed gingham dog and calico cat about whom the narrator has been told had an all-night fight during which they“ate each other up.”* [12] In Fam Ekman's children's book Katten's Shrekk (The Cat's Terror), a cat visits a museum to find that all of the artworks, like Mona Lisa and Venus de Milo, have been replaced by parodies featuring dogs. The only piece not converted is The Scream which “symbolizes the cat's terror in the face of so many dogs.” * [13] The American animated television series CatDog featured the adventures of the protagonist, CatDog, a genetically altered creature that had the head of a dog on one side of its body and the head of a cat on the other. The episodes frequently played on “cats and dogs being what they are”to incorporate “a lot of running and chasing”.* [14] 2.20.3 See also • Interspecies friendship [8] Berger, Melvin; Berger, Gilda (1999). Can it rain cats and dogs?: questions and answers about weather. Scholastic Reference. ISBN 9780439146425. Retrieved 22 July 2014. [9] Lee, Kaiman (2003-01-01). Cartoon-illustrated Metaphors: Idioms, Proverbs, Cliches, and Slang. Environmental Design & Research Ctr. pp. 92–. ISBN 9780915250486. Retrieved 22 July 2014. [10] Rogers, Katharine M. (2001-03-01). The Cat and the Human Imagination: Feline Images from Bast to Garfield. University of Michigan Press. pp. 143–. ISBN 9780472087501. Retrieved 22 July 2014. [11] Champfleury (1885). The Cat, Past and Present. G. Bell & sons. pp. 189–. Retrieved 22 July 2014. [12] Bauer, Susan Wise (2008-08-01). Writing with Ease. Peace Hill Press. pp. 160–. ISBN 9781933339290. Retrieved 23 July 2014. [13] Keyser, Elizabeth Lennox; Pfeiffer, Julie (2001). Children's Literature. Yale University Press. pp. 186–. ISBN 9780300088915. Retrieved 23 July 2014. [14] Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle F. (2009-06-24). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 1946-Present. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 225–. ISBN 9780307483201. Retrieved 23 July 2014. 2.22. DOGS IN WARFARE 111 2.21 Dogs in the City Dogs in the City is an American reality television series that premiered on May 30, 2012, on CBS in the United States.* [2] The series features New York City stand-up comedian, personal trainer, and self-proclaimed “dog guru”Justin Silver,* [3] who will help his clients solve various issues they are having with their pets. The show ended on July 11, 2012. 2.21.1 References [1] Dogs in the City put on short leash with series ending Wednesday with no bow wows | HULIQ [2] “CBS Announces New Reality Series “Dogs in the City,”Starring Justin Silver, New York City's Dog Guru Who Solves Issues Between Dog Owners and Their FourLegged Friends, Premiering May 30”. The Futon Critic. April 12, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2012. [3] “25 Pet People of 2010”. Petside. 2010. Retrieved July 2, 2012. 2.21.2 External links • Official website A Malinois in the Israel Defense Forces 2.22 Dogs in warfare Romans.* [1]* [2] The Molossus dog of the Molossia re“War dogs”redirects here. For other uses, see War Dogs. gion of Epirus was the strongest known to the Romans, Dogs in warfare have a long history starting in ancient and was specifically trained for battle.* [3] Among the Greeks and Romans, dogs served most often as sentries or patrols, though they were sometimes taken into battle.* [4] The earliest use of war dogs in a battle recorded in classical sources was by Alyattes of Lydia against the Cimmerians around 600 BC. The Lydian dogs killed some invaders and routed others.* [5] Often war dogs would be sent into battle with large protective spiked metal collars and coats of mail armor. A United States Air Force Belgian Malinois atop an M2A3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle in Iraq in 2007. During the Late Antiquity, Attila the Hun used giant Molosser dogs in his campaigns.* [1] Gifts of war dog breeding stock between European royalty were seen as suitable tokens for exchange throughout the Middle Ages. Other civilizations used armored dogs to defend caravans or attack enemies. The Spanish conquistadors used armored dogs that had been trained to kill natives.* [6] times. From 'war dogs' trained in combat to their use as In the Far East, Emperor Lê Lợi raised a pack of 100 scouts, sentries and trackers, their uses have been varied hounds, this pack was tended and trained by Nguyễn Xí and some continue to exist in modern military usage. whose skills was impressive enough to promote him to the Commander of a shock troop regiment. 2.22.1 History Later on, Frederick the Great used dogs as messengers during the Seven Years' War with Russia. Napoleon also War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, used dogs during his campaigns. Dogs were used up until Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and the 1770 to guard naval installations in France. 112 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES • 490 BC: At the Battle of Marathon, a dog follows his hoplite master into battle against the Persians and is memorialized in a mural.* [12] • 480 BC: Xerxes I of Persia is accompanied by vast packs of Indian hounds when he invades Greece. They may have served in the military as well as being used for sport or hunting, but their purpose is unrecorded.* [13] • 281 BC: Lysimachus is slain during the Battle of Corupedium and his body was discovered preserved on the battlefield and guarded vigilantly by his faithful dog.* [14] • 231 BC: the Roman consul Marcus Pomponius Matho, leading the Roman legions through the inland of Sardinia, where the inhabitants led guerrilla warfare against the invaders, used “dogs from Italy”to hunt out the natives who tried to hide in the caves.* [15] • 120 BC: Bituito, king of the Arvernii, attacked a small force of Romans led by the consul Fabius, using just the dogs he had in his army.* [16] Dog of the Garrison of Sør-Varanger during a simulated arrest. The first official use of dogs for military purposes in the United States was during the Seminole Wars.* [1] Hounds were used in the American Civil War to protect, send messages, and guard prisoners* [7] Dogs were also used as mascots in American World War I propaganda and recruiting posters. 2.22.2 Timeline Dogs have been used in warfare by many civilizations. As warfare has progressed, their purposes have changed greatly.* [8] • Mid-7th century BC: In the war waged by the Ephesians against Magnesia on the Maeander, the Magnesian horsemen were each accompanied by a war dog and a spear-bearing attendant. The dogs were released first and broke the enemy ranks, followed by an assault of spears, then a cavalry charge.* [9] An epitaph records the burial of a Magnesian horseman named Hippaemon with his dog Lethargos, his horse, and his spearman.* [10] • 525 BC: At the Battle of Pelusium, Cambyses II uses a psychological tactic against the Egyptians, arraying dogs and other animals in the front line to effectively take advantage of the Egyptian religious reverence for animals.* [11] • 55 BC: Caesar's landing in Britain is opposed by Celtic warriors and their dogs making the English mastiff one of the oldest recorded breeds according to Caesar's description of them in his accounts. • 1415: When Sir Piers Legh was wounded at the Battle of Agincourt, his mastiff stood over his master until the end of the battle and protected him for many hours; they returned home to Lyme Hall in Cheshire where mastiffs were bred until the twentieth century. • 1500s: Mastiffs and other large breeds were used extensively by Spanish conquistadors against native Americans.* [17] • 1914–1918: Dogs were used by international forces to deliver vital messages. About a million dogs were killed in action. Sergeant Stubby, a Boston bull terrier, was the most decorated war dog of World War I and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat. Among other exploits, he is said to have captured a German spy.* [18] He was also a mascot at Georgetown University. Rags was another notable World War I dog. • 1941–1945: The Soviet Union deployed dogs strapped with explosives against invading German tanks, with limited success. • 1943–1945: The United States Marine Corps used dogs, donated by their American owners, in the Pacific theater to help take islands back from Japanese occupying forces. During this period the Doberman Pinscher became the official dog of the USMC; however, all breeds of dogs were eligible to 2.22. DOGS IN WARFARE 113 train to be “war dogs of the Pacific”. Of the 549 dogs that returned from the war, only 4 could not be returned to civilian life. Many of the dogs went home with their handlers from the war.* [19] Chips was the most decorated war dog during World War II. • 1966–1973: Approximately 5,000 US war dogs served in the Vietnam War (the US Army did not retain records prior to 1968); about 10,000 US servicemen served as dog-handlers during the war, and the K9 units are estimated to have saved over 10,000 human lives. 232 military working dogs* [20] and 295* [21] US servicemen working as dog handlers were killed in action during the war. It is estimated that about 200 Vietnam War dogs survived the war to be assigned at other US bases outside the US. The remaining canines were euthanized or left behind.* [22]* [23] Military working dog wearing body armor, undergoing escalation of force training in Afghanistan. • 2011: United States Navy SEALs used a Belgian Malinois military working dog named Cairo in Operation Neptune Spear, in which Osama bin In ancient times, dogs, often large mastiff- or molosserLaden was killed.* [24]* [25] type breeds, would be strapped with armor or spiked collars and sent into battle to attack the enemy. This strategy was used by various civilizations, such as the Romans 2.22.3 Roles and the Greeks. This approach has been largely abandoned in modern day militaries due to the fact that modern weapons would kill the dogs almost immediately, as on Okinawa when U.S. soldiers quickly eliminated a platoon of Japanese soldiers and their dogs.* [26] U.S. Army SP4 Bealock and scout dog “Chief”on patrol in Vietnam. Another program attempted during World War II was suggested by a Swiss citizen living in Santa Fe, New Mexico. William A. Prestre proposed using large dogs to kill Japanese soldiers. He convinced the military to lease an entire island in the Mississippi to house the training facilities. There the army hoped to train as many as two million dogs. The idea was to begin island invasions with landing craft releasing thousands of dogs against the Japanese defenders, then followed up by troops as the Japanese defenders scattered in confusion. One of the biggest problems encountered was getting Japanese soldiers to train the dogs with, as few Japanese soldiers were being captured. Eventually, Japanese-American soldiers volunteered for the training. The biggest problem was with the dogs; either they were too docile, did not properly respond to their beach crossing training, or were terrified by shellfire. After millions of dollars spent and inconclusive results, the program was abandoned.* [27] Dogs have been used for many different purposes. Different breeds were used for different things, but always met the demands of the handlers. Many roles for dogs in war are obsolete and no longer practiced, but the concept of the war dog still remains alive and well in modern The Soviet Union used dogs for anti-tank purposes beginwarfare. ning in the 1930s. Earlier anti-tank dogs were fitted with tilt-rod mines and trained to run beneath enemy tanks, which would detonate the mines automatically. However, Fighting the dogs were trained with stationary Russian tanks and very seldom ran under moving tanks, instead being shot Main article: Attack dog as they ran beside moving tanks. When both Russian and German tanks were present, the dogs would preferentially 114 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES run towards the familiar Russian tanks. Logistics and communication About the time World War I broke out, many European communities used dogs to pull small carts for milk deliveries and similar purposes.* [28] Several European armies adapted the process for military use.* [29] In August 1914, the Belgian Army used dogs to pull their Maxim Guns on wheeled carriages and supplies or reportedly even wounded in their carts.* [30] The use of dogs for this purpose ceased with the advent of trench warfare after the first two months of the conflict. The French had 250 dogs at the start of World War I. The Dutch army copied the idea and had hundreds of dogs trained and ready by the end of World War I (the Netherlands remained neutral). The Soviet Red Army also used dogs to drag wounded men to aid stations during World War II.* [31] The dogs were well-suited to transporting loads over snow and through craters. Dogs were often used to carry messages in battle. They would be turned loose to move silently to a second handler. This required a dog that was very loyal to two masters, otherwise the dog would not deliver the message on time or at all. Some messenger dogs also performed other communication jobs, such as pulling telephone lines from one location to another. Medical researchers, and their allies in the armed forces, awarded military-style medals to animals in laboratories to emphasize the martial significance of animal experimentation. Here, Army Surgeon General Major General Norman T. Kirk, on behalf of the Friends of Medical Research, bestows medals upon research dogs Trixie and Josie“for outstanding services to humanity.” how canines were treated in World War II.* [32] In 1966, major reforms came to this field with the adoption of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act.* [33] Detection and tracking Main article: Detection dog Mascots Main article: Military mascot Dogs were often used as unit mascots for military units. The dog in question might be an officer's dog, an animal that the unit chose to adopt, or one of their canines employed in another role as a working dog. Some naval dogs such as Sinbad and Judy were themselves enlisted service members. Some units also chose to employ a particular breed of dog as their standard mascot, with new dogs replacing the old when it died or was retired. The presence of a mascot was designed to uplift morale, and many were used to this effect in the trenches of World War I. Medical research Main article: Animal testing In World War II, dogs took on a new role in medical experimentation, as the primary animals chosen for medical research.* [32] The animal experimentation allowed doctors to test new medicine without risking human lives, though these practices came under more scrutiny after the war. The United States' government responded by proclaiming these dogs as heroes. Many dogs were used to locate mines. They did not prove to be very effective under combat conditions. Marine mine detecting dogs were trained using bare electric wires beneath the ground surface.* [34] The wires shocked the dogs, teaching them that danger lurked under the dirt. Once the dog's focus was properly directed, dummy mines were planted and the dogs were trained to signal their presence. While the dogs effectively found the mines, the task proved so stressful for the dogs they were only able to work between 20 and 30 minutes at a time. The mine detecting war dogs anticipated random shocks from the heretofore friendly earth, making them extremely nervous. The useful service life of the dogs was not long. Experiments with lab rats show that this trend can be very extreme, in some tests rats even huddled in the corner to the point of starvation to avoid electric shock. Dogs have historically also been used in many cases to track fugitives and enemy troops, overlapping partly into the duties of a scout dog, but use their olfactory skill in tracking a scent, rather than warning a handler at the initial presentation of a scent. Scouts The Cold War sparked a heated debate over the ethics of Some dogs are trained to silently locate booby traps and animal experimentation in the U.S., particularly aimed at concealed enemies such as snipers. The dog's keen senses 2.22. DOGS IN WARFARE 115 of smell and hearing would make them far more effective at detecting these dangers than humans. The best scout dogs are described as having a disposition intermediate to docile tracking dogs and aggressive attack dogs.* [35] Scout dogs were used in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam by the United States to detect ambushes, weapon caches, or enemy fighters hiding underwater, with only reed breathing straws showing above the waterline. The US operated a number of scout dog platoons (assigned on a handler-and-dog team basis to individual patrols) and had a dedicated dog training school in Fort Benning, Georgia.* [35] Sentries Main article: Guard dog Marine Raiders take scouting and messenger dogs to the frontlines on Bougainville, late 1943 One of the earliest military-related uses, sentry dogs were used to defend camps or other priority areas at night and sometimes during the day. They would bark or growl to alert guards of a stranger's presence. During the Cold War, the American military used sentry dog teams outside of nuclear weapons storage areas. A test program was conducted in Vietnam to test sentry dogs, launched two days after a successful Vietcong attack on Da Nang Air Base (July 1, 1965). Forty dog teams were deployed to Vietnam for a four-month test period, with teams placed on the perimeter in front of machine gun towers/bunkers. The detection of intruders resulted in a rapid deployment of reinforcements. The test was successful, so the handlers returned to the US while the dogs were reassigned to new handlers. The Air Force immediately started to ship dog teams to all the bases in Vietnam and Thailand. The buildup of American forces in Vietnam created large dog sections at USAF Southeast Asia (SEA) bases. 467 dogs were eventually assigned to Bien Hoa, Binh Thuy, Cam Ranh Bay, Da Nang, Nha Trang, Tuy Hoa, Phu Cat, Phan Rang, Tan Son Nhut, and Pleiku Air Bases. Within a year of deployment, attacks on several bases had been stopped when the enemy forces were detected by dog teams. Captured Vietcong told of the fear and respect that they had for the dogs. The Vietcong even placed a bounty on lives of handlers and dogs. The success of sentry dogs was determined by the lack of successful penetrations of bases in Vietnam and Thailand. It is estimated by the United States War Dogs Association that war dogs saved over 10,000 U.S. lives in Vietnam.* [36] Sentry Dogs were also used by the Army, Navy, and Marines to protect the perimeter of large bases. SCOUT DOG by Augustine G. Acuna, Vietnam Combat Artists Program, CAT II, 1966-67. Image courtesy of National Museum of the U. S. Army. Modern uses Contemporary dogs in military roles are also often referred to as police dogs, or in the United States as a Military Working Dog (MWD), or K-9. Their roles are nearly 116 U.S. Army military working dog searches among rubble and trash outside a target building in Rusafa, eastern Baghdad, Iraq. CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES A canine unit of the Israel Defense Forces as varied as their ancient cousins, though they tend to be more rarely used in front-line formations. As of 2011, 600 U.S. Military dogs were actively participating in the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.* [37] Traditionally, the most common breed for these policetype operations has been the German Shepherd; in recent years there has been a shift to smaller dogs with keener senses of smell for detection work, and more resilient breeds such as the Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherd for patrolling and law enforcement. All MWDs in use today are paired with a single individual after their training. This person is called a handler. While a handler usually A dog inspects baggage for loading aboard a HMX-1 aircraft. won't stay with one dog for the length of either's career, usually a handler will stay partnered with a dog for at least Law enforcement Main article: Police dog a year, and sometimes much longer. The latest canine tactical vests are outfitted with cameras As a partner in everyday military police work, dogs have and durable microphones that allow dogs to relay audio proven versatile and loyal officers. Police dogs can chase and visual information to their handlers.* [38] suspects, track them if they are hidden, and guard them In the 1970s the US Air Force used over 1,600 when they are caught. They are trained to respond vidogs worldwide. Today, personnel cutbacks have re- ciously if their handler is attacked, and otherwise not to duced USAF dog teams to approximately 530, stationed react at all unless they are commanded to do so by their throughout the world. Many dogs that operate in these handler. Many police dogs are also trained in detection roles are trained at Lackland Air Force Base, the only as well. United States facility that currently trains dogs for military use.* [39] Change has also come in legislation for the benefit of the Drug and explosives detection Main article: canines. Prior to 2000, older war dogs were required to Detection dog be euthanized. The new law permits adoption of retired military dogs.* [39] One notable case of which was Lex, Both MWDs and their civilian counterparts provide sera working dog whose handler was killed in Iraq. vice in drug detection, sniffing out a broad range of There are numerous memorials dedicated to war dogs, psychoactive substances despite efforts at concealment. including March Field Air Museum in Riverside, Cali- Provided they have been trained to detect it, MWDs can fornia;* [40] the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Geor- smell small traces of nearly any substance, even if it is gia;* [40] at the Naval Facility, Guam, with replicas at the in a sealed container. Dogs trained in drug detection are University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine normally used at ports of embarkation such as airports, in Knoxville;* [41] the Alfred M. Gray Marine Corps Re- checkpoints, and other places where there is high secusearch Center in Quantico, Virginia;* [42] and the Al- rity and a need for anti-contraband measures. abama War Dogs Memorial at the USS Alabama Battle- MWDs can also be trained to detect explosives. As with ship Memorial Park in Mobile, Alabama.* [43] narcotics, trained MWDs can detect minuscule amounts 2.22. DOGS IN WARFARE of a wide range of explosives, making them useful for searching entry points, patrolling within secure installations, and at checkpoints. These dogs are capable of achieving over a 98% success rate in bomb detection.* [44] 117 ter the war; to their former owners or new adopted ones. The Vietnam War was different in that US war dogs were designated as expendable equipment and were either euthanized or turned over to an allied army prior to the US departure from South Vietnam.* [48] Due to lobbying efforts by veteran dog handlers from the Vietnam War Congress approved a bill allowing veteran US military working dogs to be adopted after their military service. In 2000, President Bill Clinton signed a law that allowed these dogs to be adopted,* [49] making the Vietnam War the only American war in which US war dogs never came home.* [23]* [50] Other roles Military working dogs continue to serve as sentries, trackers, search and rescue, scouts, and mascots. Retired working dogs are often adopted as pets or therapy dogs. 2.22.4 Images A bound prisoner in an orange jumpsuit is intimidated with a dog by a U.S. soldier. Intimidation The use of Military Working Dogs on prisoners by the United States during recent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq has been controversial. • A U.S. soldier and his dog wait before conducting an assault against insurgents in Buhriz • U.S. Naval Security Force K-9 Unit training • U.S. Army working dog wearing body armor clears a building in Afghanistan Iraq War: The United States has used dogs to intimi• Post World War II cartoon emphasizing the impordate prisoners in Iraqi prisons.* [45] In court testimony tance of canines in medical research following the revelations of Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, it was stated that Col. Thomas M. Pappas approved the • Ambulance dogs search for wounded men through use of dogs for interrogations. Pvt. Ivan L. Frederick scent and hearing testified that interrogators were authorized to use dogs • Belgian dogs trained to draw machine guns and that a civilian contract interrogator left him lists of the cells he wanted dog handlers to visit. “They were • German Bundeswehr dog demonstration allowed to use them to ... intimidate inmates”, Fred• A Navy Master-at-arms fires blank ammunition to erick stated. Two soldiers, Sgt. Santos A. Cardona and condition his dog to the sound Sgt. Michael J. Smith, were then charged with maltreatment of detainees, for allegedly encouraging and permit• A U.S. Air Force Security Forces dog handler atting unmuzzled working dogs to threaten and attack them. tached to the Army's 3rd Special Forces Group in Prosecutors have focused on an incident caught in pubAfghanistan. lished photographs, when the two men allegedly cornered a naked detainee and allowed the dogs to bite him on each thigh as he cowered in fear.* [46] 2.22.5 See also Guantanamo Bay: It is believed that the use of dogs on prisoners in Iraq was learned from practices at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.* [46] The use of dogs on prisoners by regular U.S. forces in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base was prohibited by Donald Rumsfeld in April 2003. A few months later following revelations of abuses at Abu Ghraib prison, including use of dogs to terrify naked prisoners; Rumsfeld then issued a further order prohibiting their use by the regular U.S. forces in Iraq.* [47] • Ancient warfare • Animals in War Memorial • Dickin Medal • Dogs of Roman Britain • Examples of dogs that gained notability in war • 1st Military Working Dog Regiment • List of Labrador Retrievers Retirement Traditionally, as in World War II, US military working dogs (war dogs) were returned home af- • War Dog Memorial (Bristol Township, Pennsylvania) 118 2.22.6 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES References [1] Newton, Tom.“K-9 History: The Dogs of War!". Hahn's 50th AP K-9. Retrieved 2008-11-25. [2] “Dogs of War in European Conflict; Egyptians and Romans Employed Them in Early Warfare ̶Battle Dogs in 4000 B.C”. New York Times. February 21, 1915. p. S3. Retrieved 2008-11-26. [3] Morral, Timothy. “History of the Pit Bull”. Pitbull411.com. Retrieved Novembeg 26, 2008. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) [4] E.S. Forster,“Dogs In Ancient Warfare,”Greece & Rome 10 (1941) 114–117. [5] Polyaenus, Stratagems 7.2; Forster, “Dogs in Ancient Warfare,”p. 114. [6] Stannard, David. American holocaust: the conquest of the New World. [7] History of the 19th Iowa Infantry; Hounds in the American Civil War- Chapter VII, p. 109; Retrieved 2014-0531 [8] Todaro, Giovanni (2011). I cani in guerra. Da Tutankhamon a Bin Laden (in Italian). Oasi Alberto Perdisa. ISBN 978-88-8372-513-5. [9] Aelian, Varia Historia 14.46; Forster, “Dogs in Ancient Warfare,”p. 115. [10] P.A.L. Greenhalgh, Early Greek Warfare: Horsemen and Chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages (Cambridge University Press, 1973, 2010), p. 145. [11] Polyaenus, Stratagems 7.9; Forster, “Dogs in Ancient Warfare,”p. 114. [12] Aelian, On the Nature of Animals 7.38. [13] Herodotus, Histories 7.187; Forster, “Dogs in Ancient Warfare,”p. 115. [14] Williams, Henry Smith. Historians History of the World (Volume 4), p. 505. [15] Zonara,'Epitomé historíon' VIII 19 P. I 401; E. Pais, 'Storia della Sardegna e della Corsica durante il periodo romano' I, 154 (in 'Bibliotheca Sarda' n. 42). [16] Orosius, 'Historiarum adversos paganos', V, 14. [17] J.G. Varner and J.J. Varner, Dogs of the Conquest (University of Oklahoma Press, 1983) [24] Viegas, Jennifer (2 May 2011). “A U.S. Navy Seals' Secret Weapon: Elite Dog Team”. Discovery.com. Retrieved 5 May 2011. [25] Brammer, Jack; Steven Thomma (7 May 2011).“Obama thanks special forces for daring bin Laden raid”. Seattle Times. Retrieved 7 May 2011. [26] Astor, Gerald (1996). Operation Iceberg: The Invasion and Conquest of Okinawa in World War II. Dell. ISBN 0-440-22178-1. [27] Winston Groom (2005). 1942: The Year that Tried Men's Souls. Atlanta Monthly Press. pp. 166–168. ISBN 087113-889-1. [28] Ouida (1872). A Dog of Flanders. Chapman & Hall. [29] Dyer, Walter A. (2006). Pierrot the Carabinier: Dog of Belgium. Diggory Press. ISBN 978-1-84685-036-3. [30] Willmott, H.P. (2003). First World War. Dorling Kindersley. p. 59. [31] “World War Two Combat: Axis and Allies”. Hahn's 50th AP K-9. [32] “Canine Heroes and Medals”. History of Medicine: Animals as Cold Warriors. National Library of Medicine, NIH. October 24, 2006. Retrieved 2008-07-08. [33] Buettinger, Craig (January 1, 1993). “Antivivisection and the charge of zoophil-psychosis in the early twentieth century”. The Historian. Retrieved 2008-07-08. [34] Putney, William. (2001) Always Faithful: A Memoir of the Marine Dogs of World War II, New York: Simon & Schuster Inc. ISBN 0-7432-0198-1 [35] Rubenstein, SP4 Wain (June 1969).“Scout Dogs - Enemy's Worst Enemy..”. Danger Forward (U.S/ Army Quartermaster Museum) 3 (2). [36]“War Dogs”. Fort Lee, Virginia: U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum. January 9, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-08. [37] Gardiner Harris (4 May 2011). “A Bin Laden Hunter on Four Legs”. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 5 May 2011. There are 600 dogs serving in Afghanistan and Iraq, and that number is expected to grow substantially over the next year. [38] “War Dogs: K9 Storm Armor Protects Canine Soldiers” . Military Gear News. 2011-05-17. [18] ""The Price of Freedom”exhibition”. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved July 14, 2014. [39] Mott, Maryann (April 9, 2003). “Dogs of War: Inside the U.S. Military's Canine Corps”. National Geographic News. Retrieved 2008-07-08. [19] http://worldwar2history.info/Marines/dogs.html [40] “War-Dogs.com”. [20] Burnam (2008) p. 288-293 [41] “War Dog Memorial”. The University of Tennessee. [21] Burnam (2008) p. 281-288 [42] Simpson, Tara K. (September 22, 2007). “War Dog Memorial Tells Little-Known Tale”. Stars and Stripes. Archived from the original on August 4, 2009. Retrieved July 23, 2010. [22] CNN special report [23] Burnam (2008) p. XIV 2.22. DOGS IN WARFARE 119 [43] “Alabama War Dogs Memorial Foundation”. awdm.org. December 3, 2013. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved April 7, 2014. The most recent Working Military Dog memorial, and the only one west of the Mississippi was dedicated on April 16, 2011 at the Rancho Coastal Humane Society in Encinitas, California • Burnam, John C. (2008). A Soldier's Best Friend; Scout Dogs and their Handlers in the Vietnam War. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4027-5447-0. [44] “War Dogs”. U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum. Retrieved 2008-07-08. • Michael, Ritland; Gary Brozek (2013). Trident K9 Warriors: my tales from the training ground to the battlefield with elite Navy SEAL canines. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9781250024978. [45] Goodman, Amy (August 29, 2007). “Gonzales' tortured legacy lingers”. Seattle Post Intelligencer. [46] White, Josh (July 26, 2005). “Abu Ghraib Dog Tactics Came From Guantanamo”. Washington Post. p. A14. [47] Diamond, John (July 19, 2004). “Top commanders in Iraq allowed dogs to be used”. USA Today. [48] Burnam (2008) p. XIII-XIV [49] Burnam (2008) p. 270-272 [50] Watson, Julie (May 27, 2011). “Demand for adopting retired military dogs soars after SEAL raid”. The Star (Toronto). 2.22.7 Further reading • Dyer, Walter A. (2006). Pierrot the Carabinier: Dog of Belgium. Meadow Books. ISBN 1-84685-036-3. • Richardson, E.H. (1920). British War Dogs; their training and psychology. London: Skeffington. • Rohan, Jack (2006). Rags, The Dog Who Went to War. Liskeard: Diggory Press. ISBN 978-1-84685364-7. OCLC 1348025. • Varner, John; J.J. Varner (1983). Dogs of the Conquest. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806117935. • Whitridge-Smith, Bertha (2006). Only A Dog: The True Story of a Dog's Devotion to His Master During World War. Lightning Source. ISBN 978-1-84685365-4. • Wood, E. S.; R. M. Franklin (2005). Captain Loxley's Little Dog And Lassie The Life-saving Collie: Hero Dogs of the First World War Associated With The Sinking of H.M.S. Formidable. Burgress Hill: Diggory Press. ISBN 978-1-905363-13-1. OCLC 62306949. • Burnam, John C. (2006). Dog Tags of Courage: Combat Infantrymen and War Dog Heroes in Vietnam. Lost Coast Press. ISBN 978-1-882897-88-9. • Dowling, Mike C. (2011). Sergeant Rex: the unbreakable bond between a Marine and his military working dog. Atria Books. ISBN 9781451635966. 2.22.8 External links • Born, K. M (January 8, 2007).“Quartermaster Dog Training Program”. Fort Lee, Virginia: U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum. • Donn, Jeff (August 12, 2007).“Dogs in war receive loyalty, top care”. Army Times. Associated Press. • “K-9 History: The Dogs of War!" (not an official military site). Hahn Air Base, West Germany: 50th Air Police K-9 Section. • “Military Working Dog Teams National Monument”. • Pitts, 2ndLt. Mike (1966).“U.S. war dogs remembered”. K-9 Heroes - Remembered. The United States War Dogs Association. • “Vietnam Security Police Association K-9 pages” . • “War Dogs”. Fort Lee, Virginia: U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum. January 9, 2007. • “War dogs, military service dogs, battle dogs”. The Bulldog Information Library. • “War Dogs: Reference Bibliography”. Fort Lee, Virginia: U.S. Army Quartermaster Museum. •“Military Working Dog Public Domain Images Collection”. • “Alabama War Dogs Memorial Foundation”. • “Dogs of the American Civil War: A Tribute”. • “Irish Examiner article”. • The short film Big Picture: Canine College is available for free download at the Internet Archive • Webcast Presentation by Marine Corps Sergeant Mike Dowling about Sergeant Rex his memoir about his deployment to Iraq in 2004 along with military working dog Rex 120 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.23 Fetch (game) A Chihuahua fetching a ball. the optimal path to a ball thrown in the water. While playing Fetch with his Welsh Corgi, he noticed that the dog ran along the beach for a certain distance before jumping into the water. Because the dog is faster on land, this technique minimizes the total retrieval time. He showed that the dog is able to calculate the optimal point to jump into the water with statistical significance, a problem Pennings must resort to calculus to solve. Perruchet and Gallego* [3] have demonstrated a method for calculating this optimal path using calculus in a different way. They propose that the dog optimizes its behaviour on a moment-to-moment basis, choosing at each moment the path that allows it to maximize its speed of approach to the ball. This requires the dog to be able to accurately estimate its speed on both land and water, but does not rely on the premise that the dog plans the entire route in advance.* [4] Fetch is a game usually played with a dog. An object, 2.23.2 References such as a stick or ball, is thrown a moderate distance away from the animal, and it is the animal's objective to grab [1] Ivars Peterson (2004-06-26).“Dogs Catching Frisbees”. Science News Online 165 (26). Archived from the original and retrieve it. Many times, the owner of the animal will on 2006-06-14. say “Fetch”to the animal before or after throwing the object. In rare instances, cats, especially younger cats, [2] Tim Pennings (May 2003). “Do dogs know calculus?". have been known to engage in fetch behavior. College Mathematics Journal (Mathematical Association 2.23.1 Mathematics of Fetch of America) 34 (3): 178–182. doi:10.2307/3595798. JSTOR 3595798. [3] Pierre Perruchet and Jorge Gallego (January 2006). “Do dogs know related rates rather than optimization?". College Mathematics Journal (Mathematical Association of America) 37 (1): 16–18. doi:10.2307/27646266. JSTOR 27646266. [4] Ivars Peterson (2006-02-18). “Calculating Dogs”. Science News Online 169 (7). Archived from the original on 2006-08-11. 2.23.3 Further reading A Cocker Spaniel fetches a ball in a pool on Fire Island. • Keith Devlin (2005-03-10). “Elvis: the Welsh Corgi Who Knows Calculus”. The Math Instinct: Why You're a Mathematical Genius (Along with Lobsters, Birds, Cats, and Dogs). Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 978-1-56025-672-4. Arizona State psychology professor Michael McBeath has proposed a simple model to explain how dogs play 2.23.4 See also Fetch. By mounting a camera on the head of a dog, he • Least Time Principle found that the dog changed its speed and direction in order to keep the frisbee's image in a constant position on its retina. This approach, called the Linear Optical Trajectory, makes the frisbee appear to move in a linear path 2.24 Flirt pole at a constant speed. McBeath had previously noticed this interception strategy in professional baseball players pur- A flirt pole, also called a “flirt stick”, is a piece of exsuing fly balls.* [1] ercise equipment for dogs that entices a dog to chase a Tim Pennings,* [2] a mathematics professor at Hope Col- fast moving lure. This equipment is often used to physlege, has found that dogs are somehow able to calculate ically condition a dog and improve his or her skills for 2.24. FLIRT POLE 121 Exercise with flirt pole where dog runs to chase lure • Swinging while dragging the lure along the ground will create an effect of an animal running or an object escaping. In turn, the dog will run to chase the lure. • By snapping (flicking or quickly jerking) the pole, the trainer causes the lure to “change directions”. • Jerking or swinging the pole higher so the lure is in the air entices the dog to jump while attempting to catch the object. Flirt pole • To prevent the dog from catching the lure too easily, the trainer can move the pole (and lure) faster, snap the pole to change directions, or swing the lure in the air, just out of the dogʼs reach. better performance in certain competitions such as lurecoursing or Schutzhund. It is often used simply to get a dog to exert a lot of energy in a small space. Occasionally the dog will, or must be allowed to, catch the lure. This is a necessary part of the exercise; dog games that never reward the dog for their hard work tend to make 2.24.1 Operation them distraught and unbalanced. (For this reason, bomband drug-sniffing dogs have been found to become menA flirt pole is constructed of a long stick or pole made of a tally unhinged if they never find bombs or drugs and are light wood, like bamboo, or a light plastic, like PVC, with occasionally taken on dummy missions where they have a long string or rope attached at one end. Attached to the successful finds.)* [1] other end of the rope is a lure such as a dog toy, hide, rag, or other item depending on the exercise goal. The pole is Additionally, once the dog has caught the lure, the trainer typically 3 to 5 feet (0.91 to 1.52 m) long with the rope can engage in pulling exercises by tugging at the pole and about the same length, and the construction is similar to encouraging the dog to pull back (creating a "tug-o-war") in order to keep its prize. a fishing pole. Movements When the trainer is ready, he or she gives the dog a command to release the lure and may resume swinging the pole or end the session. The owner or trainer holds the pole and through a variety of motions, moves the rope and the lure. The idea is to Principles move the lure so that the dog cannot catch it easily, i.e., “flirt”with the dog. The flirt pole used to condition dog for running and jumping. Dogs have a natural prey drive that compels them • The owner generally stands in one place while work- chase after and kill prey, typically smaller animals.* [2] ing the pole to make the lure “active”or moving. In dog training, the prey drive can be used as an advanStanding in one spot and rotating to swing the pole tage because dogs with strong prey drive are also willing around in a circle will cause the lure to move quickly to pursue moving objects such as toys, thus encouraging in a wider circle. the dog to move or act in a particular way. 122 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES ing to teach skills that the dog will need later in protection work, in particular, targeting skills and grip.* [3] A flattened plastic bottle as a lure is hard to grip and teaches the dog to bite hard and hang on.* [4] Dog fighting Even though the sport of dog fighting is illegal, historically several types of equipment have been used to train and condition fighting dogs. A flirt pole was commonly used to train these dogs for cardiovascular and speed workouts and to encourage prey drive.* [5] Lure coursing Flirt pole used to condition dog for running and jumping. Using a flirt pole with a cloth or rag is common with trainers who train for lure coursing and other activities where high prey drive is desired, and is referred to as“rag work” .* [3] The moving of the rag encourages the development of prey drive; catching the rag and shaking it afterwards build confidence. The flirt pole promotes physical activity and stimulates Professional breeding mental activity from the dog (running, jumping, watching, planning, changing direction) by stimulating the dogʼ Some trainers and researchers advocate beginning stims prey drive by offering a constantly moving lure. The ulation and socialization very early in a puppyʼs life, long pole and flexible rope make it easy for the trainer to especially for dogs that will be working dogs.* [6] This use momentum to make the lure move fast (even faster creates dogs that have solid temperaments and are wellthan the dog can run), change directions quickly or move socialized. Some professional breeders advocate using flirt pole skill exercises as a part of that conditioning in orat variable heights. der to create acceptable outlets for the prey drive, which, The more the trainer can maneuver the pole and rope to along with bite inhibition training, decreases the likelimake the lure emulate the way a small animal moves (even hood of a puppy using his prey drive in an inappropriate if the lure is non-animal, such as a rag), the more interest manner.* [3] the dog keeps in the object. Even though the basis of the flirt pole is engaging the dog's prey drive, these exercises do not necessarily increase the drive. In fact, many trainers like to use the flirt pole to give dogs an opportunity to express prey drive in a nondestructive way, and use the flirt pole as a part of the training and socialization.* [3] 2.24.2 Uses General use Dog owners and dog walkers who need to exercise dogs but are unable to walk them (for example when the person is unable to walk or walking may be dangerous) sometimes use a flirt pole as a solution to exerting the dog's energy in a small space, in a room or backyard.* [7] In general, dogs that are inclined to run, jump, and chase 2.24.3 Health effects enjoy the play time with this type of equipment that allows them to indulge in their natural tendencies. Flirt poles are In addition to improving a dog's skills (in particular often used in specific types of dog training. for competitive dogs), flirt pole exercises improve canine health. Active flirt pole work helps to strengthen heart and lung function, improve balance, fine-tune motor Schutzhund skills, and strengthen muscles and joints. Schutzhund is a dog sport, developed in Germany, that Any exercise for dogs, including with the flirt pole, helps tests dogs on police tasks including odor detection and release anxious energy (which leads to destructive behavsearch and rescue. Flirt pole work is often used in train- iors) and to maintain healthy body functions. 2.25. GAME (DOG) Risks 123 6. The Flirt Pole: Dog Toy or Life Changer?, http:// notesfromadogwalker.com/2012/04/24/flirt-pole/ The type of activity that a flirt pole encourages is for healthy dogs in good physical condition. Flirt pole exercises should not be done with very young dogs (under 2.25 Game (dog) a year) or with dogs that are not in good health such as obese dogs, dogs with joint problems or dogs with heart Game or Gameness is a quality of fighting dogs or problems. working terriers that are selectively bred and conditioned Health risks include muscle and joint injuries, especially from a very early age to develop traits of eagerness despite if jumping is involved since poor landings result in injury, the threat of substantive injury. Dogs displaying this trait and over-exertion (too much hard running). In addition, can also be described as persevering, ready and willing, without proper training, retrieving the lure from the dog full of fight, spirited, or plucky.* [1] may be challenging. 2.24.4 See also 2.25.1 Dog fighting breeds In dog fighting breeds gameness is valued as it gives the dog the ability to maintain the attack in baiting, despite ripped flesh, dehydration, exhaustion or broken bones. As one writer describes it, “Game is the dog that won't quit 2.24.5 Notes fighting, the dog that'll die in the ring, the dog that'll fight with two broken legs.”The scope and method of train[1] Exercise My Dog, “Laser Tag Game” ing to develop a game dog varies dramatically depending [2] Canine Ergonomics: The Science of Working Dogs, pp. on the level and experience of the dog-fighter. A famous 185, 214 American“gamebred”breed of dog is the American Pit [3] The Breeder's Guide to Raising Superstar Dogs, “The Bull Terrier. A famous Irish“gamebred”breed of dog is the Kerry Blue Terrier. A famous English “gamebred” Skills Phase” breed of dog is the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. A famous [4] Trident K9 Warriors: My Tale from the Training Ground Japanese “gamebred”breed of dog is the Tosa. A fato the Battlefield, p. 117 mous Argentinian“gamebred”breed of dog is the Dogo [5] Veterinary Forensics: Animal Cruelty Investigations, p. Argentino. • Dog training 246 [6] Pfaffenberger , Scott and Fuller , and Appleby [7] The Flirt Pole: Dog Toy or Life Changer? 2.24.6 References 1. Laser Tag Game - Exercise My Dog, http://www. exercisemydog.com/dog-game-laser-tag 2. Canine Ergonomics: The Science of Working Dogs (2009), ed. William. S. Henton, p. 185. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 1420079921 3. Trident K9 Warriors: My Tale from the Training Ground to the Battlefield (2013), Michael Ritland & Gary Brozek, p 117. St. Martin Press, New York. ISBN 1250024978 4. Veterinary Forensics: Animal Cruelty Investigations, Second Edition (2013), ed. Melinda D.Merck, p. 246 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 1118472136 5. Guide to Raising Superstar Dogs (2008), Jerry Hope, Diamond Publishing, BN ID 2940014941709 2.25.2 Working terrier breeds Pertaining to working terriers and other small hunting dogs, earthdog trials are used to determine the dog's gameness in hunting dangerous pest species underground. The American Working Terrier Association currently offers a Certificate of Gameness (CG) title* [2] as a basic instinct test (meaning that it is done without conditioning/training the dog, to see if the dog naturally exhibits gameness) for working terriers and dachshunds. In the past, the Irish Kennel Club required the now-discarded Teastas Mor certification for champion animals (intended for breeding) which involved "...showing gameness in attacking badgers. Five minutes is the minimum period a terrier shall be in contact with the badger, except when the terrier draws the badger in less time.”“Drawing” meant pulling the badger out of the hole. The purpose of the Teastas Mor was to determine the dog's capabilities for work and fitness for breeding, not primarily for entertainment as in the blood-sports of baiting. 2.25.3 See also • Dog aggression 124 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES • Dog behaviourist • Draft horse • Instinct • Driving (horse) • Prey drive • Horse-drawn vehicle 2.25.4 References [1] Stanley Coren (2006). Why does my dog act that way?: a complete guide to your dog's personality. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-7432-9855-1. [2] “American Working Terrier Association Certificate of Gameness”. Retrieved 2008-03-22. • Carting 2.26.3 References [1] 'GEE' AND 'HAW' [2] Test driving a dog sled: hang on and enjoy [3] Pilgrim Jim's Treasure Field: To Haw and Gee 2.26 Gee and haw Gee and haw are voice commands used to tell a draft animal to turn right or left, or to direct sled dogs pulling a sled or sleigh.* [1]* [2] Gee (pronounced“jee”) means to turn to the off side (away from the driver). Haw means to turn to the near side (towards the driver). 2.27 Gun-dog training In the United States, the driver of draft animals sits on their left, so animals will turn right to the gee command, and left to the haw command. In England the driver stands to the right of the animals, reversing the relative directions they indicate (i.e., an English trained team of horses will“haw”to the right, while an American trained team will“haw”to the left ̶in both cases towards their driver.) As James Lloyd Clark points out, “Generally, work horses are not subject to a lot of international travel so the fear of great confusion on the farm is minimal.” * [3] The American meanings are used for dog sledding in A Spaniel Field Trial Alaska and Canada. Gun dogs are used to hunt all sorts of game. Many are used in the pursuit of big game. The majority of working 2.26.1 In popular culture gun dogs are used to hunt upland game. The song Pony Time, recorded in 1961 by Chubby Checker and a number one hit that year, includes the 2.27.1 lyrics Now you turn to the left when I say gee, You turn to the right when I say haw, Now gee, ya ya little baby, Now haw, ya oh baby, oh baby, pretty baby, Do it baby, oh baby, oh baby, Boogety, boogety, boogety, boogety shoo. 2.26.2 See also • Working animal • Pack animal Types of dogs Gun dogs are divided into three primary classifications based upon method of work: • Retrievers • Flushing spaniels • Pointing breeds 2.27.2 Training The techniques used for training a dog depends very much on the type of work the dog is expected to perform. 2.27. GUN-DOG TRAINING Retrievers Retriever Work Retrievers are used to find and retrieve game that has been shot particularly when waterfowl hunting. In order to work as a gun dog, a retriever should be trained to perform the following tasks and behaviors: • Remain under Control Retrievers used as gundogs are trained to remain under control sitting calmly and quietly until sent to retrieve. • Mark downed game Marking is the process of watching for a falling bird or multiple birds. When the command“mark”is given the dog should look up for incoming birds and remember where each bird falls. • Perform a Blind Retrieve A blind retrieve is sending a dog after a bird he has not seen fall. The handler sends the dog out to retrieve the bird, guiding the dog with the use of a whistle and hand signals. • Delivery*Once the dog has completed the retrieve it should gently but firmly hold the bird until commanded to release it to the handlerʼs hand. • Shake on Command Following a retrieve a well trained dog will not shake off excess water from its fur until after the delivery is complete. • Quarter Retrievers are often used in a secondary role as an upland flushing dog. The retriever must work in a pattern in front of the hunter and must be taught to stay within gun range. • Remain Steady to Wing and Shot When hunting upland birds, the flushing dog should be steady to wing and shot, meaning that it sits when a bird rises or a gun is fired 125 • Soft-mouth A soft-mouthed dog is one who will pick up and hold game softly but firmly on the retrieve. • Hardiness - A retriever should willingly re-enter cold water to make multiple retrieves. • Socialization Exposure of young dogs to new places, strangers and strange dogs. The Training Process - The training process should start when the dog is still a puppy. During training the retriever is taught a series of skills. Throughout this process they are exposed to different environments and situations that help them cope with the rigors of hunting. The key points of this training are: • • Water While most dogs are capable of swimming young retrievers are typically introduced to water gradually to build their confidence in the water. • Guns and Gunfire A Retriever should be trained to ignore gunfire. • Boats A retriever should be taught to enter and exit a boat with little disturbance and to sit calmly while in the boat. • Obstacles The retriever is taught to overcome obstacles, such as heavy cover, downed logs, sunken tree limbs, etc. • Diversions The retriever is taught ignore distractions and continue with the work at hand. Traits for Training - When selecting a retriever for Flushing spaniels training consideration is given to: Spaniels are trained primarily to quarter in front of the • Biddableness - intelligence, controllability and hunter to flush game. Trained spaniels should possess the following skills: open to learning • Desire & Drive - a broad range of behaviors including the desire to retrieve and the willingness to take on significant obstacles to make a retrieve. They will also demonstrate an exceptional interest in birds, bird feathers and bird scent which is termed“birdiness”. • Marking and Memory – consists of good eyesight and depth perception and the ability to remember each fall. • Nose - dogs are led primarily by scent. A retriever should be able to use its nose to find downed game in heavy cover or to quarter a field to locate and flush upland game birds. • Retrieve to Hand The majority of hunters and all hunt test or field trial judges require that a dog deliver a bird to hand, meaning that a dog will hold the bird until told to give it to the hunter directly. • Soft Mouth It is desired that a springer deliver game with a soft mouth, meaning he does not puncture it with his teeth. The game should always be fit for the table. If a springer damages the bird, it may be hard mouthed. This is a serious fault, but it can be difficult to determine whether it may have been genetic or caused by poor training methods. It is usually wise to avoid breeding any springer that is hard mouthed. 126 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES • Quarter A flushing spaniel's primary role is often as 2.27.3 See also an upland flushing dog. Dogs must work in a zig-zag • Retrievers pattern in front of the hunter seeking upland game birds. The dog must be taught to stay within gun • Hunt Test range to avoid flushing a bird outside of shooting • Field Trials distance. This pattern is one of the primary criteria used to judge a dog in a field trial. • Scenting Having the ability to scent game is of vital 2.28 Housebreaking importance to the hunter. A springer should have a good nose in both wet and dry conditions. A dog This article is about animal training. For comparable with a good nose will learn to use the wind as it training of small children, see toilet training. For the quests for game, ever adjusting its pattern accordcrime of housebreaking, see burglary. ing to the nuances of the wind. “House training”redirects here. For the episode of TV series House, see House Training. • Flushing The springer should have a positive flush. Housebreaking (US English) or House-training It should not hesitate or point when encountering game. Some field trial dogs will often get airborne during a flush. This is exciting to watch, but is not necessary to win. Most hunters prefer that their dog not flush in that style, as it can present a risk to the dog. • Hup This is the traditional command to sit and stay. When hupped the dog can be given direction called to the handler. The ability to hup a dog actively working a running bird allow the handler and any gunners to keep up without having to run. • Follow Hand Signals Upland hunting involves pursuing wild game in its native habitat. Gun dogs must investigate likely covers for upland game birds. The dog must be responsive to hand signals in order for the hunter to be able to direct the dog into areas of particular interest. • Steady When hunting upland birds, a flushing dog should be steady to wing and shot, meaning that he sits when a bird rises or a gun is fired. He does this in order to mark the fall and to avoid flushing other birds when pursuing a missed bird. A dog trained to urinate outdoors rather than in its human owners' house (British English) is the process of training a domesticated animal that lives with its human owners in a house or other residence to excrete (urinate and defecate) outdoors, or in a designated indoor area, rather than inside the house. The pet owner's desire is to break the habit of eliminating in the house, hence the term. House-training (a term more commonly used in British English) or sometimes even potty training are common synonyms for housebreaking. Housebreaking also refers to taking wild animals (e.g. • Blind Retrieve An adequately trained and experi- Dingo) and domesticating them. In this case it is advisenced working springer can be expected to use all able to start at an early age. of the aforementioned attributes to be conducted by hand, whistle and command to a position whereby an unmarked lost game bird can be picked and re- 2.28.1 See also trieved to hand. • Litter box Pointing breeds • Crate training Bird dog training varies among breeds and handlers. Suc- 2.28.2 References cessful bird dogs will naturally point at birds - this can not be taught. However training is needed for them to hold their point until the gun is in position, where upon the 2.29 Dog intelligence bird is flushed and the dog drops to the gun. The bird dog should also be trained to work a large area, by whistle and “Intelligence of dogs”redirects here. For the book, see hand signals. The Intelligence of Dogs. 2.29. DOG INTELLIGENCE 127 Dog intelligence is the ability of a dog to learn, Collie, was featured on the cover of National Geographic Magazine. Betsy's intelligence rivaled that of Rico's in that she knew over 340 words and was able to connect an object with a photographic image of the object, despite having seen neither before.* [5] In 2013, Dr. John Pilley, a professor emeritus of Wofford College, published his book Chaser: Unlocking the Genius of the Dog who knows a Thousand Words, * [6] within which he documented the intellectual capabilities of his border collie, “Chaser”, who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1000 words at the time of its publishing. Chaser was documented as capable of learning the names of new objects “by exclusion”, and capable of linking nouns to verbs. Central Many dogs can be trained easily to retrieve objects such as a stick. to the understanding of his border collie's remarkable accomplishments, Pilley argues, is the dog's breeding backthink, and solve problems. Dog trainers, owners, and re- ground. He argues that border collies bred for herding searchers have much difficulty agreeing on a method for work are uniquely suited for intellectual tasks like word association which may require the dog to work“at a distesting canine intelligence. tance”from their human companions; Pilley credits his dog's selective breeding in addition to rigorous training for her intellectual prowess. 2.29.1 Inherited abilities Further information: Dog behavior and Pack (canine) Dogs are pack animals by nature and can understand social structure and obligations, and are capable of interacting with other members of the pack.* [1] Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands.* [2] In his 1996 book Good Natured, ethologist Frans de Waal discusses an experiment on guilt and reprimands conducted on a female Siberian husky. The dog had the habit of shredding newspapers, and when her owner returned home to find the shredded papers and scold her she would act guilty. However, when the owner himself shredded the papers without the dog's knowledge, the dog “acted just as 'guilty' as when she herself had created the mess.” De Waal concludes that the “guilt”displayed by dogs is not true guilt but rather the anticipation of the behavior of an angry superior in a given situation.* [7] Studies in PNAS and PLoS One suggest that dogs may feel complex emotions, like jealousy and anticipa* * “Intelligence”is hard to define, whether in dogs, other tion. [8] [9] A French study found that dogs appear to animals, or humans. The ability to learn quickly might recognize other dogs regardless of breed,* size, or shape, be taken as a sign of intelligence, but such evidence must and distinguish them from other animals. [10] be interpreted with care, because learning speed may be Psychological research has shown that human faces are affected by such things as the effectiveness of the re- asymmetrical with the gaze instinctively moving to the wards used in training or the motivation or activity level right side of a face upon encountering other humans to of the dog. For example, some breeds, such as Siberian obtain information about their emotions and state. ReHuskies, are said to be not particularly rewarded by pleas- search at the University of Lincoln (2008) shows that ing their owners, but quickly learn to escape from yards dogs share this instinct when meeting a human being, and or catch small animals, often using ingenious ways of do- only when meeting a human being (i.e., not other animals ing both.* [3] Various studies have attempted to estimate or other dogs). As such they are the only non-primate intelligence by measuring the number of words or signs species known to do so.* [11]* [12] a dog can learn. A recent example by animal psycholoSchool psychologist Kathy Coon developed the first intelgists Juliane Kaminski and colleagues reports that Rico, ligence test for dogs in 1976, with the work continuously * a Border Collie, could learn over 200 words. [4] Rico revised through 2003. Assessments were developed to could remember the names of several items for up to four test short term memory, agility, ability to adapt, probweeks after its last exposure (Kaminski et al. eliminated lem solving, unique detour problems, and to see how the the Clever Hans effect using strict protocols). Rico was dog reacts to conditions which he or she finds unacceptalso able to interpret phrases such as“fetch the sock”in able. The performance of individual dogs was compared terms of its component words (rather than considering its to over 100 dogs on which the test was standardized. Adutterance to be a single word). Rico could also give the ditional breed norms were developed in her book, The sock to a specified person. In 2008, Betsy, also a Border 2.29.2 Evaluation of intelligence 128 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Dog Intelligence Test.* [13] [11] K Guo, C Hall, S Hall, K Meints, D Mills (2007). “Left gaze bias in human infants, rhesus monkeys, and domestic dogs”. Perception. 36 ECVP. Retrieved 2010-06-24. Stanley Coren ranked dog breeds by intelligence in his book The Intelligence of Dogs based on surveys done of dog obedience judges, the article for which contains a [12] Alleyne, Richard (2008-10-29).“Dogs can read emotion in human faces”. Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2010-06summary of the rankings obtained. 24. 2.29.3 See also • Dog training • The Intelligence of Dogs (with ratings) • Cat intelligence General: [13] Coon, Kathy (1977). the dog intelligence test. Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-01903-5. • Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds. Parragon Publishing. ISBN 0-7525-82763. • Fogle, Bruce (2000). The New Encyclopedia of the Dog. Doring Kindersley (DK). ISBN 0-7894-61307. • Intelligence (trait) • Animal cognition • Conditioned response • Emotion in animals 2.29.4 2.30 The Intelligence of Dogs For the actual intelligence of dogs, see Dog intelligence. The Intelligence of Dogs is a book on dog intelli- References [1] Cimons, Marlene (Jan 6, 1999). “New Drug Can Let Pooch Avoid Living a Dog's Life; Medicine: FDA OKs antidepressant aimed at helping to ease separation anxiety some neurotic canines experience.”. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-12-05. [2] Gjersoe, Nathalia (Sep 23, 2013). “Dogs: an uncomplicated relationship”. The Guardian. [3] http://siberianhuskycentral.com/siberian-husky-dogs/ are-siberian-huskies-good-dogs [4] Kaminski, Juliane et al. (2004). Word Learning in a Domestic Dog: Evidence for “Fast Mapping”. pp. 1682– 1683 doi=10.1126/science.1097859. [5] Morell, Virginia (March 2008). “Minds of their Own”. National Geographic. Retrieved 2008-10-13. [6] Pilley, John (2013). Chaser: Unlocking the genius of the dog who knows a thousand words. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780544102576. [7] de Waal, Frans (1996). Good Natured. Harvard University Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 0-674-35660-8. [8] “Test reveals dogs' jealous side”. BBC News. 2008-1208. Retrieved 2010-05-01. Standard Poodle - among the most intelligent breeds. gence by Stanley Coren, a professor of psychology at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.* [1] Published in 1994, the book explains Coren's theories about [10] Coren, Stanley (2013-10-08). “Do Dogs Know The Dif- the differences in intelligence between different breeds * * * ference Between Dogs and Other Animals?". Psychology of dogs. [2] [3] [4] Coren published a second edition in * Today. Retrieved 10 April 2015. 2006. [5] [9] “Functional MRI in Awake Unrestrained Dogs”. PLoS One. 2012-05-11. 2.30. THE INTELLIGENCE OF DOGS Coren defines three aspects of dog intelligence in the book: instinctive intelligence, adaptive intelligence, and working and obedience intelligence.* [6] Instinctive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to perform the tasks it was bred for, such as herding, pointing, fetching, guarding, or supplying companionship.* [6] Adaptive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to solve problems on its own.* [6] Working and obedience intelligence refers to a dog's ability to learn from humans.* [6] 129 accepted as a valid description of the differences among dog breeds in terms of the trainability aspect of dog intelligence.* [12]* [13]* [14] In addition, measurements of canine intelligence using other methods have confirmed the general pattern of these rankings* [15] including a new study using owner ratings to rank dog trainability and intelligence.* [16] 79 ranks are given (plus 52 ties), a total of 131 breeds ranked:* [17] Brightest Dogs 2.30.1 Methods Understanding of New Commands: Fewer than 5 repetitions. Obey First Command: 95% of the time or better.* [18] 1. Border Collie 2. Poodle 3. German Shepherd 4. Golden Retriever 5. Doberman Pinscher 6. Shetland Sheepdog 7. Labrador Retriever German Shepherd 8. Papillon The book's ranking focuses on working and obedience 9. Rottweiler intelligence. Coren sent evaluation requests to American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club obedience trial 10. Australian Cattle Dog judges, asking them to rank breeds by performance, and received 199 responses, representing about 50 percent of obedience judges then working in North America.* [6] Excellent Working Dogs Assessments were limited to breeds receiving at least 100 judge responses.* [6] This methodology aimed to elimi- Understanding of New Commands: 5 to 15 repetitions. * nate the excessive weight that might result from a simple Obey First Command: 85% of the time or better. [18] tabulation of obedience degrees by breed. Its use of ex1. Pembroke Welsh Corgi pert opinion followed precedent.* [7]* [8] Coren found substantial agreement in the judges' rankings of working and obedience intelligence, with Border collies consistently named in the top ten and Afghan Hounds consistently named in the lowest.* [6] The highest ranked dogs in this category were Border collies, Poodles, German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, and Doberman Pinschers.* [9] Dogs that are not breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club or Canadian Kennel Club (such as the Jack Russell Terrier) were not included in Coren's rankings. 2. Miniature Schnauzer 3. English Springer Spaniel 4. Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervuren) 5. Schipperke Belgian Sheepdog 6. Collie Keeshond 7. German Shorthaired Pointer 2.30.2 Evaluation When Coren's list of breed intelligence first came out there was much media attention and commentary both pro* [10] and con.* [11] However over the years the ranking of breeds and the methodology used have come to be 8. Flat-Coated Retriever English Cocker Spaniel Standard Schnauzer 130 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 9. Brittany 10. Cocker Spaniel 11. Weimaraner 12. Belgian Malinois Bernese Mountain Dog 13. Pomeranian 14. Irish Water Spaniel 15. Vizsla 16. Cardigan Welsh Corgi Above Average Working Dogs Understanding of New Commands: 15 to 25 repetitions. Obey First Command: 70% of the time or better.* [18] 1. Chesapeake Bay Retriever Puli Yorkshire Terrier 2. Giant Schnauzer 3. Airedale Terrier Bouvier des Flandres 4. Border Terrier Briard 5. Welsh Springer Spaniel 6. Manchester Terrier 7. Samoyed 8. Field Spaniel Newfoundland Australian Terrier American Staffordshire Terrier Gordon Setter Bearded Collie 9. Cairn Terrier Kerry Blue Terrier Irish Setter 10. Norwegian Elkhound 11. Affenpinscher Australian Silky Terrier Miniature Pinscher English Setter Pharaoh Hound Clumber Spaniel 12. Norwich Terrier 13. Dalmatian Average Working/Obedience Intelligence Understanding of New Commands: 25 to 40 repetitions. Obey First Command: 50% of the time or better.* [18] 1. Soft-coated Wheaten Terrier Bedlington Terrier Fox Terrier (Smooth) 2. Curly Coated Retriever Irish Wolfhound 3. Kuvasz Australian Shepherd 4. Saluki Finnish Spitz Pointer 5. Cavalier King Charles Spaniel German Wirehaired Pointer Black and Tan Coonhound American Water Spaniel 6. Siberian Husky Bichon Frise King Charles Spaniel 7. Tibetan Spaniel English Foxhound Otterhound American Foxhound Greyhound Wirehaired Pointing Griffon 8. West Highland White Terrier Scottish Deerhound 9. Boxer Great Dane 10. Dachshund Staffordshire Bull Terrier 11. Alaskan Malamute 12. Whippet Chinese Shar Pei Wire Fox Terrier 13. Rhodesian Ridgeback 14. Ibizan Hound Welsh Terrier Irish Terrier 15. Boston Terrier Akita 2.30. THE INTELLIGENCE OF DOGS Fair Working/Obedience Intelligence Understanding of New Commands: 40 to 80 repetitions. Obey First Command: 30% of the time or better.* [18] 131 2.30.3 See also • Dog intelligence • Stanley Coren 1. Skye Terrier • Working dog 2. Norfolk Terrier Sealyham Terrier • List of dog breeds 3. Pug 4. French Bulldog 5. Griffon Bruxellois Maltese 6. Italian Greyhound 7. Chinese Crested 8. Dandie Dinmont Terrier Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen Tibetan Terrier Japanese Chin Lakeland Terrier 9. Old English Sheepdog 10. Great Pyrenees 11. Scottish Terrier Saint Bernard 12. Bull Terrier 13. Chihuahua 14. Lhasa Apso 15. Bullmastiff Lowest Degree of Working/Obedience Intelligence 1. Shih Tzu 2.30.4 References [1] Coren, Stanley (1995). The Intelligence of Dogs: A Guide To The Thoughts, Emotions, And Inner Lives Of Our Canine Companions. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0553-37452-4. [2] Boxer, Sarah (1994-06-05). “My Dog's Smarter Than Your Dog”. NewYork Times. [3] Wade, Nicholas (1994-07-03).“METHOD AND MADNESS; What Dogs Think”. NewYork Times. [4] Croke, Vicki (1994-04-21). “Growling at the dog list”. Tribune New Service (published in the Boston Globe). [5] “Showing all editions for 'The intelligence of dogs : a guide to the thoughts, emotions, and inner lives or our canine companions'". WorldCat. Retrieved 2011-10-23. [6] Stanley Coren (July 15, 2009). “Canine Intelligence̶ Breed Does Matter”. Psychology Today. Retrieved 201108-16. [7] Hart, BL; Hart (1985).“LA”. JAVMA 186: 1181–1185. [8] Hart, BL; Hart (1988). The Perfect Puppy. New York: Freeman. [9] Stanley Coren. “Excerpted from “The Intelligence of Dogs"". Retrieved 2011-10-23. [10] Example: Perrin, Noel (April 10, 1994). “How Do Dogs Think?". Chicago Sun-Times. [11] Example: “Coren's Canine List Has Owners Growling” . April 30, 1994. Apr 30, 1994. 2. Basset Hound [12] Example:Csányi, Vilmos (2000). If dogs could talk: Exploring the canine mind. New York: North Point Press. 3. Mastiff Beagle [13] Example:Miklósi, Ádám (2009). Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4. Pekingese [14] Davis, SL; Cheeke PR (August 1998). “Do domestic animals have minds and the ability to think? A provisional sample of opinions on the question.”. Journal of Animal Science 76 (8): 2072–2079. 5. Bloodhound 6. Borzoi 7. Chow Chow 8. Bulldog 9. Basenji 10. Afghan Hound [15] Example: Helton, WS (November 2009). “Cephalic index and perceived dog trainability”. Behavioural Processes 83 (3): 355–358. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2009.08.004. [16] Coren, Stanley (2006). Why does my dog act that way? A complete guide to your dog's personality. New York: Free Press. 132 [17] “Ranking of Dogs for Obedience/Working Intelligence by Breed”. Archived from the original on January 2, 2012. [18] Coren1995 2.31 Pack (canine) For other uses, see Wolfpack. Pack is a social group of conspecific canids. Not CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.31.1 Pack behavior in specific species African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) live and hunt in packs. Males assist in raising the pups, and remain with their pack for life, while the females leave their birth pack at about the age of two and a half years old to join a pack with no females. Males outnumber the females in a pack, and usually only one female breeds, with all of the males. African wild dogs are not territorial, and they hunt cooperatively in their packs, running down large game and tearing it apart. They cooperate in caring for wounded and sick pack members as well as the young.* [1] Gray wolves (Canis lupus) usually live in packs which consist of the adult parents and their offspring of perhaps the last 2 or 3 years. The adult parents are usually unrelated and other unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack.* [2] Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) have a single long term mate, and usually hunt singly or in pairs. Both parents care for the young, and the parents and their current offspring are the pack. They will cooperate in larger packs to hunt large game.* [3] Canine packs often work cooperatively, as in this bison hunt. The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) has different social behavior from the gray wolf: pack members hunt alone for rodents, and come together mainly to defend their territory from other packs.* [4] A hunting pack of African wild dogs White huskies dog sledding Domestic dogs See also: Dog behavior § Social behavior Domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris): Domesticated dogs have had humans as part of dog social structure for at least 12,000 years, and human behaviour is not the same Pack size distribution of the African wild dog. as wolf behaviour. Studies of dog behaviour include studies of dogs and their interactions with humans,* [5] and all species of canids - notably the red fox - form packs. “dumped”or “road”dogs that were raised by humans Pack size and social behaviour within packs varies across and then left to fend for themselves (e.g. The Tuscany species. Dog Project).* [6] 2.31. PACK (CANINE) Pack organization in other canine species • Golden jackal#Social and territorial behaviours • Dhole#Social and territorial behaviours • Coyote#Behavior • Golden jackal#Social and territorial behaviours • Side-striped jackal#Social behavior and reproduction 2.31.2 Dominance and the alpha wolf Dominance is a ubiquitous phenomenon in social animals. Animals which typically predominate over others are associated with the term alpha. Among pack-living wolves, alpha wolves are the genetic parents of most cubs in the pack. Such access to mating females creates strong selective pressure for intra-sex competition. 133 tus, which is trivial information, but its role as pack progenitor, which is critical information. The one use we may still want to reserve for alpha is in the relatively few large wolf packs comprised of multiple litters. ... In such cases the older breeders are probably dominant to the younger breeders and perhaps can more appropriately be called the alphas. ... The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy.”* [11] Use in dog training Gray wolves (Canis lupus) have been shown through genetic analysis to be of the same species as the domestic dog. Based in part on this close genetic relationship (though 12,000 years of domestication have altered the dog physically and socially), dog trainers have based techniques for modifying domestic dog behaviour on research Wolves show deference to the alpha pair in their pack by on gray wolves in the wild. allowing them to be the first to eat and, usually, the only One of the most persistent theories in dog training litpair to reproduce. Wolves use eye contact as an indicaerature is the idea of the alpha wolf, an individual gray tor of dominance or submission, but in order to establish wolf who uses body language and, when needed, physia dominant position they often also show physical supecal force to maintain its dominance within the wolf pack. riority through playing or fighting. Modern knowledge The idea was first reported in early wolf research . It was of wolves dismisses the idea of absolute alphas in a pack, subsequently adopted by dog trainers.* [12] The term alfavoring instead the concept of breeder wolves as the cenpha was popularized as early as 1976 in the dog trainters of life in a pack, in the sense that the pack leaders are ing book How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend (Monks of the common parents of at least some of the other pack New Skete), which introduced the idea of the alpha roll, members. As such, the smaller and more nuclear a pack a technique for punishing unwanted dog behaviours. Psyis the status of alpha is less likely to be obtained through chologist and dog trainer Stanley Coren in the 2001 book fighting, and young wolves instead leave the pack to find How to Speak Dog says“you are the alpha dog...You must * a mate and produce offspring of their own. [7] Larger communicate that you are the pack leader and dominant” or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess * . [13] * more complex and flexible social structures. [8] Training techniques assumed to be wolf pack related such In the case of other wild canids, the alpha male may not as scruff shaking, the alpha roll and recommendations have exclusive access to the alpha female;* [9] moreover, to be alpha to your dog continue to be used and recother pack members may guard the maternity den used ommended by some dog training instructors.* [14] It has by the alpha female; as with the African wild dog, Lycaon been suggested that the use of such techniques may have pictus.* [10] more to do with human psychology than with dog beAs dominant roles may be deemed normal among social haviour;“dominance hierarchies and dominance disputes species with extended parenting, it has been suggested and testing are a fundamental characteristic of all social that the additional term alpha is not required merely to groups... But perhaps only we humans learn to use pundescribe dominance due to its ubiquity, but should be re- ishment primarily to gain for ourselves the reward of beserved for alpha males where they are the predominant ing dominant.* [15] Many contemporary trainers would pack progenitor. For instance, wolf biologist L. David agree, advocating the use of rewards to teach commands Mech stated and encourage good communication between owners and their pets. Some canine behaviourists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which “calling a wolf an alpha is usually no more can be utilised to benefit the owner's everyday life.* [16] appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha. Any parent is dominant to its young offspring, so alpha adds no infor2.31.3 See also mation. Why not refer to an alpha female as the female parent, the breeding female, the matri• Pack hunter arch, or simply the mother? Such a designation emphasizes not the animal's dominant sta• Dog behavior 134 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.31.4 References [1] Animal Diversity Web. “Lycaon pictus: Information”. University of Michigan. Retrieved 21 April 2008. [2] L. David Mech. “Schenkelʼs Classic Wolf Behavior Study Available in English”. Retrieved 21 April 2008. ...Schenkelʼs 1947 “Expressions Studies on Wolves”, the study that gave rise to the now outmoded notion of alpha wolves. That concept was based on the old idea that wolves fight within a pack to gain dominance and that the winner is the “alpha”wolf. Today we understand that A Border Collie herding. This behaviour is an example of modmost wolf packs consist of a pair of adults called“parents” ified prey drive. or “breeders,”and their offspring. [3] Animal Diversity Web.“Canis mesomelas: Information” . University of Michigan. Retrieved 21 April 2008. [4] “Ethiopian Wolf”. Animal Info. 2005-03-07. Retrieved 2015-02-26. [5] llen Kienzle; Reinhold Bergler; Anja Mandernach (12 December 1998). ""A Comparison of the Feeding Behavior and the Human-Animal Relationship in Owners of Normal and Obese Dogs"" 128. The Journal of Nutrition. pp. 2779S–2782S. Retrieved 26 February 2015. [6] Günther and Karin Bloch (2005). “DAS STRAßENHUNDE,“TUSCANY DOG PROJECT"". Hundefarmeifel.de. Retrieved 26 February 2015. 2.32 Prey drive Eye-stalking, the tendency to watch potential prey, redirects here. For the study of eye movement, see eye tracking. For eyes on the ends of stalks, see eyestalk Prey drive is the instinctive inclination of a carnivore to find, pursue and capture prey. The term is chiefly used to describe and analyse habits in dog training.* [1] 2.32.1 Aspects [7] Mech, L. David. 1999. In all predators the prey drive follows an inevitable sequence: Search (orient, eye); Stalk, chase; Bite (grab[8] Dutcher, Jim and Jamie. Wolves At Our Door, Simon and bite, kill-bite); dissect, consume.* [2]* [3] In wolves, the Schuster, 2002 prey drive is complete and balanced since it utilises the whole range from search to kill and finally consumes the [9] Gary Greenberg and Maury M. Haraway. 1998 prey in order to survive.* [3] [10] C. Michael Hogan. 2009 In different breeds of dog certain of these five steps have been amplified or reduced by human-controlled selective [11] Mech, L. David (1999). “Alpha Status, Dominance, and Division of Labor in Wolf Packs”. Jamestown, ND: breeding for various purposes. The “search”aspect of Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. Cana- the prey drive, for example, is most valuable in detection dian Journal of Zoology 77:1196-1203. Retrieved 21 dogs such as bloodhounds and beagles. The “eye-stalk” April 2008. The point here is not so much the termi- is a strong component of the behaviors used by herding nology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, dogs, who find herding its own reward. The “chase”is force-based dominance hierarchy. seen most clearly in racing dogs such as Greyhounds and Lurchers, while the“grab-bite”and“kill-bite”are valu[12] “ClickerSolutions Training Articles - The History and able in the training of terriers. Misconceptions of Dominance Theory”. Clickersolutions.com. Retrieved 2015-02-26. [13] Coren, Stanley (2001). “20”. How to Speak Dog (First Fireside edition ed.). Simon & Schuster. p. 250. ISBN 0-684-86534-3. [14] “BC Boards”. Bordercollie.org. Retrieved 2015-02-26. [15] Pryor, Karen (August 1999). “4”. Don't Shoot the Dog! (Bantam trade paperback ed.). Bantam Books. p. 108. ISBN 0-553-38039-7. In many breeds of dog, prey drive is so strong that the chance to satisfy the drive is its own reward, and extrinsic reinforcers are not required to compel the dog to perform the behaviour. 2.32.2 Benefits In dog training, prey drive can be used as a performative advantage because dogs with strong prey drive are also willing to pursue moving objects such as toys, which can [16] “Dog behaviour pack leaders debunked”. Affinity Dog then be used to encourage certain kinds of behavior, such Training. Retrieved 2013-08-16. as that of greyhound racing or the speed required in dog 2.34. SEPARATION ANXIETY IN DOGS 135 agility.* [4] Prey drive can be an important component of pet dog training, obedience training and schutzhund as well.* [5] Games such as fetch and tug-of-war can be an effective motivator and reward for learning. Certain aspects of the prey drive can be a disadvantage in some dogs. In retrievers, for example, the dog is expected to chase prey and bring it back to the human hunter, but not bite or damage it. Herding dogs must exhibit the stalking and chasing aspects of prey drive, but should have strongly inhibited grab bite and kill bite stages to prevent them wounding stock. Bull Terriers such as the Staffordshire bull terrier have an amplified grab-bite as they were originally bred to bait bulls (restrain bulls by hanging onto their noses), but never needed to find or stalk the prey. 2.32.3 Degrees Levels of prey drive often vary substantially in different dogs. Therefore, a dog with low drive does not make a Gaiting pugs successful detection or search dog, but a dog who is too high in prey drive may be unsuitable as a pet for a suburban home, as it may become bored and destructive when championship, or if finished, to show in the Best of Breed class as a “special”. its high drive is not regularly satisfied. 2.32.4 Balance Dogs are happiest and most balanced in overall behavior when their prey drive is properly stimulated and satisfied through play. Many professional dog trainers consider dog bite tug to be an effective training tool in prey drive and “retrieve”skills development. 2.32.5 Notes [1] “How To Choose The Right Breed”. Darnfar.com. Retrieved 2011-12-06. 2.33.1 Education Becoming a professional handler does not require any formal schooling, but an apprenticeship under an established handler and an adherence to a code of ethics is sometimes required in order to join into one of the professional organizations. 2.33.2 External links • PHA, Professional Handler's Association [2] Coppinger, Raymond (2001). Dogs, A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolution. University of Chicago Press. p. 116. • Dog Handlers' Guild [3] article,“The Canine Prey Drive Instinct,”Paul Lindley. • Canadian Professional Handlers Association [4] “Playing with Prey Drive: The Key to Attitude and Enthusiasm in Performance Dogs”. The Dog Athlete. Retrieved 2011-12-06. [5] “Understanding Prey Drive”. Flyballdogs.com. 199701-07. Retrieved 2011-12-06. 2.33 Professional handler A professional handler, sometimes called a professional dog handler is a person who trains, conditions and shows dogs in conformation shows for a fee. Handlers are hired by dog owners or breeders to finish their • AKC's Registered Handlers Program 2.34 Separation anxiety in dogs Separation anxiety in dogs describes a condition in which a dog exhibits distress and behavior problems when separated from its handler. Separation anxiety typically manifests within 30 minutes of departure of the handler.* [1] It is not fully understood why some dogs suffer from separation anxiety and others do not.* [2] The behavior may be secondary to an underlying medical condition.* [3] A visit to the veterinarian is always recommended if a dog's behavior changes suddenly. 136 2.34.1 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES Typical behaviors As of 2012, a San Diego cable channel is offering DOGTV, a cable-based television channel especially for Dogs suffering from separation anxiety typically exhibit dogs whose owners are away. The programming, crethese behaviors: ated with the help of dog behavior specialists, is coloradjusted to appeal to dogs, and features 3-6 minute segments designed to relax, to stimulate, and to expose the • Following handler excessively dog to scenes of everyday life such as doorbells or rid• Pacing ing in a vehicle. The channel's proponents have indicated positive reviews from a humane society shelter in • Excessive salivating Escondido, California.* [7] The “doggie resort”hosts • Excessive shaking (usually seen in smaller breeds; of the opening party for Dog TV in San Diego reported that some of their dogs seem to enjoy watching the anChihuahua, Yorkshire Terrier) imated series SpongeBob SquarePants. The show's cre• Vomiting ators anticipate that dogs will watch Dog TV intermittently, throughout the day, rather than remaining glued to • Destructive chewing the set.* [8]* [9]* [10] • Barking, howling, whining Another technology based solution for calming separation • Urination, defecation in the house • Self harm • Digging and scratching at doors or windows in an attempt to reunite with the handler* [4] 2.34.2 anxious dogs is a software named Digital Dogsitter.* [11] The user first records his or her voice to the software. When the dog is alone, the software listens to the dog and analyzes the incoming audio through the computer's microphone. Whenever the dog barks or howls, software plays the owners voice to the dog and the dog stays calm. Causes Drugs The cause of dog separation anxiety is unknown, but may be triggered by: Dogs can also be treated with psychotropic drugs, such as anti-depressants or anti-anxiety drugs A recent trend in treatment is the use of psychotropic drugs in animals to • a traumatic event treat similar psychological disorders to those displayed in • a change in routine * [4] humans and mitigate the behavior related to these disorders. These connections between human and animal psy• major life change (e.g. new home, new baby, death chopharmacology can help to explain how similar neuroof a family member) biology can be among different species.* [12] * • an underlying medical condition [1] Similar to humans, Selective Serotonin Reuptake In- 2.34.3 Treatment for separation anxiety in dogs Dogs suffering from separation anxiety are often“owner addicts.”Setting boundaries will boost a dog's confidence and prepare it to be on its own.* [5] Various techniques have been suggested for helping dogs cope with separation anxiety: • Leaving and returning home quietly, without fuss * [6] • Providing plenty of exercise, play, and fun hibitors, or SSRIs, or tricyclic anti-depressants are used to treat anxious and depressive behavior in animals. One study tracked the effectiveness of clomipramine, a tricyclic anti-depressant, in reducing compulsive behaviors through administration of a tricyclic anti-depressant in dogs. Behaviors displayed by these dogs include but are not limited to tail-chasing, shadow-chasing, circling and chewing. The study found that after one month of daily administration of the tricyclic anti-depressant clomipramine, these compulsive behaviors decreased or disappeared in 16 out of 24 dogs. Slight to moderate behavior mitigation was shown in 5 dogs. These results suggest that clomipramine can be beneficial to canines displaying anxiety behaviors.* [13] Fluoxetine, an SSRI used by humans under the brand • Practicing leaving to adjust the dog to your departure name Prozac, is now prescribed to dogs under the brand name Reconcile. Another study found that dogs who • Feeding the dog before you leave were being treated with both Reconcile and Behavioral Modulation Treatment compared to dogs receiving a • Leaving the radio/TV on placebo and behavioral therapy called Behavior Modu• Medicating the dog lation Treatment, were much more successful at miti- 2.34. SEPARATION ANXIETY IN DOGS gating behaviors related to separation anxiety. After 8 weeks of treatment, 72% of the dogs given fluoxetine displayed fewer adverse behaviors (Excessive salivation, inappropriate urination/defecation) while only 50% of the placebo group had mitigated these behaviors.* [14] 137 [6] “Separation Anxiety In Dogs and How to Deal with It Coping with Destructive and Obsessive Compulsive Behaviors”. Retrieved 2012-03-09. [7] Gorman, Steve. Dogs like to watch SpongeBob on TV. The Columbus Dispatch. Retrieved April 23, 2012. Benzodiazepine treatment Benzodiazepines, such as [8] “Fetch the remote, it's DogTV | UTSanDiego.com”. Retrieved 2012-03-08. alprazolam, are anxiolytic medications. Benzodiazepines have also shown to be beneficial in the treatment of [9]“Can Dog TV Make a Profit? - Businessweek”. Retrieved stimuli-evoking anxiety, or phobias. One study on storm 2012-03-08. phobias found that 30 out of the 32 canines involved in the study had reductions in anxiety behavior after being [10] “DOGTV - Watch”. Retrieved 2012-03-08. treated with alprazolam. However, this study suggests that the best way to benefit from benzodiazepine treat- [11] “Digital Dogsitter - Cure for dogs' separation anxiety”. Retrieved 2012-11-26. ment is when it is being used in conjunction with Behavior Modulation Treatment and an anti-depressant.* [15] [12] Hamby, Tori Medication now used to treat petʼs behavioral disorders September 30, 2012 http://www.huntersvilleherald.com/news/2012/09/30/ medication-now-used-to-treat-pets-behavioral-disorders/ Adverse Effects The most common adverse effects related to fluoxetine treatment were decreased appetite, experienced by 23% of the dogs in the study, and lethargy, experienced by 39% of the dogs in the study. Some ca- [13] Seksel, K; Lindeman, MJ (2001). “Use of clomipramine in treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, separation nines actually experienced worsening anxiety and aggresanxiety and noise phobia in dogs: A preliminary, clini* sive behavior. [16] cal study”. Australian Veterinary Journal 79 (4): 252– 6. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.2001.tb11976.x. PMID In the study with clomipramine, 9 dogs underwent with11349411. drawal after discontinuing treatment. 5 of those dogs were successful in overcoming the withdrawal, while 4 dogs relapsed.* [13] With regards to these results it is im- [14] Simpson, BS; Landsberg, GM; Reisner, IR; Ciribassi, JJ; Horwitz, D; Houpt, KA; Kroll, TL; Luescher, A et portant to note that these sample sizes were relatively al. (2007). “Effects of reconcile (fluoxetine) chewable small, so we should be cautious about making hasty contablets plus behavior management for canine separation clusions. However, these studies have given us a look at anxiety”. Veterinary therapeutics 8 (1): 18–31. PMID one of the many variables regarding psychoactive drug 17447222. withdrawal.* [13]* [15] With regards to benzodiazepine treatment, it has been [15] Crowell-Davis, Sharon L.; Seibert, Lynne M.; Sung, Wailani; Parthasarathy, Valli; Curtis, Terry M. (2003). found that canines can develop dependence to these types “Use of clomipramine, alprazolam, and behavior modiof medications and go through a similar withdrawal profication for treatment of storm phobia in dogs”. Jourcess as humans. For example, their seizure threshold is nal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 222 lowered and anxiety relapse can occur after stopping ben(6): 744–8. doi:10.2460/javma.2003.222.744. PMID zodiazepine treatment.* [17] Similarly to treatment of hu12675296. man anxiety disorders, benzodiazepines are a last resort [16] Irimajiri, M; Luescher, AU; Douglass, G; Robertsontreatment, due to their addiction potential.* [12] 2.34.4 References [1] Woodard, Sherry. “Separation Anxiety in Dogs”. Best Friends Animal Society. Retrieved 9 August 2012. [2] of the US, Humane Society. “Separation Anxiety”. Retrieved 9 August 2012. [3] MD, Pet. “Separation Anxiety in Dogs”. Retrieved 9 August 2012. [4] “Separation Anxiety : The Humane Society of the United States”. Retrieved 2012-03-08. [5] Kilcommons, Brian. “How to Cure Your Dog's Separation Anxiety”. Retrieved 9 August 2012. Plouch, C; Zimmermann, A; Hozak, R (2009). “Randomized, controlled clinical trial of the efficacy of fluoxetine for treatment of compulsive disorders in dogs”. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 235 (6): 705–9. doi:10.2460/javma.235.6.705. PMID 19751167. [17] Frey, Hans-Hasso; Philippin, Hans-Peter; Scheuler, Wolfgang (1984). “Development of tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of diazepam in dogs”. European Journal of Pharmacology 104 (1–2): 27–38. doi:10.1016/00142999(84)90365-0. PMID 6437848. 2.34.5 External links • Dog Anxiety Dietary Solution 138 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES 2.35 Shepherd's whistle A shepherd's whistle is a specialized, multi-pitch whistle used to train and transmit commands to a sheepdog to aid in herding. 2.35.1 History A shepherd's whistle is commonly used for sheepdog trials and was originally developed from a primitive whistle made out of folding over a tobacco tin* [1] or dog-food lid and punching a hole. 2.35.2 Mechanics and material Unlike other whistles, they are placed inside the mouth and the pitch is controlled by placement of the tongue behind the whistle. They are commonly made of plastic, aluminum, stainless steel, silver, brass, titanium, corion, jade, buffalo horn and other materials. Shepherd's whistles are designed to communicate clearly and at distances up to several hundred yards the commands of the owner to his working dog. They produce clear, high-frequency tones of an easily modulated and variable pitch, allowing the shepherd to communicate a variety of commands. The pitch is designed to be at the optimal frequency for the border collie's hearing, and for penetration and distance to cut through adverse weather when gathering sheep. 2.35.3 References [1] “The Shepherd's Whistles”, compiled by Kathleen Ward 2.35.4 External links • Shepherd's whistle sounds 2.36 Shock collar The term shock collar is a term used in order to describe a family of training collars (also called e-collars, Ecollars, remote training collars, Zap collars, or electronic collars) that deliver electrical shocks of varying intensity and duration to the neck of a dog (they can also be applied to other places on the dog's body) via a radiocontrolled electronic device incorporated into a dog collar. Some collar models also include a tone or vibrational setting, as an alternative to or in conjunction with the shock. Others include integration with Internet mapping capabilities and GPS to locate the dog or alert an owner of its whereabouts. Originally used in the late 1960s to train hunting dogs, early collars were very high powered. Many modern versions are capable of delivering very low levels of shock. Shock collars are now readily available and have been used in a range of applications, including behavioral modification, obedience training, and pet containment, as well as military, police and service training. While similar systems are available for other animals, the most common are the collars designed for domestic dogs. The use of shock collars is controversial and scientific evidence for their safety and efficacy is mixed. A few countries have enacted bans or controls on their use. Some animal welfare organizations warn against their use or actively support a ban on their use or sale. Some want restrictions placed on their sale. Some professional dog trainers and their organizations oppose their use and some support them. Support for their use or calls for bans from the general public is mixed. 2.36.1 Types of devices Pet containment systems The most common use of shock collars is pet containment systems that are used to keep a dog inside the perimeter of the residence without the construction of a physical barrier. This use of shock collars is increasingly popular in areas where local laws or homeowners' associations prohibit the construction of a physical fence. Available systems include: in-ground installation to preserve the aesthetics of the yard; above ground installation to reinforce an existing barrier that was not sufficient in containing the dog; and wireless systems to allow for indoor use. Most pet containment systems work by installing a wire around the perimeter of the yard. The wire carries no current (as opposed to electric fences which do carry a current at high voltage that may be lethal in the event of unauthorized or defective installation or equipment) but forms a 2.36. SHOCK COLLAR closed loop with a circuit box that transmits a radio signal to the receiver collar worn by the dog (Lindsay 2005, p. 573). As the dog approaches the perimeter the collar will activate. A “scat mat”, is a battery operated or plug in pad that delivers a shock if the animal walks on it. These pads are used on furniture, windowsills, counters or in hallways to prevent an animal from touching or accessing an area. The animal learns to avoid receiving a shock by avoiding contact with the mat. Bark control collars Bark control collars are used to curb excessive or nuisance barking by delivering a shock at the moment the dog begins barking. Bark collars can be activated by microphone or vibration, and some of the most advanced collars use both sound and vibration to eliminate the possibility of extraneous noises activating a response. Training collars or remote trainers Training collars can be activated by a handheld device. Better quality remote trainers have a large variety of levels and functions, can give varying duration of stimulation, better quality stimulation, and have a beep or vibration option useful for getting the dogʼs attention. Proper training is an imperative for remote collar use, as misuse can cause negative behavioral fallout (Polsky 2000). Many recommend consulting a behaviorist or a certified training professional who is experienced with shock collars for successful usage and application. 139 sensation they deliver to the “static shock”that people sometimes get when reaching for a door knob or car door. This is not to imply that shock collars emit static electricity but rather to give the potential user an idea of what a shock collar feels like. It's often startling, sometimes painful, but has never been shown to cause physical injury. Comparing the effects of shock collars with other electrical stimulation products, Dr. Dieter Klein has stated that, “Modern devices ... are in a range in which normally no organic damage is being inflicted. The electric properties and performances of the modern low current remote stimulation devices ... are comparable to the electric stimulation devices used in human medicine. Organic damage, as a direct impact of the applied current, can be excluded.”* [2] Shock of this nature carries little energy (on the order of millijoules, 1 millijoule = 0.001 joule ). “At 0.914 joules the electric muscle stimulation and contractions a human receives from an 'abdominal energizer' fitness product is exponentially stronger ̶ more than 1,724 times stronger̶than the impulse a dog receives from a pet containment collar set at its highest level.”.* [3] • A“remote trainer”set on a low level emits 0.000005 joules (5 microjoules). • A “bark collar”set on a high level emits 0.0003 joules (300 microjoules). • A“muscle stimulation machine”set on a“normal level”emits 2.0 joules. • Set on a “high level”it emits 6.0 joules. Shock collars may be used in conjunction with positive reinforcement and / or utilizing other principles of • An electric fence energizer [a “charged fence”– operant conditioning, depending on the trainer's methods not a pet containment system] emits 3.2 joules. either as a form of positive punishment, where the shock • A modern defibrillator can emit up to 360 is applied at the moment an undesired behavior occurs, joules.* [4] in order to reduce the frequency of that behavior; or as a form of negative reinforcement, where a continuous stimulation is applied until the moment a desired behavior oc2.36.3 Technical considerations curs, in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. 2.36.2 Frame of reference “At low levels, the term shock is hardly fitting to describe the effects produced by electronic training collars, since there is virtually no effect beyond a pulsing tingling or tickling sensation on the surface of the skin ... the word shock is loaded with biased connotations, images of convulsive spasms and burns, and implications associated with extreme physical pain, emotional trauma, physiological collapse, and laboratory abuses ... the stimulus or signal generated by most modern devices is highly controlled and presented to produce a specific set of behavioral and motivational responses to it.”* [1] Some trainers who use shock collars will compare the Electric shock can be characterised in terms of voltage, current, waveform, frequency (of waveform), pulse rate and duration. Although voltage, current and duration of shock can be used to calculate the amount of energy applied (in Joules), these are not indicators of the intensity of the stimulus or how it may be perceived by the recipient. Static electric shocks that are experienced in daily life are of the order of 10,000 volts, and yet are not painful or physically damaging because they are of very low current. Modern shock collars can be set so that the current they give off is only mildly uncomfortable. No shock collar on the market today is limited to deliver shocks of such low intensity. The lack of such limits is because variable settings are essential, so that the shock collar can be adjusted to the level that the dog requires, and adjusted as situations change. The shock, and the 140 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES animal's perception of it, can be affected by a number of Christiansen et al study (2001a) factors. Christiansen et al., looked at behavioural differences beIndividual variations in temperament, pain sensitivity and tween three breeds of dogs when confronted by domestic susceptibility to startle of dogs, means that shock settings sheep (138 dogs; Elkhounds, hare hunting dogs and Enmust be carefully adjusted to produce a shock that is perglish setters).* [7] Two testing procedures were used and ceived by the dog as aversive enough to stop the dog enshock collars were used to deter attacks on sheep. The gaging in the unwanted behaviour. The single most imfirst, a path test, involved observing the dogs' reactions to portant factor is the animal's level of arousal during traina set of novel stimuli (rag pulled across the track, buning. Normally salient stimuli, such as noises, commands dle of cans thrown down, tethered sheep at 5m) as it was and even shocks, may have no effect on a dog that is highly walked. The second test involved monitoring the dog's aroused and focused on an activity such as hunting. reaction to a free-roaming sheep flock in a field. In this In order to deliver consistent shocks, good contact must study they identified several factors that predicted a high be made between the collar electrodes and the dog's skin hunting motivation and attack severity. These were lack (the collar must be fitted according to the manufacturer's of previous opportunity to chase sheep, low fearfulness instructions). Local humidity and individual variation in towards gunshots and unfamiliar people and general incoat density, skin thickness and surface conductivity, will terest in sheep when encountering them. Younger dogs also affect the delivery of the shock. (<3 years of age) showed more pronounced initial hunting The waveform, its frequency, the pulse rate, amperage, motivation and more frequent attacks. Elkhounds showed voltage and impedance are important determinants of more hunting behaviour, more attacks and were more frelikely response. “Many e−collars appear to shift inten- quently given electric shocks during the tests. A shock sity levels by altering the pulse duration or repetition rate collar was used to deter attacks on the sheep during the while keeping the output current and voltage relatively experiments. Shocks (3000V, 0.4A, duration 1 second) constant, depending on the electrode−skin load.”(Lind- were delivered when dogs came within a distance of 12m of the sheep, and were repeated until the dogs left say 2005, p. 573). the area. The objective was to suppress an attack, but Shock collars are sometimes referred to as delivering a not to damage the hunting ability of the dogs. Despite “static shock"; however, static electricity is direct current frequently initiated chases and attacks, few shocks were and carries little energy (order of millijoules). Shock col- delivered. This was because few dogs approached closer lars make use of alternating current. It is therefore inap- than 1–2 m, and the intention was to deter proximity to propriate to refer to shock collars as delivering a static sheep rather than to associate hunting behaviour with an shock. aversive shock, which would impair future hunting beNo regulations exist specifying the performance charac- haviour in other contexts. teristics or reliability of these devices, so there is considerable variation in shock level and waveform characterChristiansen et al. study (2001b) istics between manufacturers, and perhaps even between batches of collars from a single manufacturer. The lack The dogs used in the first study were re-tested using the of regulation or standards, and the fact that some of the same procedures in order to assess the long-term impact safety features of shock collars are patented by specific of the training on their reaction to sheep.* [8] Again, in the manufacturers,* [5] means that the safety and operational free-running tests the dogs were fitted with a shock collar, characteristics of individual products cannot be verified. which was used to deter approaches to within 1-2m of the Over 31 years ago, in the USA, the Center for Veterinary sheep. Dogs that had previously been shocked in year 1 Medicine (CVM), a branch of the U.S. Food and Drug showed a significant increased in latency to approach a Administration (FDA),“concurred”in regulatory action person during the path test (p<0.001), even though this against a manufacturer of a bark collar, stating “Com- was not a condition under which shocks had been delivplaints received, which were later corroborated by our ered. Owners reported behavioral differences between own testing, included severe burns in the collar area and year 1 and 2 in 24 of the dogs. 18 of the 24 dogs had possible personality adjustment injuries to the dogs. The shown no interest in sheep during that period, even though shocking mechanism was found to be activated not only they had been interested in them during the first year tests. by barking but by vehicle horns, slamming doors or any However, only one of those dogs had received shocks, so other loud noise. CVM concurred in regulatory action the change in behaviour could not be attributed to the use against the device since it was deemed to be dangerous to of the shock collar. When comparing ownersʼreports for the health of the animal.”* [6] However, physical injuries the two years, the dogs showed a weaker inclination for have not been shown to occur with current collars . chasing sheep and other prey than previously (p < 0:001), but this variable was not affected by shock experience. Dogs that had shown interest in sheep in year 1 showed a persistent interest in year 2. No dogs chased or attacked 2.36.4 Scientific studies sheep as their first response, while half of them did so the 2.36. SHOCK COLLAR first year. During the entire test period, the proportion of dogs attacking sheep was reduced to almost one fourth. The number of shocks administered per dog was reduced by the second year, and only one of the dogs which received el. shocks the first year needed el. shocks also the second year.The observations that both receivers and non-receivers of el. shocks the first year showed a reduction in the probability of chasing sheep, but the receivers showing a larger reduction, show that el. shock treatment provides an additional learning response. No adverse effects on the dogs were observed with this training procedure, but in their discussion the authors commented “In order to ensure no negative effects, we recommend that the electronic dog collar may be used for such purposes only if it is used by skilled trainers with special competence on dog behaviour, learning mechanisms, and of this particular device.” Salgirli dissertation (2008) The aim of Salgirli's study was "...to investigate whether any stress is caused by the use of specific conditioned signal, quitting signal, and/or pinch collars as alternatives to electric training collars, and if they do so, whether the stress produced in the process is comparable to the one with electric training collars.”.* [9] The study population were a group of 42 adult police dogs. The quitting signal was a conditioned frustration equivalent to negative punishment. It was conditioned by associating failure to obtain an anticipated food reward with a specific vocal signal. In the test, dogs were walked past a“provocateur” who attempted to taunt the dog into a reaction. If the dog reacted, it was punished, and if it failed to react on subsequent provocations then the punishment was deemed to have had a learning effect. The study is therefore a comparison of negative and positive punishment methods, and not a comparison of punishment with positive reinforcement. Learning effect was measured by assessing the number of dogs that learned to quit a behaviour after application of the punishing stimulus. There was no statistical difference in learning effect between the pinch and shock collar, but the quitting signal produced a significantly poorer learning effect compared to shock or pinch collars (p < 0.01 in both cases). “Although the pinch collar caused more behavioral reactions, in the form of distress, than the electronic training collar, the electronic training collar elicits more vocal reactions in dogs than the pinch collars"; the explanation for increased vocalisation in the shock collar group was that this was due to a startle response rather than pain reactions. Salivary cortisol was monitored to measure the stress levels of the dogs, but this data was not presented in the dissertation; behavioral observation was the sole measure of stress. The study concluded that the electronic training collar induces less distress and shows stronger “learning effect”in dogs in comparison to the pinch collar. Commenting on the quitting signal, the author stated“It should 141 particularly be mentioned, that the quitting signal training was implied only on adult dogs within the frame of this study. Therefore, the results should not be interpreted as that the quitting signal can not be a suitable method in police dog training. As previously stated training of the quitting signal requires a hard and a structured procedure. Thus, if the training, namely the conditioning, begins in puppyhood, the quitting signal can also be an effective method in police dog training”. Comparing the effects of the three punishment methods; “These results can probably be explained by that electronic training collar complies completely with the punishment criteria, which were defined by TORTORA (1982), in case of proof of the proficient and experienced user. On the other hand when applying the pinch collar, these criteria can not be met even though perfect timing is applied since reactions of the dog and effectiveness of the method depends on several different factors such as the willingness, strength and motivation of the handler, as well as his/her proficiency. In addition to that, the visibility of the administrator and, thus, of the punishment is another important factor influencing the efficiency of the pinch collar because the dog directly links the punishment with its owner. Therefore this method does not satisfy theʻʻpunishment criteriaʼʼat all. The quitting signal on the other hand requires criteria, such as good timing and structured training procedure, on account of complete conditioning in order to achieve effective results. Even if these criteria are met, the personality trait of the dog is another factor, which influences the efficiency of the signal.”* [9] Schalke et al. study (2007) Schalke et al. conducted a 7-month study to investigate the effect of shock collars on stress parameters, in a series of different training situations.* [10] Heart rate and saliva cortisol were used to determine the stress levels in three groups of dogs. Group A received the electric shock when they touched the “prey”(a rabbit dummy attached to a motion device), Group H “ ( here”command) received the electric shock when they did not obey a previously trained recall command during hunting, and Group R (random) received random shocks that were unpredictable and out of context. Group A did not show a significant rise in cortisol levels; the other two groups (R & H) did show a significant rise, with group R showing the highest level of cortisol. Salivary cortisol was measured, as this procedure is less likely to cause stress related rise in cortisol. From this the researchers concluded that the dogs who could clearly associate the shock with their action (i.e. touching the prey) and as a result were able to predict and control whether they received a shock, did not show considerable or persistent stress. The evidence of increased stress in the other groups was felt to support earlier findings that poor timing and/or inappropriate use of a shock collar puts the dog at high risk of severe and ongoing stress. They conclude that “The results of this study 142 suggest that poor timing in the application of high level electric pulses, such as those used in this study, means there is a high risk that dogs will show severe and persistent stress symptoms. We recommend that the use of these devices should be restricted with proof of theoretical and practical qualification required and then the use of these devices should only be allowed in strictly specified situations.” Schilder & van der Borg study (2004) Schilder and van der Borg conducted a study to compare the behavior of police service dogs that had previously been trained using a shock collar (Group S) with those which had not (Group C).* [11] In the training test no shocks were applied, but the animal's behavior was observed during training tasks. The intention was to investigate whether shock collar based training might have a long-term effect on stress-related behavior even in the absence of shock, and whether this related to specific features of the training context. Behaviors recorded included recognised indicators of stress (panting, liplicking, yawning, paw lifting and body posture) as well as yelping, squealing, snapping and avoidance. During free walks on the training grounds, groups S dogs showed significantly more stress related behaviors and a lower body posture than group C dogs. During training, the same differences were found. The difference between the groups was more significant when training took place on the familiar training ground, indicating a contextual effect. The presence of the trainer was considered to be part of this context. The authors concluded “We concluded that shocks received during training are not only unpleasant but also painful and frightening.” Lindsay says of this study, “Schilder and Van der Borg (2004) have published a report of disturbing findings regarding the short-term and long- term effects of shock used in the context of working dogs that is destined to become a source of significant controversy.... The absence of reduced drive or behavioral suppression with respect to critical activities associated with shock (e.g., bite work) makes one skeptical about the lasting adverse effects the authors claim to document. Although they offer no substantive evidence of trauma or harm to dogs, they provide loads of speculation, anecdotes, insinuations of gender and educational inadequacies, and derogatory comments regarding the motivation and competence of IPO trainers in its place.”* [12] Steiss et al. study (2007) Steiss, et al., conducted a four-week study of adult shelter dogsʼphysiological and behavioral responses to bark control collars. Plasma cortisol was used as the stress measure. Dogs were randomly assigned to either a shock collar, a spray collar, or a dummy collar (control group). Dogs that were known to bark at an unfamiliar dog were CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES used for the study. Test conditions involved presentation of an unfamiliar dog. Dogs wore activated collars for period of 30 minutes per day for three days in two consecutive weeks. The amount of barking was significantly reduced starting on the second day with both the spray and shock collars. There was no significant difference in effect between the two collar types. The treatment group dogs showed a mild yet statistically significant increase in blood cortisol level (an indicator of stress) only on the first day of wearing the collars (as compared to the Control Group.)* [13] At the conclusion of the study, Dr. Steiss and her team concluded that“In the present study, with dogs wearing bark control collars intermittently over a 2-week period, the collars effectively deterred barking without statistically significant elevations in plasma cortisol, compared to controls, at any of the time points measured.” Tortora Study (1983) Tortora applied a method called“safety training”to treat aggression in 36 cases exhibiting a form of “instrumental aggression”, selected after screening a population of 476 cases. “Instrumental aggression”was defined as describing aggressive acts that “do not have a clear evolutionary significance, are not directly related to emotional arousal, do not have specific releasing stimuli, are not directly modulated by hormones, and do not have an identifiable focus in the brain”. Tortora states that in the context of the article“instrumental aggression”was specifically defined as“aggressive responses that have“a specifiable learning history, show a growth function over time and are modulated by their consequences. These dogs had few operant alternatives to gain reinforcement by compliance and were channeled down a path that allowed their innate aggressiveness to come under the control of the negatively reinforcing contingencies in the environment” . The dogs initially behaved as though they “expected” aversive events and that the only way to prevent these events was through aggression. The dogs were therefore a highly selected subset that had not learned strategies for coping with threat. Each dog was trained to respond to a set of 15 commands taken from the AKC standard for CDX obedience. The commands were selected to provide control over the dog, and included“heel”,“stand” “go”,“come”,“hold” , “drop”and “sit”. These behaviors were termed “safety behaviors”. Training was divided into 9 stages, each of which was composed of 5-20 twice daily training sessions. Dogs could only progress to the next stage after passing a test. On average, dogs took 10-15 sessions to complete each stage. After training basic commands, the dogs were trained to perform the behaviors they had already learned in order to avoid progressively increasing electric shock. After that, they were conditioned to perform a safety behavior in order to avoid a “safety tone”that allowed them to anticipate the shock. In the 2.36. SHOCK COLLAR later stages of training, dogs were exposed to provocation by a distractor dog, and were punished using full intensity shock if they failed to perform a safety behavior or if they showed aggression. After training was complete, and the dog's were choosing to perform the safety behaviors instead of aggression, owners were taught to use the shock collar and the training was transferred into everyday situations. The training resulted in a long-lasting and complete suppression of aggressive behaviour in the dogs. Dogs were followed up 3 years after the end of training, and the reduction in aggression were maintained.* [14] 143 the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO), in the UK, banned the use of shock collars for police dog raining by all UK police forces. The current ACPO Police Dogs Manual of Guidance states “Equipment that is not approved for use in the training of police dogs includes remote training collars designed to give an electric shock and Pinch Collars”.* [18] The Kennel Club has an ongoing campaign to achieve a ban on the sale and use of shock collars; “The Kennel Club in calling upon the Government and Scottish Parliament to introduce an outright ban on this barbaric method of training dogs.”.* [19] The two British members of the World Union of German Shepherd Clubs (WUSV) have joined the Kennel Club in calling for a complete ban on shock collars, and passed a PETA opposes the use of shock collars, stating “Dogs motion to exclude this equipment from any of its training wearing shock collars can suffer from physical pain and branches during official club training times.* [20] injury (ranging from burns to cardiac fibrillation) and psychological stress, including severe anxiety and dis- The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Aniplaced aggression. Individual animals vary in their tem- mals commissioned a review of the effects of shock colperaments and pain thresholds; a shock that seems mild lars from the Department of Veterinary Medicine at Bristo one dog may be severe to another. The anxiety and tol University, which is available online. It states“Given confusion caused by repeated shocks can lead to changes the lack of scientific evidence for the efficacy of bein the heart and respiration rate or gastrointestinal disor- havioural modification using shock collars, particularly ders. Electronic collars can also malfunction, either ad- in the long term, in addition to the potential for mistakes ministering nonstop shocks or delivering no shocks at all” or deliberate abuse and the difficulty in correcting such .* [15] None of these claims, however has been officially errors, the widespread use of these devices must be carefully considered.”* [21] substantiated and remains purely speculative. 2.36.5 Criticism The Companion Animal Behaviour Therapy Study Group (CABTSG), an affiliate group of the British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA), produced a policy statement on the use of shock collars, stating “Their effectiveness depends upon the pain and fear experienced by the animal, but to use them correctly requires detailed understanding of behaviour and its motivation, as well as very precise timing. Few operators are able to achieve any reliable success with these devices and the consequences of failure can be a worsening of the problem behaviour.The indiscriminate use of shock collars therefore poses a threat to the safety of the general public, as well as to the welfare of the animal. We believe that sufficient alternative methods of treatment exist that such electronic training devices are redundant. Therefore, as an association affiliated to BSAVA, it is our duty to recommend that shock collars and all other related training and control aids should be banned from sale or use”.* [16] CABTSG has been renamed the British Veterinary Behaviour Association. The BSAVA itself produced a statement on the risks associated with collars“In principle, the British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA) opposes the use of electronic shock collars for training and containment of animals. Shocks received during training may not only be acutely stressful, painful and frightening for the animal but also may produce long term adverse effects on behavioural and emotional responses.”.* [17] On the advice of the RSPCA and other welfare groups, The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) provides the following comment on the use of aversive collars (choke chains, pinch collars and shock collars): “Some trainers use aversive collars to train“difficult”dogs with correction or punishment. These collars rely on physical discomfort or even pain to teach the dog what not to do. They suppress the unwanted behavior but don't teach him what the proper one is. At best, they are unpleasant for your dog, and at worst, they may cause your dog to act aggressively and even bite you. Positive training methods should always be your first choice.”They go on to comment on shock collars specifically: “The least humane and most controversial use of the shock collar is as a training device. The trainer can administer a shock to a dog at a distance through a remote control. There is a greater chance for abuse (delivery of shocks as punishment) or misuse (poor timing of shocks). Your dog also may associate the painful shock with people or other experiences, leading to fearful or aggressive behavior”.* [22] The potential for shock collars to have a negative impact on behaviour has been recognised by the UK courts. In 2001 Ostarra Langridge was prosecuted after one of her dogs attacked and killed a shitzu whilst on a walk. A control order, rather than a destruction order, was imposed as the magistrates accepted the defense that Ms. Langridge's dog's aggressive behaviour was attributable to the effects of the shock collar. “Ms. Langridge sought the help of a behaviourist when her dogs started to run away from her on their walks along the beach. The dogs were 144 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES given shock collars, which Miss Langridge was told to keep on for three months and activate whenever they misbehaved. But the first time the dogs got a shock was by mistake, after a small dog they were walking past made Miss Langridge jump. From then on her pets associated the shocks with small dogs and became afraid of them. When Miss Langridge described the day in July when her dogs turned on a shihtzu she had tears in her eyes.”. She stated ""They connected the pain of the electric shock with little dogs because of the first time I used the collar. The day that machine came in this house I regret.”* [23] dog-training tools currently available”* [27] The APDT says, "[Electronic] training collars should not be used by novice dog owners or by trainers who are not properly instructed in their use. Use of electronic training collars can result in trauma to your dog and generally are not recommended by positive reinforcement trainers” .* [25] result in a higher incidence of nuisance and dangerous dog behavior, and more dogs being surrendered to already over-burdened public shelters.... Dog training is a very diverse field with a single common thread: communication. Dogs are trained for many different tasks such as assisting the disabled, police work, herding, hunting, protection, competition and companionship. Professional trainers achieve these training goals by using a wide variety of tools to communicate with the dog, both at close range, and over long distances. Done effectively, this communication increases desirable behaviors and reduces the incidence of problem behaviors in dogs.... Any efforts to ban or limit the use of training tools would hinder this communication, and our ability to train dogs would suffer. Working dogs would no longer be able to achieve highly specialized tasks, and families with pet dogs would have fewer options available to correct behavioral problems.... Training tools, when properly utilized, are safe and humane”.* [29] Randall Lockwood PhD, Senior Vice President, Anticruelty Initiatives and Legislative Services, The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) was quoted in a 2007 White Paper titled“The Facts About Modern Electronic Training Devices,”produced by Radio Systems, a manufacturer of shock collars, “We recognize that older products were often unreliable and difficult to use humanely. But we feel that new technology employed by responsible manufacturers has led to products that can be and are being used safely and effecThe Norwegian Council on Animal Ethics“recommends tively to preserve the safety and well-being of many dogs the introduction of a ban electric training collars and and strengthen the bond with their human companions. similar remote-controlled or automatic electronic devices "* [28] that cause your dog substantial discomfort. It should nev- “The International Association of Canine Professionals ertheless be granted an exemption for such training car- (IACP) strongly opposes legislation that bans or limits the ried out by authorized persons in order to prevent hunting humane use of any training tool, saying It is our convicof livestock and wildlife.”* [24] tion that limiting the humane use of training tools would The American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior has produced a position statement titled“The use of punishment for behavior modification in animals”, the opening paragraph of which reads“AVSABʼs position is that punishment (e.g. choke chains, pinch collars, and electronic collars) should not be used as a first-line or earlyuse treatment for behavior problems. This is due to the potential adverse effects which include but are not limited to: inhibition of learning, increased fear-related and aggressive behaviors, and injury to animals and people interacting with animals.”* [26] 2.36.6 Praise In his 2005 textbook on training and behavior, Steven Lindsay writes “Instead of instilling social aversion and anxiety ... animal and human research supports the notion that competent shock [collar] training appears to promote positive social attachment, safety, and reward effects that may be provided and amplified via affectionate petting and reassuring praise. The preponderance of scientific evidence suggests that [electrical stimulation] escape/avoidance and pain reduction should promote longterm effects that are incompatible with fear and stress, making the trainer an object of significant extrinsic reward that actually enhances the dog's welfare via an improved capacity for social coping, learning, and adaptation”.* [12] Steven Lindsay states “If minimizing the intensity, duration, and frequency of aversive stimulation during training is recognized as a significant factor in the definition of humane dog training, then the radio controlled e-collar must be ranked as one of the most humane 2.36.7 Public control As of March 24, 2010, the Welsh Assembly voted to ban the use of shock collars in Wales. At present it is the first, and only, constituent country of the United Kingdom to do so.* [30] This ban was challenged by Petsafe, a manufacturer of these devices, and the Electronic Collar Manufacturers' Association, on the basis that it breached Article 1 of the First Protocol of the European Convention of Human Rights. The challenge was unsuccessful.* [31] On April 11, 2011, a 48-year old man from Ogmore-bySea became the first person convicted of illegal use of a shock collar in Wales.* [32] He was subsequently fined £2,000 and assessed £1,000 for court costs.* [33] The use of shock collars is prohibited in some territories of Australia, including New South Wales and Southern Australia* [34] 2.37. SOFT MOUTH 2.36.8 References 145 [23] The Argus. “Collars turned dogs into killers”. [1] Lindsay, Steven R. (2005), Handbook, Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, p. 569 [24] NCAE. “Norwegian Council on Animal Ethics”. [2] Klein, Dieter R., 2000, How Dangerous are Remote Stimulation Devices for the Training of Dogs?”Amtstierärztlicher Dienst und Lebensmittelkontrolle [26] AVSAB. “AVSAB Position Statement”. [3] , Radio Systems White Paper 2007. [4] , Table 2, Radio Systems White Paper 2007. [5] Innotek. “Innotek patent”. [6] FDA. “FDA Compliance enforcement”. [7] Christiansen, Frank O., Bakkenb, Morten, Braastadb, Bjarne O., 2001, Behavioural differences between three breed groups of hunting dogs confronted with domestic sheep . Applied Animal Behavior Science, Volume 72(2), pp. 115-129. . [8] Christiansen, Frank O., Bakkenb, Morten, Braastadb, Bjarne O., 2001, Behavioural changes and aversive conditioning in hunting dogs by the second-year confrontation with domestic sheep. Applied Animal Behavior Science, Volume 72, pp. 131-143. . [9] http://elib.tiho-hannover.de/dissertations/salgirliy_ ws08.pdf [10] Schalke, E., Stichnoth, J., Ott, S., Jones-Baade, R., 2007, Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105, pp. 369-380. [11] Schilder, M.B.H., van der Borg, J.A.M, 2004, Training dogs with help of the shock collar: short and long term behavioral effects. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 85, pp. 319-334. [12] Lindsay, Steven R. (2005), Handbook, Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 611–612 [13] Steiss, J.E., Schaffer, C., Ahmad, H.A., and Voith, V.L., 2007, Evaluation of Plasma Cortisol Levels and Behavior in Dogs Wearing Bark Control Collars. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 106, pp. 96-106. [14] http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy. optionToBuy&id=1984-03181-001&CFID=7872469& CFTOKEN=51050078 [15] PETA. “Electric Fences and Shock Collars”. [16] CABTSG. “CABTSG Policy Statement”. [17] BSAVA. “BSAVA Statement”. [18] “ACPO Police Dogs Manual of Guidance”. [19] Kennel Club. “Kennel Club Campaign”. [20] WUSV. “WUSV Ban”. [21] Casey and Blackwell. “RSPCA Review”. [22] HSUS. “HSUS statement”. [25] APDT. “APDT”. [27] Lindsay, Steven R. (2005), Handbook, Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, p. 586 [28] Radio Systems. “Radio Systems White Paper”. [29] IACP. “IACP Position Paper on Training Tools”. [30] “Wales the first part of the UK to ban pet shock collars” . BBC News. 2010-03-24. Retrieved 2012-12-28. [31] Welsh Ban. “Welsh Ban Challenge”. [32] “Shock collar found on pet dog roaming on Vale beach” . BBC News. April 18, 2011. [33] “Ogmore illegal shock collar dog owner gets £2,000 fine” . BBC News. July 18, 2011. [34] “Is the use of electronic dog collars legal?". RSPCA Australia. May 5, 2014. • Lindsay, Steven R. (2000), Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training 1, Blackwell, p. 136. • Schilder, Matthijs B.H.; van der Borg, Joanne A.M. (2004), “Training dogs with help of the shock collar: short and long term behavioural effects”, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 85 (3–4): 319–334, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2003.10.004. • Lindsay, Steven (2005), Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior Vol 3, Blackwell, pp. 557–633. • Polsky, R.H. (2000), “Can aggression be elicited through electronic pet containment systems”, Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 3 (4): 345– 357, doi:10.1207/S15327604JAWS0304_6. • Schalke, E.; Stichnoth, J.; Ott, S.; Jones-Baade, R. (2007),“Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations” , Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105 (4): 369, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002. 2.37 Soft mouth This article is about the hunting dog behaviour. For the play behaviour, see bite inhibition. The term soft mouth is used by breeders and users of hunting dogs to refer to a behavioral tendency to pick up, hold, and carry quarry gently. It is not a preferred characteristic of terriers and ratters, who are expected to 146 CHAPTER 2. ARTICLES roughly shake and mangle pests such as rats and snakes in order to kill them quickly and efficiently. It is desirable in gundogs such as retrievers and spaniels which are expected to produce quarry intact and in good condition, and is a notoriously difficult behavior to teach to a dog without an inborn temperament to do so. As a result, breeders and users of gun dogs arrived on this term to describe a characteristic important to this enterprise. Dogs breeds known for producing more soft-mouthed individuals include Golden Retrievers, Cocker Spaniels, Poodles, and Gordon Setters, but in any litter some individuals may be much less soft-mouthed than others, as there may be relatively soft-mouthed individuals in a litter of even classically hard-mouthed breeds such as Jack Russell Terriers or Mastiffs.* [1] 2.37.1 References [1] Fergus, Charles (2002). Gun Dog Breeds, A Guide to Spaniels, Retrievers, and Pointing Dogs. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-58574-618-5. 2.38 Twilight bark 10 (Oct. 2000), pp. 1271-1298. [2] J.A. Cohen and M.W. Fox,“Vocalizations in Wild Canids and Possible Effects of Domestication,”Behavioural Processes, vol. 1 (1976), pp. 77-92. [3] John B. Theberge and J. Bruce Falls,“Howling as a Means of Communication in Timber Wolves,” American Zoologist, vol. 7, no. 2 (May 1967), pp. 331-338. [4] P.N. Lehner, “Coyote vocalizations: a lexicon and comparisons with other canids,”Animal Behavior, vol. 26 (1978) pp. 712-722. [5] H. McCarley,“Long distance vocalization of coyotes (Canis latrans),”J. Mamm., vol. 56 (1975), pp. 847-856. [6] Charles Fergus, “Probing Question: Why do coyotes howl?" Penn State News (January 15, 2007). [7] Dodie Smith, The Hundred and One Dalmatians, New York: Viking Press (1956) 2.39 Dog whistle For the use of political code words, see Dog-whistle politics. Twilight bark (sometimes, twilight barking) refers to the often-noted behavior in domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) of exchanging barks or howls across long distances, typically in the quiet hours of early evening. Long distance contact calls are common in Canidae, typically in the form of either barks (termed “pulse trains”) or howls (termed “long acoustic streams” ).* [1]* [2] The long-distance howls of wolves* [3] and coyotes* [4]* [5]* [6] is how dogs communicate. The term 'twilight bark' was coined by author Dodie Smith for her 1956 children's book, The Hundred and One Dalmatians,* [7] and the phenomenon figures prominently as a plot device in the book and in the 1961 animated Disney movie. The original usage is: Many people must have noticed how dogs like to bark in the early evening. Indeed, twilight has sometimes been called “Dogs' Barking Time.”Busy town dogs bark less than country dogs, but all dogs know all about the Twilight Barking. It is their way of keeping in touch with distant friends, passing on important news, enjoying a good gossip. ̶Dodie Smith, The Hundred and One Dalmatians 2.38.1 References [1] Robert L. Robbins, “Vocal Communication in FreeRanging African Wild Dogs”, Behavior, vol. 137, No. A dog whistle (also known as silent whistle or Galton's whistle) is a type of whistle that emits sound in the ultrasonic range, which people cannot hear but some other animals can, including dogs and domestic cats, and is used in their training. It was invented in 1876 by Francis Galton and is mentioned in his book Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development,* [1] in which he describes experiments to test the range of frequencies that could be heard by various animals, such as a house cat. The maximum upper range of human hearing is about 20 kHz, although this mostly only applies to children as adults tend to lose their uppermost range over time and 15-17 kHz is typical of a middle-aged individual.* [2] The top end of a dog's hearing range is about 45 kHz, while a cat's is 64 kHz.* [3]* [4] It is thought that the wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this higher hearing range in order to hear high-frequency sounds made by their preferred prey, small rodents.* [3] The frequency of most dog 2.39. DOG WHISTLE 147 riosities, and Conundrums Revealed”, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc: 116, retrieved 2011-08-07 Galton whistle, the first “dog whistle” whistles is within the range of 23 to 54 kHz,* [5] so they are above the range of human hearing, although some are adjustable down into the audible range. To human ears, a dog whistle makes only a quiet hissing sound. The advantage of the dog whistle is that it doesn't produce a loud irritating noise for humans that a normal whistle would produce, so it can be used to train or command animals without disturbing nearby people. Some dog whistles have adjustable sliders for active control of the frequency produced. Trainers may use the whistle simply to gather a dog's attention, or to inflict pain for the purpose of behaviour modification. In addition to lung-powered whistles, there are also electronic dog whistle devices that emit ultrasonic sound via piezoelectric emitters.* [3] The electronic variety are sometimes coupled with bark-detection circuits in an effort to curb barking behaviour. This kind of whistle can also be used to determine the hearing range for people and for physics demonstrations requiring ultrasonic sounds. 2.39.1 References [1] Galton, Francis (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development, p. 26-27 [2] “Frequency Range of Human Hearing”. The Physics Factbook. [3] Krantz, Les (2009). Power of the Dog: Things Your Dog Can Do That You Can't. MacMillan. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0312567227. [4] Strain, George M. (2010).“How Well Do Dogs and Other Animals Hear?". Prof. Strain's website . School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University. Retrieved July 21, 2012. [5] Caroline Coile, D.; Bonham, Margaret H. (2008), “Why Do Dogs Like Balls?: More Than 200 Canine Quirks, Cu- Chapter 3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 3.1 Text • Dog training Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20training?oldid=654281653 Contributors: Ortolan88, Edward, Ixfd64, Julesd, Marteau, PedroPVZ, Dina, Smjg, Elf, Erics, Everyking, Mboverload, Gadfium, BozMo, DragonflySixtyseven, Variant, Ary29, Discospinster, Dsurber, FT2, Horsten, Lachatdelarue, El C, Mwanner, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Thewayforward, Trysha, Arthena, Velella, RJFJR, Jmead, Jdege, 1fetlar2, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Macaddct1984, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Graham87, FreplySpang, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Amire80, ElKevbo, Maxal, Cyrcom, Dresdnhope, M1k30rz, RussBot, Sarranduin, Hede2000, Epolk, Gaius Cornelius, Polarlys, NawlinWiki, Prastr, Haoie, Santaduck, IDealInLead, Tekana, User27091, Zzuuzz, BorgQueen, GraemeL, MansonP, SmackBot, Roger Davies, Gjs238, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, SB Johnny, ViolinGirl, Atkineve, Jbrams, Rheostatik, Thisisbossi, Gaddy1975, Daxaius, Radagast83, Abigailxyz, Localzuk, THD3, Gemandbear, Kuru, Heroditus, Waggers, TastyPoutine, Dr.K., Hu12, Iridescent, Doglistener, Danleaf, Nahteecirp, Gveret Tered, CmdrObot, Wichienmaat, Fordmadoxfraud, Dept of Alchemy, Gogo Dodo, Dougweller, Dogtoyco, Omicronpersei8, Coaster1983, David from Downunder, Strangerdanny, AntiVandalBot, Boptimism, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Clamster5, Richard n, Vcap19, MER-C, Happydog1, GurchBot, Aeg73, AdamKoehler, Magioladitis, Jamesoheare, VoABot II, DoozyDog, SparrowsWing, NashvilleLou, Adipatus, 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Jim1138, Tristan-117, Citation bot, TheProfessionalRecommends, 4twenty42o, Phoenixauthor, Srich32977, Shopmimigreen, Winidell, Mattg82, Coeurdlionk9, Thehelpfulbot, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Tigerlilyden, Markey101, Manstee, Novaseminary, I dream of horses, Calmer Waters, L Stava, Wayne Riddock, Garlicook, Trappist the monk, Matt2727, WxBoyOU, Surena, Goldy419, Beanyandcecil, Ginaelise, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, EgorUk, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Hamptoc, NameIsRon, Ripchip Bot, Paddyjimbobjoe, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Ekredle, Ajraddatz, Angrytoast, MacDogald, Domorewithyourdog, BradyHarquin, Tommy2010, THEDogClass, MGatian, Wikipelli, Canis5855, Iwebstudio, Erdavis7, MHCoaching, Aeonx, Tobiascharles, Dogstars2010, Donner60, Autoerrant, Mwripke, Thatsallwrong, Lone Shepherd, Rocketrod1960, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Manubot, Maroo me2, AlphaB7, Jimmyjumpnjive, Jk2q3jrklse, Talaga87, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thompk42, PetBhave, EucalyptusLancome, Theoceanlove, Rrflorad, Blackberrygumdrops, Vincent32, Jareddclark, MusikAnimal, Frze, Rerucha, Understanding Our Dogs, TejasDiscipulus2, Glacialfox, Laukie, Syd.uni.press, Imadoggylover, Chadculp, Irockz, Helpingk9s, Aguess83, Mickeysamuni, Tracie34, Bronwyn.SUP, Dg4pups, Bobsouthee, Mohdx9x, Mrt3366, Jmccann97, Luutranit, Panda1234511, EuroCarGT, KanuZeyu, JYBot, Onepebble, Aquatella, Emrandolph, Fjlhck, Poochpals, Trirem, SteenthIWbot, SmartANDblonde, Kevin12xd, Dogmantucson, Kate777-89, Writetodave, Rosiprasetyo, ARIFUDDIN100, Tentinator, ExTwoZero, Therefinedk9, Gia Italia, Rerip, Mmdogma, LadyVonTease, Theoldfarmer, Dannymamatin, Rakhi Roy, Sarah2002, Condei.tudorel, Monkbot, BARKSTER DOG, Freerooster, Arlemjm, Matthewfnyc, K9refine dog training, PJMuldowney, Cauccid and Anonymous: 356 • Assistance dog Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistance%20dog?oldid=647413885 Contributors: Tarquin, Someone else, Menchi, Wik, Bearcat, RedWolf, Texture, Zora, LockeShocke, LeeHunter, Pmarkham, Mwanner, John Vandenberg, Andrewpmk, Tuur, Wavelength, Sarranduin, Stephenb, Wikify, UW, Weirdgeordie, SmackBot, C.Fred, Mirokado, Valley2city, Oatmeal batman, Harej bot, Havy31, S Marshall, Thargs, Legitimus, Peter Chastain, VolkovBot, Fatnewt, A4bot, Ocolon, Kirsten07734, SieBot, Aurlmari, The Giant of the Boogies, Rat at WikiFur, Snigbrook, ASDAssoc, Hd1982, Otto Tanaka, Shlishke, Canine Partner, Danzella, XLinkBot, Maky, Terry knott, Wikiuser100, Pee Tern, Scorese, ZooFari, Magicbonez, Addbot, Zipster969, Crashwagon, Scout84, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Onlinedogtraining, Yobot, DanaWheels, Terence knott, Kikodawgzzz, ZooPro, Fayedizard, Mean as custard, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Cglylesu, ZéroBot, Cntras, Jk2q3jrklse, Care4k9, Alexhajdasz, RECOVERY4Wellbeing, Condei.tudorel, AMR Harry051 and Anonymous: 34 • Clicker training Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clicker%20training?oldid=656263879 Contributors: Ed Poor, Edward, NegatedVoid, Conti, Andrewman327, Thue, Shantavira, Robbot, Elf, Intrigue, Gajamukhu, FT2, Mwanner, RoyBoy, Trysha, Arthena, Kinema, Rob Russell, PaulP, Doggiedog, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, 89020, M1k30rz, CambridgeBayWeather, Santaduck, GraemeL, Ash Crow, SmackBot, Mitchan, Eventer, Wgconn, Alex brollo, Thomassen, JohnHinsdale, SeanAhern, TenPoundHammer, LiseB, Hu12, HelloAnnyong, Hydra Rider, Harold f, SkyWalker, CmdrObot, Dept of Alchemy, Gogo Dodo, Tempeste, Darste2, Angeleyes1437, PhiLiP, Newcastle, Pidz, Row- 148 3.1. TEXT 149 dymouse, Steven Walling, Avicennasis, WLU, CliffC, Bluesbassdad, Bongomatic, Kpmiyapuram, Igno2, Wolf Mystique, Someguy1221, Vwkoch, Expresshion, SieBot, Jauerback, LizHarward, Kelliess, Wolfen25, Auntof6, Dwstclair, Jayro5794, Dana boomer, Berean Hunter, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Lovecanines, Trevor Marron, SpBot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Thesoxlost, Phoenixauthor, Miyagawa, Erik9, Tigerlilyden, Discoveryplanet, Noadotoo, Rainsmom, Wesnews13, Lilblackdog, Polymath38, Soaro77, Pinethicket, Calmer Waters, WxBoyOU, Fifteen99, Chronulator, Whisky drinker, Tobiascharles, ClueBot NG, Amorris2011, Winniepoopoo, Anamesh3arfd, Quezaquacktl, Tentinator, ArthurJomasSmith, Jpop73, Canadianknowledgelover, TatumLyles and Anonymous: 76 • Dog agility Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20agility?oldid=649686693 Contributors: Derek Ross, Patrick, AlexR, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, CatherineMunro, Andres, Nohat, Harris7, Bevo, Finlay McWalter, Dale Arnett, Meelar, GreatWhiteNortherner, Elf, Bobblewik, ChicXulub, Chowbok, DragonflySixtyseven, Kevin Rector, Poccil, Discospinster, FT2, Ross Uber, Mwanner, PhilHibbs, RoyBoy, Jimhutchins, HasharBot, Alansohn, Trysha, TenOfAllTrades, Alvis, Woohookitty, GVOLTT, Knuckle007, AnmaFinotera, Palica, Graham87, Coneslayer, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, PuppiesFly, RobotE, Gaius Cornelius, Cryptic, Wimt, Greg Fontaine, Nick, BOT-Superzerocool, Nelson50, Veinor, Jcperl, SmackBot, Sharoncom, Chris the speller, Thumperward, SchfiftyThree, Stevage, Joebloggsy, Katatsch, Lisasmall, Ligulembot, Kukini, Busydog, Harryboyles, Pharaoh Hound, Dodo bird, Agilpwc, Czupirek, JoeBot, Twas Now, PurpleRain, PRprof, Neelix, Dougweller, Dogtoyco, Epbr123, Bud Houston, Cherry Louie, Andyjsmith, Arithmia, Neil916, AgilityAddict, Natalie Erin, AntiVandalBot, Macadk, SammyNSW, Mark Shaw, Allan Hopkin, Lwtbditw, CattleGirl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Rlsheehan, Rp:cs, Naniwako, Casper10, Bonadea, E24, TXiKiBoT, Discovermee, Red Act, Kieen8, Mr. Shean, Lova Falk, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Mordorica, Toddst1, Furiizaa, Dog jumper100, CarrieJeske, Hafwyn, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hafspajen, Felix the Hurricane, Jusdafax, Coccyx Bloccyx, Mikaey, Alchemist Jack, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Gd8man, LinkFA-Bot, Lightbot, Blah28948, Yobot, JLGauntt, Kskinct, FSosio, Mrgad, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, HaloBoi1000, Mark180193, Thesoxlost, J04n, Miyagawa, LucienBOT, Dmports, Recognizance, D'ohBot, Kwiki, AmphBot, Ketzelkelev, Jade Harley, Lotje, Stalwart111, ZéroBot, H3llBot, Kalina123, ClueBot NG, Philotus, O.Koslowski, Jeost, Doglover33, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, Earldom, Mrjohncummings, Hostager, Rhealist, Dexbot, Mogism, Farkmcgeezax, 12younge and Anonymous: 145 • Herding Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herding?oldid=641887758 Contributors: SimonP, Cameron Dewe, Elf, Barbara Shack, Robert Weemeyer, Sonjaaa, Sam Hocevar, Pgreenfinch, Discospinster, Pk2000, Aranel, Longhair, Ranveig, Linmhall, Eleassar777, Graham87, DanMS, Tekana, Bhumiya, Hitchhiker89, SmackBot, Amcbride, Bigbluefish, Scifiintel, Maculated, Cgoodwin, ApolloCreed, Robofish, Fuzzbox, Mr Stephen, N2e, Hut 8.5, KConWiki, Mwalimu59, STBot, Maxim, Munci, Eetvartti, WikiJedits, Cewvero, Addbot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Materialscientist, The Utahraptor, Лобачев Владимир, EmausBot, ClueBot NG, Eynsteinn, ShadowEagle2000, Rus793, Ignaciogon and Anonymous: 23 • Hunting dog Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting%20dog?oldid=651487368 Contributors: Docu, SD6-Agent, Riddley, Chuunen Baka, Tobias Bergemann, Elf, Michael Devore, ChicXulub, RobinCarmody, OverlordQ, ShakataGaNai, Wcrowe, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Kbh3rd, Aude, Smalljim, Wendell, Trysha, Alai, Bobrayner, Kralizec!, Island, Salix alba, Gurch, Chobot, Bgwhite, Rtkat3, Retired username, Veinor, SmackBot, Reedy, Man with two legs, Gilliam, Bluebot, Slakr, Jgrahn, Floridan, MU, MikeHobday, FairuseBot, CmdrObot, Yaris678, Gogo Dodo, Richard Hawkins, Mentifisto, JAnDbot, Cuon, Toddfugere, Autangelist, Ekotkie, Dark hyena, MartinBot, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, VolkovBot, Weimaranerlover, Sumersong, Casmus, Wavehunter, SieBot, Genglish, Bob98133, Hafwyn, Martarius, ClueBot, Hutcher, Shruti14, Osm agha, Niceguyedc, Dana boomer, Dthomsen8, Scorese, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Magicbone, Cst17, Kangaroodog, Felstead, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Timurite, Luca Bergamasco, Materialscientist, DSisyphBot, FrescoBot, AstaBOTh15, Simple Bob, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Lotje, Cleanboot, Wikisidd, RA0808, Blackjackalex, Sagaciousphil, Gray eyes, Donner60, Merchantsofmisery, ClueBot NG, Theopolisme, RafikiSykes, DBigXray, Jeugenel, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Chakozi bintere, Fylbecatulous, Cyberbot II, Zeroyon01, Jasokuep, Lindsay55, Dexbot, Sminthopsis84, Mogism, Aaronzuxx, MuseumGeek, Editor abcdef and Anonymous: 87 • Leash Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leash?oldid=644600136 Contributors: Patrick, Eurleif, Arpingstone, Ronz, Pigsonthewing, DocWatson42, Elf, Everyking, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FirstPrinciples, Cmdrjameson, Silverdragon706, Poweroid, Alansohn, Saga City, Gary Brown, YurikBot, CambridgeBayWeather, Ohnoitsjamie, COMPFUNK2, Derek R Bullamore, Hogtied, Pbalson8204, Zombiebaron, Harej bot, Ancatdubh43, West Brom 4ever, AntiVandalBot, DuncanHill, Bongwarrior, Rios9000, JarrodJM, J.delanoy, Ddawn23, GrahamHardy, VolkovBot, Iosef, Tesscass, Demondp, Asarlaí, Una Smith, Schizek, Chrisrus, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Grandpallama, 7&6=thirteen, SchreiberBike, XLinkBot, Mad4cubs, 13 of Diamonds, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Wireless friend, Jamacfarlane, Dagrqv, AnomieBOT, E235, Xqbot, Tomd2712, GrouchoBot, Shopmimigreen, Miyagawa, Ciosl, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Towel muppet, OgreBot, I dream of horses, Duoduoduo, Lierob, WikitanvirBot, RA0808, Werieth, Rom4nruins97, Chiku4ngt3n, Andye1973, Letitride22, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Widr, Bkrk, Jorgelikescake, Soobyn, Varon pasion, Luismedina2426 and Anonymous: 41 • List of dog sports Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20dog%20sports?oldid=636781112 Contributors: Elf, Knutux, Beland, Deirdre, Dsurber, Fluzwup, Mwanner, Bobo192, MelSkunk, Trysha, Monado, Snowolf, Liface, Mra, Rjwilmsi, Emarsee, Spacepotato, WritersCramp, NawlinWiki, Georgewilliamherbert, Mercury1, Mightymite, Bashyr, Veinor, SmackBot, Swerdnaneb, Ohnoitsjamie, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Pharaoh Hound, RichardF, Cydebot, Pleple2000, Kslotte, K9to5, Ameliorate!, PhilipStobbart, Coaster1983, Ben Aflen, WinBot, Magioladitis, Ronstew, Helland, J.delanoy, Koven.rm, Vanished User 4517, VolkovBot, TCoughlin, Grimmdog, Discovermee, Gilbert46, AlleborgoBot, PolarBot, Furiizaa, Hafwyn, Mariux222, Addbot, Ssoltz, Debresser, Gd8man, Yobot, Carleas, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Miyagawa, Km7345, Puzzle53, Chelleturnbull, Domorewithyourdog, Glennskii9, Rcsprinter123, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Breguet14, Discdogguy, Qzxpqbp, Steelbullet123, Northamerica1000, Toco9000, Joydeep, Snow Blizzard, Klilidiplomus, Fylbecatulous, ZEN12many, DocStevenRP, Thurston fluff, Lundelover, KD.Oly and Anonymous: 64 • Obedience training Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obedience%20training?oldid=656263543 Contributors: Ronz, Marteau, RedWolf, Elf, Jfdwolff, Toytoy, Sam Hocevar, Joyous!, Wcrowe, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Lachatdelarue, Mwanner, Trysha, Comrade009, Versageek, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Nklatt, Liface, PaulP, Josh Parris, Scott Johnson, FlaBot, Maxal, Alphachimp, DVdm, YurikBot, Sarranduin, Curtis Clark, RattleMan, Mkill, Allens, MansonP, NickelShoe, Veinor, Crystallina, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, AppleMacD, Valley2city, Bluebot, Daxaius, Kcaptk, Proadmin, Pharaoh Hound, Hu12, Gogo Dodo, K9to5, Dougweller, Dogtoyco, Mojo Hand, Saibo, Strangerdanny, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Barek, MER-C, PhilKnight, SiobhanHansa, Abomb, Soulbot, Theroadislong, Blairstephens, FisherQueen, Tgeairn, Trusilver, Shimaspawn, Herbythyme, Joubie13, AntiSpamBot, Alais4, Btd, Uyvsdi, Demondp, Discovermee, Tintina, Dalmatian Mommy, Nichedude, Kymdog, Andy Dingley, Casmus, Daveh4h, Yuyuan, Funkymutt, Lrodi, Bob98133, Anchor Link Bot, Chelseahennaz, Karenanne55, ClueBot, Chucktown99, Sctiang, Reinaldo13, Marenshelbi, THentenaar, XLinkBot, Delicious carbuncle, Brifeld, Mentalken, Addbot, Windyshepherdhenderson, Sierrasen, Jollybean, MrOllie, Download, Lightbot, Yobot, Specious, AnomieBOT, Speksnijder123, Materialscientist, Dennywentz, Beanyandcecil, Suffusion of Yellow, Robert Silni, ChairYeoman, 150 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES Kosaic, Damnthatsinteresting, Pranavkm, Owlpal, ScottyBerg, Iwebstudio, Tobiascharles, Coraxofcambell, ClueBot NG, Jk2q3jrklse, EucalyptusLancome, Jlcros, Bcolorado, Tracie34, Tutor45, Briedenhann, Barleymow, Willy go4it, Kayax012, Kate777-89, Bbyradio, Epicgenius, Ginsuloft, ArthurJomasSmith, Filedelinkerbot, Rmark04, Arlemjm, ChristopherRobin111 and Anonymous: 138 • Operant conditioning Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant%20conditioning?oldid=653407417 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Eloquence, SimonP, Edward, Michael Hardy, Vaughan, Arthur3030, BigFatBuddha, Arthur Frayn, Jfitzg, Ddegelman, Wikiborg, Andrewman327, Selket, Furrykef, Head, Jerzy, Sam Spade, Elf, Wikibob, Ianhowlett, Taak, DevilsAdvocate, Rdb, John FitzGerald, JoeSmack, Rajneeshhegde, El C, Mwanner, Kross, Johnkarp, Smalljim, Arcadian, Hooperbloob, Alansohn, Don Reba, Trysha, AzaToth, Drbreznjev, Kinema, Rob Russell, Feezo, Angel84, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Wesley R. Elsberry, GregAsche, Moskvax, Twipley, Oneguy, Gurch, Fresheneesz, Stimfunction, Gwernol, Splash, Member, Wimt, Nrets, Janarius, Santaduck, El benito, Studentne, Digfarenough, Owain.davies, Ybbor, SmackBot, Alan Pascoe, Enlil Ninlil, Rentier, DCDuring, HalfShadow, Gilliam, Codesmith, Hegariz, Chris the speller, Hinyan, Bluebot, Gspbeetle, Stevenmitchell, Radagast83, EPM, Kntrabssi, Richard001, Ghostoroy, MSchmahl, RomanSpa, Nutcracker, Stwalkerster, Dicklyon, RichardF, Hydra Rider, Paulieraw, Ctulek, Tawkerbot2, AbsolutDan, Lazulilasher, Penbat, Gunza, Cydebot, JFreeman, Indeterminate, Christian75, Optimist on the run, Nearfar, Mattisse, Mereda, Marek69, Klausness, Mack2, Darklilac, JAnDbot, WANAX, Animalresearcher, Gekedo, Nyq, Arno Matthias, JamesBWatson, Thuglas, Cgingold, JaGa, Lunar Spectrum, WLU, Robin S, MartinBot, M5bennett1, Wimmel, Dbaruch, Florkle, Sidhekin, Kpmiyapuram, Ryan Postlethwaite, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Ilikeliljon, Dhaluza, Mcole13, Oshwah, Jenseits, Briansuda, Eubulides, Lova Falk, Wavehunter, Pant.kamlesh, SieBot, France3470, ATC, MarkinBoston, Mr. Stradivarius, Robertmmunroe, Martarius, ClueBot, MLCommons, Deselliers, Jusdafax, Ykhwong, A3camero, Hazzzzzz12, P1415926535, Wikidsp, Suenestnature, ClintGoss, Lot49a, Josh.Pritchard.DBA, Interlope, BodhisattvaBot, WikHead, Davidsonfilms, Addbot, C6541, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Looie496, Download, Professor. landen, Jarble, Msnel, CountryBot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Gongshow, Trevinci, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Manning3, Magicxcian, Raffamaiden, Pmlineditor, Omnipaedista, Aaron Kauppi, FrescoBot, Craig Pemberton, DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rushbugled13, Reconsider the static, Reaper Eternal, Mustaghfer, Jarpup, NameIsRon, Queeste, Amiklos, EmausBot, Wikipelli, Motoski, Lateg, Tijfo098, ChuispastonBot, Gottlob Gödel, ClueBot NG, Dream of Nyx, Widr, DrChrissy, Raz Darnell, BG19bot, AccioKnowledge, Ziadejoe, Cstavro, Bill.D Nguyen, Db4wp, Runs-itback, Simcostello, AutomaticStrikeout, Apophis2016, Rainyday01, Anum27, Psya01h3sarsar, Sathas11, BreakfastJr, Jenniwey, Hassan87t, Imanlegro, DavidLeighEllis, Kecampbell1018, Wolololol, Monkbot, Vieque, Psychgeek2014, Emily.fisher94, Bookjunkie07, Kch1999, Dejunn, Madmatt13, RichadaB and Anonymous: 260 • Punishment (psychology) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment%20(psychology)?oldid=637679131 Contributors: Jpg, Janarius, Studentne, EPM, Jcbutler, Penbat, Mattisse, Kauczuk, WLU, Makswel, Kpmiyapuram, VolkovBot, Lova Falk, Avenged Eightfold, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Yobot, Kingpin13, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, ClueBot NG, L&B123, Star767 and Anonymous: 31 • Reinforcement Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement?oldid=654273589 Contributors: SimonP, Vaughan, Jfitzg, Avellano, Trontonian, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Seglea, Elf, Michael Devore, Skagedal, Sam Hocevar, TronTonian, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, John FitzGerald, Bender235, Circeus, Johnkarp, Pearle, Nsaa, Jumbuck, Gary, Velella, AverageGuy, Heida Maria, Bobrg, Angr, Uncle G, Macaddct1984, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, Graham87, Limegreen, Rjwilmsi, NeonMerlin, Keimzelle, Stimfunction, Epolk, Nesbit, Stephenb, Member, Msikma, Duldan, Janarius, RL0919, Epipelagic, Sandstein, Closedmouth, Studentne, Jff119, GraemeL, SmackBot, Fvguy72, Edgar181, Chris the speller, Friga, Radagast83, Khukri, Vina-iwbot, SashatoBot, Swatjester, Mouse Nightshirt, Robofish, [email protected], Timhill2004, Jcbutler, Hydra Rider, Paulieraw, Raystorm, Dycedarg, Penbat, Montanabw, Mattisse, Darklilac, Magioladitis, Shikorina, Arno Matthias, Think outside the box, Nyttend, WhatamIdoing, Thuglas, Lunar Spectrum, WLU, MartinBot, Poeloq, Romistrub, DC2, J.delanoy, Love Krittaya, Florkle, Kpmiyapuram, Ovidiu pos, LittleHow, Time River, Pundit, Arkabc, QuackGuru, PNG crusade bot, Charlesdrakew, Saibod, Lova Falk, Alcmaeonid, Doc James, Gbawden, SieBot, SheepNotGoats, Aylad, Nmfbd, Docfox, Rinconsoleao, Martarius, ClueBot, MLCommons, Av99, ArminHP, Kitsunegami, Rlaitinen, JimCropcho, 1ForTheMoney, Aitias, Josh.Pritchard.DBA, Londonsista, Feinoha, Addbot, EdgeNavidad, Tcncv, Friginator, Download, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Trevithj, Galoubet, Neptune5000, Jon187, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Aaron Kauppi, Erik9bot, Jmbrowne, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, BenzolBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Soderick, Anemone112, LawBot, Suffusion of Yellow, Mean as custard, TamaraDarian, Queeste, Efb18, John of Reading, Doncorto, Wikijord, Abolitionista, Smo.Kwon, Lavenbi, Donner60, GeoffreyMay, ClueBot NG, Amreshpandey, Widr, Spannerjam, Reify-tech, BG19bot, Dsomlo, Goldenlegion, Nikkiopelli, Maestro814, Nidzo7, Marybelr, Kernsters, Teacher1754, Lilkid3194, Purplefanta1109, Tentinator, Jenniwey, Star767, Racolepsychcapstone, Seppi333, Meyers.mike, Cervota, Hayleymcole, Andrewvgator, Superduck120, 2014psat, Daddiouconn, Chanellr and Anonymous: 203 • Alpha roll Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20roll?oldid=641278995 Contributors: Victor Engel, Rich Farmbrough, Heenan73, Horsten, ESkog, Rjwilmsi, Sperril, SmackBot, Ohconfucius, JHunterJ, Ryulong, Dl2000, Magnaclash, Penknife, Cocoa2424, ResurgamII, ChrisLR, Magioladitis, Mike@gemaffair.com, Gainsboroughst, Jillskor, Museerouge, Tikuko, Kamital, Bob1960evens, Auntof6, MelonBot, Berean Hunter, Nathan Johnson, GargoyleBot, Jasper Deng, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Thesoxlost, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, Jk2q3jrklse, PetBhave, Aannoonn, GreatOmi, Khazar2 and Anonymous: 41 • Animal attacks Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal%20attacks?oldid=656609219 Contributors: ScottDavis, Graham87, Bgwhite, AussieLegend, Natg 19, Bfpage, Ottawahitech, AnomieBOT, Animalparty, BG19bot, Phương Huy, DPL bot, Lakun.patra, Spiderjerky and Anonymous: 1 • Dog bite Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20bite?oldid=655120542 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, WhisperToMe, Shantavira, Meelar, Wxlfsr, Exploding Boy, Elf, Edcolins, Gadfium, SoWhy, Gscshoyru, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, Vapour, Paul August, Edgarde, Bender235, Chairboy, Coolcaesar, Arcadian, Q4, Free Bear, GregorB, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Nabulhus, RexNL, King of Hearts, DVdm, Scalytail, YurikBot, Wavelength, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Kyorosuke, GeeJo, Anomie, Yserarau, Anomo, Irishguy, Misza13, User27091, N. Harmonik, Schavira, Claygate, Mediatetheconflict, Bob4jane, SaveTheWhales, Palapa, MacsBug, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, BenBurch, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Colonies Chris, Snowmanradio, WikiCats, Jmak, SoftPaleColors, G-Bot, Jidanni, Goodnightmush, Joshua Scott, WotGoPlunk, Slakr, Hargle, Meco, Iridescent, Fidsah, Courcelles, Cheeesemonger, Heliomance, CmdrObot, Dread Specter, Fairsing, Cydebot, Ellienor99, Geshtahl, Woodlandpath, Malleus Fatuorum, Cdswtchr, Epbr123, Dawnseeker2000, Mr Bungle, Luna Santin, Widefox, Paul from Michigan, Daniel Villalobos, AOB, Randal Oulton, Pedro, JNW, Appraiser, Steven Walling, Indon, Sublime2681, Edward321, Dark hyena, MartinBot, CliffC, Steve3742, AntiSpamBot, Astro$01, Ko Soi IX, Tqmuchooo, Davecrosby uk, Temppe, Geohevy, Light of Shadow, Bigboy2185, Wtt, Doc James, Nat365, Jacko999, Lrodi, Nanonic, PintoPotts, Oxymoron83, Hello71, Crisis, COBot, Fullobeans, JohnnyMrNinja, Chrisrus, Hordaland, Npd2983, W1k1U53R, Wolfen25, LeeUSA, ClueBot, Drmies, OMGaSnake!, LeoFrank, 7&6=thirteen, Ravinas, Texabyte, Mike36, Aitias, Wcp07, DumZiBoT, Jovianeye, Skarebo, Reciencito, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Zarcadia, Green Squares, Jarble, Washburnmav, Jfbilodeau, NitrogenTSRH, AnomieBOT, Wikieditoroftoday, Piano non troppo, Jeff Muscato, Materialscientist, Mcdoo the poo, LilHelpa, Jmundo, Bisnarchase, Eduk18, Shadowjams, Miyagawa, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, FrankMJohnson, BenzolBot, Demigod56, Abductive, A8UDI, 3.1. TEXT 151 N0thingbetter, Pbrower2a, Aoidh, Minimac, Mean as custard, NerdyScienceDude, EmausBot, Nwusr123log, Dondo7, Wikipelli, ClueBot NG, Dougworm, Abdonon, Snotbot, WNYY98, Azuizo, Freakman333, Martinshane213, Unfriend12, RudolfRed, BattyBot, Zeroyon01, SuperbowserX, EagerToddler39, Onepebble, Thermaing, Mogism, MiraculousMouse, Lugia2453, Fw817, TEP1001, Ssilverthorne, IanWaldron22, K.K. Slider, Melonkelon, ProtossPylon, Sorcerorswords, Midget200, Catsondrugs, William Harris, Writerlauren, Animal fanatic and Anonymous: 179 • Bark (sound) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bark%20(sound)?oldid=647386326 Contributors: Ixfd64, Nv8200p, Nricardo, Robbot, ChrisO, Moncrief, Psychonaut, Mushroom, HaeB, Exploding Boy, Wizzy, Elf, Misterkillboy, Ramrao, Espetkov, Gadfium, SoWhy, Iceager, Mzajac, Bodnotbod, Grstain, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, YUL89YYZ, Kwamikagami, Aaron D. Ball, Bobo192, Deathawk, Phlake, Thewayforward, Ultra megatron, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, Ayeroxor, RainbowOfLight, BDD, Axeman89, Netkinetic, Dennis Bratland, FrancisTyers, Woohookitty, Jhartmann, Karmosin, SDC, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, Bruce1ee, Wikifier, Sasanjan, Ground Zero, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar, Pseudomonas, Tavilis, ENeville, RattleMan, Portlembec, Wknight94, PGPirate, GraemeL, JLaTondre, Allens, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Matveims, DomQ, Saros136, Miquonranger03, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Martin Blank, Jameswilson, Naughtyned, VMS Mosaic, Parent5446, X-Flare-x, TedE, Hl, EdGl, Wizardman, Sayden, Bige1977, John, Gobonobo, Minna Sora no Shita, Stratadrake, The Man in Question, Slakr, Sasabune, Nehrams2020, JForget, Drinibot, Zack3rdbb, NickW557, Cydebot, Hydraton31, Gogo Dodo, Telex, Hawesinsky, Thijs!bot, Btball, Marek69, TXiKi, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, Shirt58, Sumoeagle179, Zedla, Leevclarke, Leuko, Husond, Meeples, VoABot II, Steven Walling, Nwbeeman, Sanky, MartinBot, JoKing, Anaxial, R'n'B, Silverxxx, Decaheximal, M-le-mot-dit, Vanished User 4517, Idarin, Dirtpig, JoeDeRose, Philip Trueman, Wikidemon, Sintaku, Schlum, Andy Dingley, Michaeldsuarez, Altermike, Falcon8765, Monty845, Daveh4h, Deconstructhis, Keilana, Hiddenfromview, Bob98133, Aladin p, Fratrep, Anchor Link Bot, Pikamander2, Ministry of random walks, Mr. Granger, Karenanne55, ClueBot, AmmarK, NobarKing, Mild Bill Hiccup, William Ortiz, Excirial, Sun Creator, NoriMori, SchreiberBike, Thehelpfulone, Versus22, DumZiBoT, Noeatingallowed, Gonzonoir, 2008 is here, ZooFari, Addbot, Nevad, Raywil, Contactharindra, DiscoBiscuit07, Urness.sam, Jarble, Luckasbot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, Cjdogger2, IRP, Neptune5000, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Clark89, LilHelpa, Xqbot, 1hersheyowner, Venegasmoreno95, Mariomassone, Apothecia, Alpha 40475, Matttoothman, Armbrust, Xuz, Snorks5678, Tuscun, Coldplayforthewin, FrescoBot, Dynameek, Killerbites, Tinton5, Valkyrie Red, Sir Edward V, Trappist the monk, Vame536, Andybaines2009, NFSreloaded, Daldobie, Vrenator, Dennywentz, Cadogan222, Reach Out to the Truth, Pozytyv, Ericwinny, Pancake123, RjwilmsiBot, Walter Edmonds, EmausBot, Wymak, Acather96, Yellobelly94, Immunize, GoingBatty, Ernestoguevara123, Wikipelli, Daveslaw85, ZéroBot, Daonguyen95, Δ, Oldvet46, LibraryReader, Dsnm56, ClueBot NG, Creck01, Ahmad Ayyash, Thumpane, Kevin Gorman, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wikibark, 2001:db8, Ttuha, Paras743, Frze, Twana1, Shade Of Wolf, RichardMills65, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Th4n3r, Dogbarker, OnHawkspur, Ilikeyellow, Selasco, Keydogfresh, Ross Hill, Calladriel, Wikimandem100, Ginsuloft, Germany go first, Arinity183, 115ash and Anonymous: 304 • Bite inhibition Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bite%20inhibition?oldid=650077077 Contributors: DragonflySixtyseven, Addbot, Dawynn, Peter620, BG19bot, Lemnaminor, Vchandran2 and Anonymous: 1 • BowLingual Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BowLingual?oldid=629141051 Contributors: Gpietsch, Lir, Ams80, Cimon Avaro, Uyanga, RoyBoy, A2Kafir, Jtalledo, Kurt Shaped Box, Starblind, Rjwilmsi, Conscious, Nikkimaria, SmackBot, Evan1975, Bluebot, Obina, Cydebot, UberScienceNerd, Thijs!bot, Siawase, RRmro, Egpetersen, Spellmaster, NAHID, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Rob110178bot, SQL, Why Not A Duck, Android Mouse Bot, DumZiBoT, Eichikiyama, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Materialscientist, 54321liftoff, Screwyou222, Magdaleno20, Vegetable100, GoingBatty, Russell Dent, Jk2q3jrklse, BG19bot, Kyoakoa, BattyBot and Anonymous: 12 • Canine Good Citizen Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine%20Good%20Citizen?oldid=654305228 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Elf, Wcrowe, Hyperlink, Graham87, Nigosh, Xaosflux, MER-C, DerHexer, Herbythyme, Casmus, ClueBot, Phil2511, Noctibus, Download, Armbrust, Orange Suede Sofa and Anonymous: 11 • Dog collar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20collar?oldid=649742470 Contributors: Ronz, Rl, Hydnjo, R3m0t, Elf, Wguynes, JHCC, Jpg, Rich Farmbrough, CanisRufus, Anonymous Cow, Lectonar, Versageek, Pol098, SCEhardt, Matilda, Southpaw018, PKM, Hermitage, Katieh5584, TheToxicAvenger, Crystallina, SmackBot, Reedy, Reverend Loki, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Kisholi, Rrburke, Jmlk17, Gobonobo, RomanSpa, ISD, 345Kai, Seven of Nine, Lindsayanne, Newcastle, QuiteUnusual, Barek, PhilKnight, Faizhaider, MartinBot, JPrevost, Manticore, J.delanoy, AntiSpamBot, SuzanneKn, Pnoble805, Jeff G., 2hounds, Wiikipedian, Jen1502, Tikuko, Schizek, Lrodi, Furiizaa, Dog jumper100, The Stickler, Fredhassen, ClueBot, Colligation, Lonegroover, Rjd0060, Chuck45, Voire Dei, Gatemon, Crips r us, Addbot, Sierrasen, Mr. Wheely Guy, Cst17, Urness.sam, RobynNbyrd, Swarm, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Speksnijder123, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Pitke, LilHelpa, Lorolo, Shopmimigreen, Shirik, Chatsam, Tuscun, Miyagawa, Tazlab, Baradys, Legion23, Jonesey95, MrX, Vixtia715, Purplebeans44, RjwilmsiBot, Christina Snape, D3rbyhappy, Plasticextruded, Letitride22, Unicawebagency, ClueBot NG, Wdchk, Snotbot, Hazhk, Widr, Jk2q3jrklse, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Steve Milburn, Nubble6, ChrisGualtieri, Sadow300, Mogism, Jamesx12345, Kate777-89, Dogasaurus, Happps, Henthane, SeventeenTurtle, Monkbot, Turtlesrock1234567890, Oliviaisawesome101, Christa Ehrler, Arlemjm, Repsco and Anonymous: 98 • Dog communication Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20communication?oldid=654761253 Contributors: Ixfd64, Ahoerstemeier, Coren, Ww, Andrewman327, Furrykef, Sander123, ChrisO, Auric, Xanzzibar, Wayland, Exploding Boy, Elf, Philwelch, Alexf, Safety Cap, Mike Rosoft, KNewman, Discospinster, FT2, Soupisgoodfood, Lachatdelarue, ESkog, Triona, Tjic, Walkiped, Spug, La goutte de pluie, Ultra megatron, Jakew, Alansohn, Trysha, Derumi, Wtmitchell, Ajensen, Tony Sidaway, Lapinmies, Axeman89, Kzollman, Cbdorsett, Waldir, TheBlunderbuss, Graham87, BD2412, Teflon Don, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Tdowling, LjL, Daganboy, Max1900, RJC, Blue Dream, NawlinWiki, ViperBite, Thiseye, Deville, SorryGuy, Allens, NickelShoe, Kuddy, Veinor, Amalthea, SmackBot, Cubs Fan, C.Fred, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Afa86, Quinsareth, Jprg1966, Wikipedia sandwich, Carbonrodney, Jeborr, Derek R Bullamore, DMacks, CenozoicEra, Gaiusknight, Bilby, The Man in Question, Rioed, Patinthehat1, Citicat, Tankmaster46, JoeBot, Paulieraw, Vermiculus, Lighthead, Gogo Dodo, Racerboy, GordonE, Acs4b, Coaster1983, Jd2718, Marek69, Dayn, CharlotteWebb, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Voortle, David Shankbone, Gopal1035, Endlessdan, PhilKnight, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Brusegadi, Tux-child, Teebol, Lady Mondegreen, MartinBot, Slyfoxx, Bgunnels, Jargon777, J.delanoy, Keesiewonder, McSly, Anonywiki, AntiSpamBot, Vanished User 4517, Robertgreer, Brendan19, Turbulents, Funandtrvl, Xnuala, Black Kite, TylerJarHead, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, Jgreenbook, Claidheamohmor, Falcon8765, Monty845, MrChupon, Yuyuan, Lrodi, Pgp688, Flyer22, DevOhm, Fratrep, Wackdonk, Tormentress, Marshwa, Fishnet37222, Josephkarthic, Martarius, ClueBot, R000t, Grango242, 15rthughes, Excirial, Thehelpfulone, Berean Hunter, Dwfplaydwf, BarretB, Tuxlie, AgnosticPreachersKid, Merienda, Gerhardvalentin, ErkinBatu, CalumH93, Some jerk on the Internet, 914ian915, Nevad, CanadianLinuxUser, Chamal N, Tide rolls, Krano, NewfZ, Jarble, Onlinedogtraining, Yobot, 2D, TheJammingYam, AnomieBOT, Gc9580, Materialscientist, Thesoxlost, Miyagawa, A.amitkumar, Rihannalover598, Fruchogurt, Bellabeeh, Dogsandstorks, Pob1984, Pinethicket, Daldobie, Suffusion of Yellow, Scott.Peterson727, Elanavoigt, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, DASHBot, Roytonsands, GoingBatty, AsceticRose, John Cline, Wackywace, Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, Donner60, Damirgraffiti, Peter Karlsen, EdoBot, ClueBot NG, TucsonDavid, Gareth 152 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES Griffith-Jones, ScottSteiner, Widr, DrChrissy, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, PetBhave, PhnomPencil, Fgpark, Molli1234, Toco9000, Demmyx09, Meatsgains, TheyCallMeTheEditor, Duxwing, DAS2011, Onepebble, Superalpha1, Lugia2453, ‫أنا أحبك‬, Vandraedha, Jakec, Proskatr, Npup3, EllaGiammai, Dolphin16958, JaconaFrere, VanDornTanisha, Jonesro123, William Harris, Whutwhutwhat, Jento89, Park.1529, Howbabby, SQMeaner and Anonymous: 367 • Coprophagia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprophagia?oldid=650951340 Contributors: Ap, Malcolm Farmer, Larry Sanger, JeLuF, KF, Edward, Ixfd64, GTBacchus, Karada, Mdebets, Schneelocke, Dysprosia, Gutza, Omegatron, Elwoz, Raul654, Dimadick, Hankwang, Altenmann, Voyager640, Academic Challenger, Auric, Jondel, UtherSRG, Diberri, DocWatson42, Gene Ward Smith, Elf, Everyking, Solipsist, Lucky 6.9, OldakQuill, Comatose51, RobinCarmody, Kiyotei, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Oneiros, WOT, Thorwald, Rfl, Heegoop, Discospinster, Insertwackynamehere, CanisRufus, Livajo, Spearhead, Bookofjude, ~Pyb, Guettarda, Renice, Bobo192, Deathawk, Summerprince, Kappa, Giraffedata, Jjron, Wayfarer, Fegor, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Nereocystis, Trysha, Atlant, Bathrobe, Lord Pistachio, Kurt Shaped Box, DanD, Snowolf, SidP, Markaci, CranialNerves, Woohookitty, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Mpatel, Fred J, Kmg90, Astanhope, Waldir, Antonskarp, Tslocum, Darren Jowalsen, Graham87, BD2412, Porcher, BorgHunter, Edison, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Tawker, Cam8001, Bensin, Krash, The wub, Wareq, Leithp, FlaBot, Elmer Clark, RexNL, Preslethe, Motiggidy, Introvert, Df343, AdamDavid85, Hahnchen, Elaphe1011, Spacepotato, RobotE, RussBot, Lincolnite, Muchness, Postglock, Zafiroblue05, VMarinelli, K.C. Tang, MosheA, NawlinWiki, Bachrach44, Grafen, Howcheng, Aaron Brenneman, Brian Crawford, Xdenizen, Moe Epsilon, Mgcsinc, Phreyan, Bota47, Caspian, Wknight94, Zzuuzz, Maphisto86, Sissyneck, Besselfunctions, Rkerver, JuJube, LeonardoRob0t, JLaTondre, Ybbor, Nenamldu, SmackBot, VigilancePrime, Og The Ugly, Gilliam, Hectorguinness, Carl.bunderson, Andy M. Wang, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Thaimodz, Anchoress, Bazonka, Uthbrian, Colonies Chris, Izeb, Nintendude, MaxSem, Schwallex, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Onorem, KaiserbBot, Sakana-rin, Chcknwnm, Gothmog.es, Richard001, Derek R Bullamore, Ligulembot, Kukini, The undertow, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ram32110, Kuru, Bagel7, Lue3378, Joelmills, Cloak Reaver, Woer$, Ocatecir, Mr.Clicky, The Man in Question, Randomtime, SirFozzie, Meco, SandyGeorgia, Peyre, Sasata, Wwagner, Amitch, KJS77, Hu12, BananaFiend, Iridescent, Jetman, Mafutrct, Newyorkbrad, Tawkerbot2, Barfbagger, Wafulz, Hirokazu, Articnomad, Laurens v, NaOH, Montanabw, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Anthonyhcole, Lugnuts, Myscrnnm, Soetermans, Difluoroethene, Cyrian, Ameliorate!, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, JAF1970, Luminifer, Kablammo, Sagaciousuk, Keraunos, Edwardx, Ilovejake, HammerHeadHuman, Uruiamme, Hhrqsh, Mentifisto, Chaddermd21, Hires an editor, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Quintote, Ioeth, Gatemansgc, Deflective, Instinct, Sargas, Fat Hobbit, Natureguy1980, Frankie816, Gavia immer, Lord Crayak, Rothorpe, Tomfarvour, Geniac, Wildhartlivie, Freshacconci, WolfmanSF, Secret Squïrrel, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Trailmix333, Pvmoutside, Midgrid, Not a dog, Calgary, ZFU738, ArmadilloFromHell, RossMM, JaGa, Grand Am, FisherQueen, JasonMath, Yobol, El Krem, Steve98052, Z Pontiac FU, Lilac Soul, Pontiac Grand Am, Nosnah227, RockMFR, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Captain panda, DandyDan2007, Rgoodermote, Bleeding-Within, Vaultedceiling, TomS TDotO, Super Wilde, Belovedfreak, Vegetent, Gregfitzy, Shoessss, Mema12, Cometstyles, ACBest, DorganBot, Jimmy1992, Jance, Elenseel, Limbosax, Vinsfan368, Brydav, Nitroblu, Idiomabot, Lights, TreasuryTag, The Wild Falcon, SakotGrimshine, Tkenna, Jeff G., Kwsn, Smurffart, Saitek744, Philip Trueman, Vipinhari, Pwnage8, Sean D Martin, Martin451, Amog, Wenli, BigDunc, RandomXYZb, Dirkbb, Angelatomato, PeterHuntington, William Shakewheels, Veecort, HiDrNick, Kiratveer95, Davidshenba, RagingCaveMoose, Mr.bluntster, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Work permit, BankBank, Breawycker, Irishbugs, Doctorfluffy, Faradayplank, Thirdeyeopen33, Pedro Felipe, KathrynLybarger, Stinkermcgoochstein, Rambo24, Jake Rambo of mt. Lebanon, Pa, Anakin101, Proven fact, Velvetron, TheCatalyst31, RobinHood70, Martarius, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Binksternet, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, ArdClose, BobWatergate, Lawrence Cohen, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Wikifan1256, CounterVandalismBot, Baegis, Studioartist, LukeTheSpook, Kpants2000, BumpWit, Bearerofthecup, Silverwurm, Nobody of Consequence, Olliekamm, Kelly Denham, Porkins8888, Tdslk, Obert.John, Johnmackoh, Skarebo, Wyatt915, Xp54321, Juleoc, DOI bot, DougsTech, Ronhjones, Wesleyfulce, MichaelPaulDum, Aloishochwald, , Glane23, AndersBot, Debresser, Davidangle, Guffydrawers, Joe9320, Issyl0, Tide rolls, Qcpass1, Anxietycello, Gail, Jarble, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Whale Mother, AnomieBOT, Yetanothersock, Piano non troppo, Citation bot, JohnnyB256, .‫غامدي‬.‫أحمد‬24, FreeRangeFrog, Tpott05, Snappy57, Jonreb3148, J04n, GrouchoBot, Ariya shookh, Captain Weirdo the Great, FrescoBot, Mikew95, Lunohod, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Mehloveswiki, Dcshank, Pinethicket, Calmer Waters, BEAKER12434, MastiBot, Mikespedia, Daldobie, Dc987, Mramz88, RjwilmsiBot, Hh.ezra, Ripswitched, EmausBot, Racerx11, AmandaDoll, Thecheesykid, John Cline, Josve05a, Samaritan3312010, Huodaxia, H3llBot, Unreal7, TyA, Rabies666, BoredSoContributing, ChuispastonBot, Atrivo, Jiimbowallessvxdix, ClueBot NG, Jjthunder, BlueWaffle123, Joefromrandb, One Hundred Eleven Congress, Cntras, Kevin Gorman, Widr, Antiqueight, Austingcarr, DrChrissy, RafikiSykes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tylerdude8, Rimmusjobum, Ephert, BG19bot, ISTB351, Nicoli Maege, Wiki13, Mark Arsten, Jessicakateable, TOMTRACE, Bilbothomas, SketchyCoder, Lieutenant of Melkor, HumanNaturOriginal, Freesodas, Biosthmors, Edward Buckingham, ChrisGualtieri, DobbsheadVenerator, YFdyh-bot, Ieatbbies, Redgreen32144234234, Thepoud32455, MCAllen91, RandomStuff9177, Lugia2453, ChrisJamesJennings, Reatlas, Lourine, Coprophile, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Iztwoz, Wuerzele, Yajosaurus Rex, Pryan96, Bladesmulti, Orchdorks123, Duckula Flog, Editorgaza, Thibaut120094, Polsk Magnifiy, Iwilsonp, Sampeter100, Ejlieber1 and Anonymous: 584 • Crate training Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crate%20training?oldid=637780202 Contributors: Elf, Joyous!, D6, Sietse Snel, Viriditas, Hooperbloob, Poweroid, Walter Görlitz, Mac Davis, SDC, BD2412, Wikifier, Aveekbh, GSchjetne, 21655, Nekura, Jeff Silvers, SmackBot, Brianyoumans, Buck Mulligan, Ohnoitsjamie, Egsan Bacon, AdamWeeden, Weregerbil, Mathmannix, TastyPoutine, Dodo bird, No1lakersfan, Alaibot, Arifsaha, MER-C, FisherQueen, HiLo48, Cometstyles, Kyunghoonie, Demondp, Sch3dana, Kymdog, Daveh4h, Genglish, Matthew Yeager, Bob98133, Galenaaussies, Trivialist, MatttK, Reinaldo13, Thormin, Berean Hunter, Delicious carbuncle, Mentalken, Cakejumper, Sierrasen, Ccacsmss, DaisyChi, N1RK4UDSK714, Linkpress, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Animatedmarketing, Biker Biker, CallawayRox, Now wiki, Goldy419, RjwilmsiBot, Eastwetwang, Petllover1, Cymru.lass, Cymru.lass in America, Mada1x, Doglover33, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, PetBhave, Ilovewikimuch, Markallanjenner and Anonymous: 64 • Cyber-Enhanced Working Dog Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber-Enhanced%20Working%20Dog?oldid=634770682 Contributors: Bgwhite, DGG, Cavarrone, William2001, LowLevel73 and Juliafern • Defence Animal Centre Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence%20Animal%20Centre?oldid=642047467 Contributors: Apokrif, DinosaursLoveExistence, Bellerophon5685, CommonsDelinker, Dormskirk, Lightmouse, Whoisthecatalyst, Cbrick77 and Anonymous: 4 • Detection dog Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detection%20dog?oldid=656502962 Contributors: Hectorthebat, Pigsonthewing, Nurg, Lowellian, Elf, Neutrality, WikiDon, Dsurber, Aranel, Hesperian, Carbon Caryatid, Henry W. Schmitt, Angr, Andromeda321, Rjwilmsi, XLerate, Catsmeat, Stevenfruitsmaak, Chobot, FrenchIsAwesome, Chris Capoccia, Shaddack, Lippard, Trcunning, BorgQueen, SmackBot, Ariedartin, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Rearden Metal, Mdwh, Cryonic, COMPFUNK2, Hgilbert, Bejnar, ArglebargleIV, RunningFool, Nuutti, Pharaoh Hound, Twas Now, JForget, Hakluyt bean, Gogo Dodo, Smile a While, Z10x, CTZMSC3, SummerPhD, Epeefleche, V. Szabolcs, Meredyth, Thompson.matthew, Iamusingamd, Keith D, Yoshinsky, Philip Trueman, Troein, Yilloslime, Amaher, Joffish, Billinghurst, Jpeeling, Testmaennchen, Falcon8765, Mharrsch, Biscuittin, Accounting4Taste, KoshVorlon, Binksternet, Angelray45, Night Goblin, Hafspajen, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Lartoven, Tony Holkham, Duncan, SilvonenBot, Average White Dork, Addbot, Gd8man, Tide rolls, ForesticPig, Bermicourt, Yobot, ClockwerkMao, AnomieBOT, Grolltech, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Sketchmoose, 3.1. TEXT 153 Miyagawa, Custoo, Pinethicket, Amaweeuk, Thinkprofits, Trappist the monk, Lotje, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Dewritech, MacDogald, Tisane, とりあえず知っとこ, K6ka, A930913, Rascargo, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, K9Ger, Rezabot, Jk2q3jrklse, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Pod221004, Alexhajdasz, Copdetdick99, ChrisGualtieri, EuroCarGT, K9keith, Missionedit, ArmbrustBot, RoflCopter404, Feodor Kuzmich, Monkbot, KD.Oly, Roo Cleland and Anonymous: 82 • Dog aggression Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20aggression?oldid=642890876 Contributors: Booyabazooka, Elf, Quill, ESkog, Bcat, Mwanner, Bobo192, Gblaz, Dozenist, Gurch, RussBot, Kyorosuke, Wimt, Nahallac Silverwinds, GraemeL, Katieh5584, SmackBot, Lagringa, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Snowmanradio, Pwjb, Joelmills, Robofish, SQGibbon, Dodo bird, Leuko, Danielpugh, Escp11, Headphonos, Jillskor, Colin Pederson, Bob98133, SH84, Ahimsadog, ObfuscatePenguin, Drmies, 842U, Aprock, Brambleberry of RiverClan, Cakejumper, MrOllie, Download, Shibashake, 8ung3st, AnomieBOT, Phoenixauthor, Nick JonesMCFBA, Lawsofeffect, Skyerise, Daldobie, Robert Silni, ClueBot NG, Dwanawana, Zeroyon01, The Dog Whisperer of MN, Hahahaha14582528 and Anonymous: 45 • Dog behavior Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20behavior?oldid=656496033 Contributors: Darkwind, Michael Devore, Lucky 6.9, Joyous!, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FT2, ESkog, Mwanner, Jpgordon, Alansohn, Velella, TaintedMustard, Sciurinæ, Heida Maria, Jackhynes, GVOLTT, Rjwilmsi, Gurch, NawlinWiki, ONEder Boy, SMcCandlish, Veinor, SmackBot, Gaff, Gilliam, Addshore, Dreadstar, Alan daniel, Joelmills, TastyPoutine, Dodo bird, Iridescent, Vanisaac, CmdrObot, Edward Vielmetti, Karenjc, Kunstcleaver, Dr.enh, Underpants, Coaster1983, Btball, Hmrox, Helicoptor, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Steven Walling, Kjhf, DigitalDog, CommonsDelinker, Pekaje, Skumarlabot, Shawn in Montreal, CoalSky, Evb-wiki, Ja 62, Signalhead, Discovermee, RadiantRay, Falcon8765, Yintan, Yerpo, Techman224, Altzinn, Derek Yoda's friend, ClueBot, NickCT, Sctiang, Excirial, Stealth500, JonathanRRogers, Rror, Vianello, Nevad, Sierrasen, SpellingBot, Fieldday-sunday, MrOllie, GoufR, Bostonrox123, Jarble, Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Animalea121, AnomieBOT, Slant6guy, Thesoxlost, Poet-heart, Kylelovesyou, Nick JonesMCFBA, Aaron Kauppi, Km5656, Commit charge, Adambelize, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Robert Silni, The Utahraptor, DexDor, Stebunik, Vladimirwiki, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Abdonon, Snotbot, Mesoderm, DrChrissy, RyanSYMak, BG19bot, Duxwing, BattyBot, Simonclotto, Onepebble, Mogism, TheIrishWarden, Vandraedha, Soham, DavidLeighEllis, Lovesea3333, Quenhitran, OccultZone, Monkbot, DtheZombie, Rise.campbell, AubreeC, William Harris, Park.1529, Caligustafson, Cauccid and Anonymous: 109 • Dog behaviourist Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20behaviourist?oldid=653807957 Contributors: Ixfd64, Elf, Lectonar, HGB, Woohookitty, Patiwat, SmackBot, Elonka, Queequeg22, Paulieraw, Doglistener, Nyarpy, CmdrObot, Molindo, Oogles, Zeppo1, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Tedickey, CliffC, Demondp, Jillskor, Cindamuse, Godspellsdog2, Vetshrink, Blanchardb, Arjayay, Addbot, MrOllie, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Mattg82, Nick JonesMCFBA, Some standardized rigour, Jacksolomon, Daldobie, Cassianto, Sagaciousphil, Mmdogma, Nick j007, Reemovic and Anonymous: 35 • Dog bite tug Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20bite%20tug?oldid=648866070 Contributors: Wavelength, Fram, Emeraude, Apteva, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Manytexts, Alexhajdasz, ChrisGualtieri, Kate777-89 and Anonymous: 3 • Dog surfing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20surfing?oldid=651590525 Contributors: Mandarax, Nikkimaria, Biruitorul, Edwardx, Invertzoo, CallawayRox, K6ka, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, BattyBot, DoctorKubla, Markpost, Hunnybadger and Anonymous: 2 • Dog–cat relationship Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%E2%80%93cat%20relationship?oldid=654995667 Contributors: Dismas, Edison, Pyb, Incnis Mrsi, N3bulous, Nyttend, Lenticel, Coin945, Fences and windows, Tatterfly, TheRedPenOfDoom, Luckas Blade, Jarble, Yobot, Citation bot, Pbrower2a, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, This lousy T-shirt, BG19bot, Mysterytrey, Fylbecatulous, BattyBot, Nicholasemjohnson, Marc Bago, XKiatonx, Thisisnancy, OakleyDrive and Anonymous: 9 • Dogs in the City Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogs%20in%20the%20City?oldid=651479716 Contributors: Wlmg, Cydebot, TonyTheTiger, AnomieBOT, Thehelpfulbot, Logical Fuzz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Glowsquid, TBrandley, BattyBot and Anonymous: 10 • Dogs in warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogs%20in%20warfare?oldid=655878097 Contributors: William Avery, Axlrosen, Skysmith, Jeandré du Toit, Dcoetzee, Silvonen, AnthonyQBachler, Seano1, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Piotrus, Pmanderson, Safety Cap, Jacooks, Discospinster, Adam850, El C, Kross, Markussep, Iranian86Footballer, Wereldburger758, Sstoneb, Geo Swan, SlimVirgin, Kfitzgib, Hu, TaintedMustard, BDD, Woohookitty, Laurap414, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Tregonsee, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Nihiltres, Gurch, Brimcmike, Chobot, Jak722, Hairy Dude, Rtkat3, Kafziel, RussBot, Kurt Leyman, Chaser, Stephenb, Alex Bakharev, Evrik, Jezzabr, Sandstein, Dutch-Bostonian, Nick-D, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Looper5920, Actricalian, Yamaguchi 先⽣, ERcheck, Armeria, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Hibernian, Colonies Chris, TCY, IQpierce, Seadragon, Jumping cheese, Daler, Blake-, Ebonius, Swatjester, Dwpaul, Gobonobo, Lisapollison, Makyen, Muadd, Pseudoanonymous, Dodo bird, Peyre, Nicolharper, Iridescent, Clarityfiend, KsprayDad, Exander, Lordraydens, Gil Gamesh, Wilhelm Wiesel, ChrisCork, JohnCD, Iamcuriousblue, ShelfSkewed, Crossmr, Jai Raj, Stopmenow100, Rifleman 82, Crowish, Dougweller, Christian75, Plasticbadge, Ebyabe, JAYMEDINC, Buistr, Kablammo, Steve Dufour, Mojo Hand, Bethpage89, Signaleer, AntiVandalBot, Cole1982, Seaphoto, Waerloeg, Gohnarch, Jonathan Williams, 1Rabid Monkey, Ingolfson, DOSGuy, Arsenikk, Leuko, Avaya1, Albany NY, RainbowCrane, Simon Burchell, Cynwolfe, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Lovellama, Barbarossa359, Cobratom, Smooth0707, Paris By Night, Lenticel, Dark hyena, Gcap, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Shadowmuse, J.delanoy, Octopus-Hands, Keesiewonder, BrokenSphere, DadaNeem, Tatrgel, KylieTastic, Andy Marchbanks, WRE451, Headphonos, Rocketman116, Philip Trueman, MissionInn.Jim, Don4of4, Supertask, Maxim, Epopp, Shrivenzale, Billinghurst, Bahamut0013, Mharrsch, Brianga, HotOne121, K9HEROES, Hamster X, LeadSongDog, Oda Mari, Hxhbot, Antonio Lopez, Fratrep, Svick, Timmybof, Rosalindfranklin, Fullobeans, Escape Orbit, DreamsAreMadeOf, ClueBot, FoxDiamond, Fribbler, Binksternet, Trfasulo, Conmilae, Sentry Dog, Chessy999, Drmies, Uncle Milty, Niceguyedc, Ccmunday, Dylan620, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Excirial, Rhododendrites, NuclearWarfare, 7&6=thirteen, Gistahuang, Mhching, Thingg, Alousybum, DumZiBoT, Otr500, Barosaurus Lentus, Amir Hamzah 2008, Duncan, Dthomsen8, Avoided, Scorese, Eleven even, Tkech, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Mr0t1633, AVand, Nemo1986, AlexW1122, Tide rolls, Blackrail, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, ClockwerkMao, Dfe6543, Professortimithy, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Citation bot, Xqbot, LithiumPython, Mark Schierbecker, Miyagawa, Exactly2009, Tiyang, CapitalElll, Krowbanana, Vincenzo80, Cannolis, Citation bot 1, Chas.owens, Pinethicket, SeoMac, Jeffrd10, RjwilmsiBot, BaSH PR0MPT, John of Reading, Kang cjk, Parkywiki, Gfoley4, Snoodle99, Luke11223, RedThunderBuster, Wikipelli, Djembayz, H3llBot, EWikist, SporkBot, Donner60, JohnFOMalley, Zeta1127,89thLegion, Rwberndt, Cgt, ClueBot NG, Jnorton7558, Fglo11, Ptdtch, Widr, Jk2q3jrklse, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sherlockian87, Thesimcal, Strike Eagle, Gob Lofa, BarkingMoon, Leighloo1234, BG19bot, Neptune's Trident, StripedDaisy, Whodoesdo, Stormyjb, Dainomite, EcoChap, BattyBot, Lukerosati, AvampostoVeneziano, EuroCarGT, Kanghuitari, Berudagon, Lugia2453, Roseharkness, JasonnF, Thkidx, Jimmyfewell124, Baggymexican, Benbenius, Xantuz85, Ieatbabykittens, Xyfpdq, SarahPML, AddWittyNameHere, Pktlaurence, Sustainabletrasportation, Wyatt2222222, Monkbot, Qwerqwerqwerqwert, Gaintysaurus, Verbatimdesign, Liahmcguire, MOSTAFAMOOTAZ, LetsEditHere and Anonymous: 276 154 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES • Fetch (game) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetch%20(game)?oldid=540933057 Contributors: Arteitle, Moink, Elf, Uncle G, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Garrepi, Mike Selinker, SmackBot, Tigerghost, Lucohami, Synergy, Ultimus, David Shankbone, Zombiemambo, Captain panda, Addbot, DOI bot, Zorrobot, Amirobot, Citation bot, DSisyphBot, Citation bot 1, DrilBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Checker Fred, Sumsum2010, H3llBot, Δ, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 9 • Flirt pole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flirt%20pole?oldid=625271421 Contributors: Bearcat, Malcolma, Tranndee, Fyrael, Yngvadottir, Citation bot, BG19bot, ArticlesForCreationBot, APerson, Dogtastic2014 and Anonymous: 2 • Game (dog) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game%20(dog)?oldid=631768221 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, Kafziel, KnowledgeOfSelf, Tsca.bot, SirIsaacBrock, Gobonobo, Hu12, Colonel Warden, MikeHobday, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Fetchcomms, CardinalDan, VolkovBot, Headphonos, Flyer22, Oda Mari, Hafwyn, ClueBot, Chessy999, PROGRESSBRINDLE, Aprock, Scorese, Addbot, Rascal43, Green Squares, The Bushranger, Citation bot 1, Owlet1234, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot and Anonymous: 16 • Gee and haw Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gee%20and%20haw?oldid=633606376 Contributors: Cydebot, CliffC, Tiptoety, BattyBot, TheCascadian, Fish storm and Anonymous: 2 • Gun-dog training Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun-dog%20training?oldid=643038442 Contributors: Edward, Woohookitty, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Master of Puppets, Colonies Chris, Floridan, Iridescent, Skapur, CmdrObot, Raggedstaff, Neil916, JGray, Recurring dreams, J.delanoy, HiLo48, Jillskor, Genglish, Marshmellow16, Bob98133, Hafspajen, Leonard^Bloom, Sun Creator, 1ForTheMoney, MatthewVanitas, W00drow, Felstead, AnomieBOT, Miyagawa, TYelliot, Rrpslflorida, ClueBot NG, Jk2q3jrklse, Curb Chain, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Martin Collins Equine Surfaces, Lemnaminor and Anonymous: 16 • Housebreaking Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housebreaking?oldid=635476837 Contributors: DavidWBrooks, David Latapie, Selket, Smjg, Elf, Joyous!, Klemen Kocjancic, Esperant, Mr Bound, Lachatdelarue, Mlindstr, Hesperian, Krellis, Poweroid, Henry W. Schmitt, BlastOButter42, Kzollman, Graham87, Bensin, Phantomsteve, TheGrappler, Robert McClenon, 21655, Zzuuzz, Penelope D, SmackBot, Gary2863, Bluebot, Caldorwards4, MassTransit, Weregerbil, Timize, Soap, Kuru, Fuzzy510, TastyPoutine, CmdrObot, Nunquam Dormio, Neelix, Zomic13, Benjiboi, PamD, Natalie Erin, AntiVandalBot, Arifsaha, Barek, MER-C, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Mjmoves, Steven Walling, Nick Cooper, FisherQueen, DigitalDog, PC78, CoalSky, Xiahou, Labman, Demondp, Pawaround, Sch3dana, Hrundi Bakshi, Daveh4h, Keilana, Bob98133, Realist2, Chooey13, Twinsday, The Thing That Should Not Be, Galenaaussies, Reinaldo13, Sue0189, XLinkBot, Mentalken, Cakejumper, Sierrasen, Ronhjones, Fluffernutter, MrOllie, Ccacsmss, Tassedethe, Jjpref, Contain1, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Kkj11210, LittleWink, SarahAngst, Shembree, MGatian, 1dogtrainer, Zuky79, ClueBot NG, Widr, Wpathomp, TheOrangeOne, DogArticles, Oldfrodo98, Pamdufuture and Anonymous: 71 • Dog intelligence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20intelligence?oldid=655915012 Contributors: Eloquence, Stevertigo, Conti, Moncrief, Elf, Elembis, Joyous!, Discospinster, FT2, Ylee, Fir0002, Alansohn, Free Bear, Trysha, Echuck215, Tintamarre, LOL, Guy M, Graham87, CheshireKatz, NeonMerlin, Matt Deres, FlaBot, Sarranduin, NawlinWiki, Welsh, Howcheng, Etopie, CecilWard, Raven4x4x, Epipelagic, Locker420, Barnabypage, Tekana, Alpha 4615, Wknight94, Mrphoebs, Ninly, Maxamegalon2000, KNHaw, Patiwat, RupertMillard, SmackBot, Aurista25, C.Fred, Shadowstar, Buck Mulligan, Ohnoitsjamie, Teemu Ruskeepää, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Hibernian, Boris Crépeau, Dreadstar, Bulldog123, Either way, Ligulembot, Kukini, Pronoun, IronGargoyle, Harej bot, Gogo Dodo, Ameliorate!, Jimip, TheJC, UberScienceNerd, Coaster1983, Affiray, James086, Grade4, Voodoo Jobu, Verbivorous, Terrencekeenan, B katt 500, Thibbs, Licho, Lady Mondegreen, Hdt83, Anaxial, VirtualDelight, FrummerThanThou, Shawn in Montreal, Drummerver, Ryan Postlethwaite, Anonywiki, HiLo48, Vanished User 4517, EMT1871, Amade, Biglovinb, YoavD, Wikieditor06, Mazarin07, Falcon8765, Pengyanan, Bob98133, NicolasJz, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Wraithful, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Haydendansby-hall, Hafspajen, Erudecorp, Sctiang, Tonyblase14, Thingg, Hopper901, Vanished User 1004, XLinkBot, Nigazblood, D.M. from Ukraine, Addbot, Katelynnetrue24, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Favonian, Briantresp, Tide rolls, Jarble, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Neiltustin, Citation bot, Katchafish, FrescoBot, Vishizs, DrilBot, Jonesey95, Abrotanum, CaptainPsychology, Mountdavid, Mav1971, Weedwhacker128, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Donner60, Cgt, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Antiqueight, Swidbert R Ott, Jk2q3jrklse, Thisis4skool033, Toco9000, BattyBot, Db4wp, Zentechinc, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, VikiPicture, Onepebble, Epicgenius, Darrena092, Brutal Russian, Shellwake, William Harris, Blank123456789 and Anonymous: 167 • The Intelligence of Dogs Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Intelligence%20of%20Dogs?oldid=654807692 Contributors: Eloquence, Ubiquity, Charles Matthews, Meelar, Elf, Robert Southworth, Toytoy, RobinCarmody, Elembis, Joyous!, Lpangelrob, Thorwald, FT2, Ross Uber, Lachatdelarue, Cmacd123, Fasten, Rcarpadus, Rzelnik, GregorB, Jimstoic, NCdave, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Malhonen, Jadon, FrenchIsAwesome, Serinde, Pseudomonas, Salsb, Spike Wilbury, Malcolma, Moe Epsilon, Tony1, Tekana, SMcCandlish, SmackBot, Snufkin, C.Fred, DWaterson, Arny, Gilliam, Buck Mulligan, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Cdills, Robofish, Pronoun, Lathrop1885, Tony Fox, Dionysos1, CapitalR, Ewulp, Lee Charles Kelley, Dlohcierekim, Harej bot, Almostfm, Mentifisto, Barek, Vmanivan, Silver dog, Novickas, GregU, WLU, DGG, Trusilver, Sirtrebuchet, HiLo48, Robertgreer, GrahamHardy, Richard New Forest, Dcbritt1, Planetary Chaos, Umbralcorax, Flyer22, Denisarona, MiamiManny, Eeyoreismahunne, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hafspajen, Sctiang, Awickert, Jusdafax, Whhs.gtewk, Brandoid, Onomou, GM Pink Elephant, Ambeanerxcore, Moozipan Cheese, Beach drifter, Addbot, Yoenit, D.c.camero, Briantresp, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Trevinci, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Citation bot, Reinbow1234, Jmundo, AbigailAbernathy, Miyagawa, Amypv, Biker Biker, Srebrina2b, CaptainPsychology, PedanticSophist, Rxdg, Cravelol, Jonkerz, Callanecc, Sideways713, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jaywashington, RjwilmsiBot, Myownworst, Superk1a, EmausBot, Lorethiel, ZéroBot, Mitchell1947, CountMacula, Monteitho, Brezbesed, ClueBot NG, Kikichugirl, Bped1985, Welly Wizard, Cntras, Bobherry, Recoil0011, Cantanyuser, AtticussRogue, Gdfusion, EuroCarGT, BrynHarris, AmaryllisGardener, Elliot Teong, Etonotab, Sam Sailor, JaconaFrere, CogitoErgoSum14, Bigballsacksnigro, Monkbot, David hod, Mya Kotecha001, Njkad, Anonymous06122001 and Anonymous: 316 • Pack (canine) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pack%20(canine)?oldid=651203610 Contributors: Lquilter, Jengod, Cahno, Alba, Elf, Jason Quinn, Giraffedata, Trysha, A Train, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Uvaduck, YurikBot, RussBot, Sarranduin, RattleMan, Aaron Brenneman, Epipelagic, Xtraeme, SmackBot, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Rheostatik, JedOs, Derek R Bullamore, EdGl, SashatoBot, Tim bates, NJZombie, Dfrg.msc, Kauczuk, JAnDbot, CombatWombat42, SilentWings, Steven Walling, R'n'B, VolkovBot, EmxBot, SmurfyK, SieBot, Aurlmari, Spv926, Hafwyn, Addbot, Ezmindegy, Irishsson4, Fluffernutter, Debresser, Ivanov id, Jarble, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Xqbot, Oldsingerman20, Obsidian Soul, Hazzamtb, Naviguessor, H3llBot, Primergrey, Widr, BG19bot, Wolfpack2k11, Therealweasley, Meatsgains, Onepebble, Dexbot, Naturaldoubt, Suzily, Monkbot, Dynamicdispatch, Cbkillian133, Editor abcdef, Caligustafson and Anonymous: 39 • Prey drive Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prey%20drive?oldid=610501836 Contributors: Edward, Xanzzibar, Elf, Dr.frog, Kazvorpal, Stemonitis, Firsfron, LOL, Gaius Cornelius, Closedmouth, SMcCandlish, SmackBot, Richard001, LtPowers, Pharaoh Hound, Harej bot, Gavia immer, Steveprutz, Io Katai, Jxj24, Gibson Flying V, ClueBot, Dthomsen8, Sierrasen, AnomieBOT, Sir Stig, Ego White Tray, Manytexts, Kate777-89 and Anonymous: 20 3.2. IMAGES 155 • Professional handler Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional%20handler?oldid=552093860 Contributors: Realkyhick, SmackBot, Iiartisanii, Pharaoh Hound, CmdrObot, Lechatjaune, Hafspajen, Killian441, KLBot2 and Anonymous: 4 • Separation anxiety in dogs Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation%20anxiety%20in%20dogs?oldid=645829472 Contributors: Gadfium, Rich Farmbrough, Woohookitty, Chris Capoccia, Malcolma, Dr.enh, JMyrleFuller, Katharineamy, Tikuko, EoGuy, Corysn123, Saebjorn, Dthomsen8, Yobot, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Trilliumz, AndiMinatrea, Tobiascharles, ClueBot NG, Creck01, Jameswatts1990, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hoppsius, BattyBot, Cleo3591, Simonclotto, Bullbludd, Kakemnitz, JacquelineINFS315 and Anonymous: 19 • Shepherd's whistle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepherd'{}s%20whistle?oldid=618828809 Contributors: Hyacinth, Rich Farmbrough, Chris the speller, Gogo Dodo, Miniapolis, Giftiger wunsch, IsleofGough, LittleWink, Shanaghan and Anonymous: 4 • Shock collar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock%20collar?oldid=655745197 Contributors: William Avery, Karada, Hydnjo, Dina, Heegoop, Rich Farmbrough, El sjaako, RJFJR, Jdege, Gene Nygaard, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Tedder, King of Hearts, StuRat, Josh3580, Kabl00ey, SmackBot, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Chris the speller, Cgoodwin, Tim Pierce, Pax85, Vanished user 9i39j3, MarkSutton, Lord Galen, HalJor, Reywas92, Epbr123, Marek69, Newcastle, Poshzombie, SiobhanHansa, Domsau2, JNW, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, JaGa, Blairstephens, Ztobor, CommonsDelinker, Uhai, Jillskor, Peapeam, Jjdon, CMBJ, SieBot, Cliffsimm, Hobartimus, StaticGull, Karenanne55, Church, ClueBot, Traveler100, Rondoggy, Ndenison, Leviel, Mild Bill Hiccup, M4gnum0n, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, Dargaard, Benboy00, Anditwassummer, Addbot, Queenmomcat, Trevor Marron, Jim10701, MrOllie, Aktsu, Tide rolls, Yobot, Ajh16, AnomieBOT, Retriev32, Rnhawn34, Speksnijder123, MyGoodPuppy, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Martianpuppy, Tuscun, Dogdiva, Motorcycleleathers, FrescoBot, Rustytrap, Tigerlilyden, Wesnews13, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Beanyandcecil, Whitelight7605, Panzertoo, RjwilmsiBot, Helium4, K6ka, Discountdogfence, EWikist, Tolly4bolly, Nicepirate, XRiamux, GermanJoe, ClueBot NG, Inning, Humblebumbler, Widr, Mytigerlily, Jk2q3jrklse, BG19bot, Harrumpher, Muggleman, Alfiewilliams, Cyberbot II, Khimaris, NFLisAwesome, Umany, Arlemjm, JoseYates, Vectronn and Anonymous: 114 • Soft mouth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft%20mouth?oldid=470287612 Contributors: UtherSRG, DragonflySixtyseven, J Milburn, Chrisrus and Superk1a • Twilight bark Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight%20bark?oldid=636274054 Contributors: Philip Cross, Bgwhite, Wl219, EllaGiammai, JaconaFrere, Toni disu and Anonymous: 2 • Dog whistle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20whistle?oldid=644494925 Contributors: Menchi, Hyacinth, Saltine, Samsara, JB (renamed), Elf, Wolfkeeper, Kevyn, Discospinster, Routermonkey, Physicistjedi, Hooperbloob, Trysha, Dschwen, Cburnett, Drbreznjev, WadeSimMiser, Rjwilmsi, Bubba73, FlaBot, Voidxor, DRosenbach, Deville, Ninly, SmackBot, C.Fred, Deli nk, THe dog trainer, Bando26, Tim bates, Minna Sora no Shita, Chetvorno, DKqwerty, Thijs!bot, Mojo Hand, The Obento Musubi, JetCityOrange, B.S. Lawrence, Bongwarrior, Avicennasis, All Is One, Jrble819, Khairul hazim, LokiClock, Liorn, SieBot, Tresiden, Dstebbins, ClueBot, LAX, Ideal gas equation, Abhinav, Duncan, Dthomsen8, ZooFari, Addbot, Seamus55, This is Paul, Mmxx, AnomieBOT, Dwayne, Piano non troppo, Jhackermuch, ArvindRSingh, Dngnta, Oybubblejohn, DrilBot, Pinethicket, A8UDI, Fastilysock, Tbhotch, DASHBot, Lunaibis, SunOfErat, ClueBot NG, Karlster, Zibart, Mark Arsten, Asstronimer, ChrisGualtieri, Blacknredrose, Devanim, Webclient101, Epic faic, Andrea joshy and Anonymous: 74 3.2 Images • File:2008-08-28_White_German_Shepherd_ready.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/2008-08-28_ White_German_Shepherd_ready.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ildar Sagdejev (Specious) • File:A_Chihuahua_fetching_a_ball.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/A_Chihuahua_fetching_a_ ball.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Shankbone • File:Abu_Ghraib_56.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Abu_Ghraib_56.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Acooldog.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4d/Acooldog.JPG License: PD Contributors: Own work Original artist: Silly_monkeys (talk) (Uploads) • File:Afr_wild_dog_pack_size.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Afr_wild_dog_pack_size.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lajos.Rozsa • File:Agility_teeter.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/32/Agility_teeter.jpg License: PD Contributors: Own work Original artist: JoKing (talk) (Uploads) • File:Agilitycrossover.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Agilitycrossover.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mark Shaw • File:Agilitydog.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Agilitydog.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: A Great Jump ! -- Dog Agility Trial Original artist: Bob Jagendorf • File:Agiliy_dogwalk_Flickr.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Agiliy_dogwalk_Flickr.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr here Original artist: Flickr user SheltieBoy (Ron Armstrong) • File:Alaskan_Malamute_agility_a-frame.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Alaskan_Malamute_ agility_a-frame.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: HMKC Spring 2007 Agility Trial Original artist: Ron Armstrong from Helena, MT, USA • File:AmRatTerr2_wb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/AmRatTerr2_wb.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Micki using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Elf at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Macboots, Jenny912 at en.wikipedia. 156 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES • File:Ambox_PR.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Ambox_PR.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made in Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape Original artist: penubag • File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:American_Foxhound_and_Labrador_Retriever_playing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/ American_Foxhound_and_Labrador_Retriever_playing.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Peter Wadsworth • File:Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_The_ear.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Anatomy_ and_physiology_of_animals_The_ear.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikibooks; transferred to Commons by User:Adrignola using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Sunshineconnelly at en.wikibooks • File:Auge_Hund_Diagramm_engl.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Auge_Hund_Diagramm_engl. jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steffen Heinz (caronna) • File:Auklet_flock_Shumagins_1986.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Auklet_flock_Shumagins_ 1986.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: images.fws.gov ([1]) Original artist: D. Dibenski • File:Aussie-blacktri.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Aussie-blacktri.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Photo by Pharlap Original artist: User Pharlap on en.wikipedia • File:Australian_Shepherd_agility_cropped.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Australian_Shepherd_ agility_cropped.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edit of Australian Shepherd agility Flickr.jpg Original artist: Pharaoh Hound • File:Azawakh_K9.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Azawakh_K9.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? 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And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:EnglishSetter9_fx_wb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/EnglishSetter9_fx_wb.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Surena using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Elf at en.wikipedia • File:Enyalioides_rubrigularis_male_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Enyalioides_rubrigularis_ male_2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Torres-Carvajal O, de Queiroz K, Etheridge R (2009) A new species of iguanid lizard (Hoplocercinae, Enyalioides) from southern Ecuador with a key to eastern Ecuadorian Enyalioides. ZooKeys 27: 59–71. doi:10.3897/zookeys.27.273 Original artist: Omar Torres-Carvajal • File:Exposició_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Exposici%C3%B3_3.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: revista de monogràfiques del pastor alemany Original artist: ? • File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_14.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Expression_of_ the_Emotions_Figure_14.png License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from 1965 version with foreword by Konrad Lorenz published by University of Chicago Press Original artist: Mr. T. W. Wood (“I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals.”- p. 26) • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: PD Contributors: ? 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