министерство сельского хозяйства российской

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МИНИСТЕРСТВО СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «СМОЛЕНСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ» О.Л. Якутина, Е.В. Лупу СБОРНИК ЛЕКСИКО-ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИХ УПРАЖНЕНИЙ И ТЕКСТОВ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ БАКАЛАВРОВ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫХ ВУЗОВ Учебно-методическое пособие для бакалавров сельскохозяйственных вузов Смоленск 2016 УДК 811.111 + 811.112.24 ББК 81.2 Англ. + 81.2 Нем. Я 49 + Л 85 Рецензент: Белютина Ю.А., кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры английского языка ФГБОУ ВО «Смоленский государственный университет» Якутина О.Л., Лупу Е.В. Сборник лексико-грамматических упражнений и текстов для студентов бакалавров сельскохозяйственных вузов : учебно-методическое пособие для бакалавров сельскохозяйственных вузов / О.Л. Якутина, Е.В. Лупу. – Смоленск : ФГБОУ ВО «Смоленская ГСХА», 2016. – 41 с. Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов неязыковых вузов, осуществляющих подготовку специалистов со степенью бакалавра по направлению подготовки «Землеустройство и кадастры». Содержит практические материалы для совершенствования языковых навыков на иностранном языке. Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета ФГБОУ ВО «Смоленская ГСХА» (протокол № ___ от «___» __________ 2016г.) УДК 811.111 + 811.112.24 ББК 81.2 Англ. + 81.2 Нем. © ФГБОУ ВО «Смоленская ГСХА», 2016 © Якутина О.Л., 2016 © Лупу Е.В., 2016 Введение Настоящее учебное методическое пособие предназначено для студентов неязыковых вузов, осуществляющих подготовку специалистов со степенью бакалавра по направлению подготовки «Землеустройство и кадастры», а так же лиц, владеющих основами английского и немецкого языка и нуждающихся в совершенствовании языковых знаний и развитие речевых навыков. Основными целями пособия являются повторения, закрепление, а так же углубление и расширение языкового материала, известного обучаемым из курса средней школы. Особое внимание в пособие уделяется отработке тех грамматических явлений, которые являются основой для понимания устной и письменной речи на иностранном языке и которые, как показывает опыт, часто оказываются недостаточно прочно усвоенными на начальном этапе изучения иностранного языка. Отбор материала для учебного пособия диктовался требованиями Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта высшего образования для неязыковых вузов и практической необходимостью выработки у обучаемых навыков чтения и устной речи в бытовой и специальной сфере. Грамматические явления вводятся постепенно на базе знакомой лексики, и закрепляются в лексико-грамматических упражнениях тренировочного характера. Часть 1 Text 1 «Farm and farming» Farming is the most important occupation in the world. People cannot live without food, and nearly all the food they eat comes front crops and livestock raised on farms. Various industrial materials such as cotton and wool, also come from plants and animals raised on farms. Faming was once the chief way of life in nearly every country- For example, the typical American family of the 1700's and early 1800's lived on a small farm. The family raised cattle, chickens, and hogs and grew com, fruits, garden vegetables, hay, and wheat Everyone In the family worked long and hard, but the results were often disappointing. Most families produced barely enough food for themselves. This situation began to change during the last half of the 1800s - and it has changed remarkably during the 1900's. Scientific advances since the 1800's have made farming increasingly productive. The development of better plant varieties and fertilizers has helped double and even triple the yields of some major crops. Scientific livestock care and breeding have helped Increase the amount of meet that animals produce. At the same time, the use of tractors and other modem farm machines has sharply reduced the need for farm labor. Farming is no longer the chief way of life in countries where farmers use scientific methods and labor saving machinery. In these countries, farmers produce more food than ever before, and most of the people live and work in urban areas. These changes have occurred in all industrialized nations and have been dramatic In the United States. In 1850, each farmer in the United States produced, on the average, enough food for 4 people. Most Americans lived on farms. Today, each farmer produces enough food for over 80 people, and less than 3 per cent of all Americans live on farms. But even with the great decrease in the number of farmers, the nations, farms produce more food than the American people use. The surplus has enabled the United States to become the world’s chief food exporter. About a sixth of all food exports come from American farms, As farming has become less important as a way of life in the United States, It has become more and more important as a business. The successful farmers of today are expert not only in agriculture but also in accounting, marketing, and financing. Farms that are not run in a businesslike way have great difficulty surviving. Farms in the United States can be divided into two main group: specialized farms and mixed farms. A specialized farm concentrates on a particular type of crop livestock. A mixed farm raises a variety of crops and livestock. Specialized farming is profitable only if there are large commercial markets for farm products. The United States had few such markets before the late 1800's because the majority of the people lived on farms and raised their own food. Most U.S. farms, therefore, were mixed farms. Specialized farming was important mainly in the South. Unlike the North, the South has a long enough growing season (frostfree period) to raise such warm-weather crops as cotton, rice, and sugar cane. The North provided a large commercial market for these- products, and many Southern farmers specialized in raising them. The surpluses from mixed farms could feed the relatively few people who lived in U.S. cities and towns before the mid-1800's. But the urban areas began to grow rapidly during the last half of the 1800's, creating a demand for larger and larger food supplies. Farmers started to meet the demand by specializing. During the 1900's, specialized farms have increased at nearly the same rapid rate as the population of US. cities and towns. Today, about 95 per cent of the nation's farms are specialized farms. Text 2 «Specialized farms» Farmers who practice specialized farming raise the kind of crop or livestock that is best suited to their region. For example, corn is often the most profitable crop to grow in regions that have level land, fertile sod, and a warm, moist growing season. Wheat grows best in a drier and somewhat cooler climate Dairy farming is often the most profitable kind of farming in regions with rolling land, rich pastures, an d a short growing season. Much of the western half of the United States is too dry for any crops to grow without irrigation. But the West has vast grasslands, which farmers use to graze beef cattle and sheep. Irrigated farms in the West specialize in such crops as citrus fruits, cotton, rice, or vege tables. For more information on how soils and climate influence the kinds of crops and livestock that a farmer can raise. In the United States, a farm is classed as a specialized farm if it earns more than half its income from the sale of one kind of crop or livestock. Many specialized farms raise other products in addition to their main one. Numerous crop farms, for example, also raise livestock, and many livestock farms also raise crops. Specialized crop farms make up about 50 per cent of all the farms in the United States. Most of them raise field crops. Field crops are crops that must be grown on a relatively large amount of land to be profitable. They include nearly all crops except nuts and most vegetables and fruits. Nuts and most vegetables and fruits have a higher market value than do field crops. They may therefore be raised profitably on as little as 1 to 2 acres (0.4 to 0.8 hectare) of land. However, such vegetables and fruits as potatoes and pineapples must be grown in large fields to produce a crop big enough to be profitable. They are thus classed as field crops. The most important field crops are cereal grains. Foods made from grain make up a large part of the American diet. In addition, grain is a major ingredient in livestock feed, and so it is essential to large -scale egg, meat and milk production. The chief cereal grains grown in the United States are, in order of value, corn, wheat, sorghum, rice, barley, oats, and rye. Fanners raise these cro ps either to sell or to feed to their livestock. A farm that concentrates on raising grain for sale is called a cash grain farm. Cash grain farms mainly raise cereal grains. However, farms that specialize in dry field beans, dry peas, or soybeans are also considered to be cash grain farms. These crops are legumes (members of the pea family), not grains. But they are grown much like cereal grains and, in many cases, on the same farms. Some cash grain farmers raise dry field beans, dry peas, rice, sorghum, or soybeans as their principal crop. However, most cash grain farmers specialize in corn or wheat 'The majority of the nations wheat farms are in the Great Plains region and the Pacific Northwest Most farms that specialize in corn are in the Midwest and the South. Wheat is the only cash crop that most farmers in the Great Plains region grow. But in sections of the plains that have enough rainfall, many wheat farmers raise a secondary cash crop of corn or sorghum. Many corn farmers grow another grain or soybeans as a secondary cash crop. Other field crop farms specialize in such crops as cotton, peanuts, pineapples, potatoes, sugar cane, sugar beets, or tobacco. All the cotton and peanut farms in the United States are in the southern half of the nation. Farms in Hawaii produce all the nation's commercial pineapple crop. California and the states that border Canada, especially Idaho and Maine, have most of the potato farms. Sugar cane is grown in Florida, Hawaii, and Louisiana. Farms in various parts of the cou ntry specialize in sugar beets. Most of the tobacco farms are in the South. Vegetable farms raise such produce as cucumbers, green beans, lettuce, sweet corn, and tomatoes. Many of these farms grow only one kind of vegetable. Most vegetable farms are relat ively small, but some of the larger ones cover 2,000 acres (810 hectares) or more. About half the nation's vegetable farms are in seven states -California, Florida, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Texas, and Wisconsin. Fruit and nut farms concentrate on raising tree fruits, berries, grapes, and nuts. Tree fruits are the most common fruit crops by far. These fruits include apples, cherries, citrus fruits, peaches, pears, and plums. Most fruit and nut farms raise only fruits or nuts. Many of them specializ e in one crop, such as grapes, oranges, or pecans. About three -fourths of the farms are in five states - California, Florida, Michigan, New York, and Washington. Other specialized crop farms raise flowers, nursery products, or forest products. Flower farms and nurseries are found throughout the United States. About half the farms that specialize in forest products are in the South. Specialized livestock farms account for about 45 per cent of all U.S. farms. They can be divided into three main groups: (1) beef cattle, hog, and sheep farms, (2) dairy farms, and (3) poultry farms. Beef cattle, hog, and sheep farms produce most of the nations meat animals. The majority of the farms specialize in one kind of animal. In the eastern half of the United States, ma ny livestock farmers raise crops to feed their animals. However, most livestock farmers in the western half of the nation engage in ranching that is, they graze beef cattle and sheep on rangeland. Most of the rangeland is dry. In many areas, a rancher need s as many as 125 acres (51 hectares) of land to provide enough grass for one animal. A ranch must therefore cover a huge area to make a profit Ranches are by far the largest kind of farm. They average nearly 3,350 acres (1,356 hectares) in size, and some cover 40,000 acres (16,000 hectares) or more. Dairy farms specialize in raising milk cows. Most of the farms are concentrated near big-city markets. Many dairy farmers buy all or some of the feed they require from commercial suppliers. However, farmers in the Northeast and the Great Lakes region have large areas of pastureland that are Ideal for the grazing of dairy cattle. The two regions have long been the nations chief centers of dairy farming. Poultry farms raise chickens, turkeys, and other poultry for meat They also raise laying hens for eggs. Most of the farms specialize In broiler chickens or eggs. The broiler Industry is centered in the South. Egg farms are scattered throughout the country. Nearly half the poultry farms grow no crops. The great majo rity of poultry farms buy most or all of their Iced. Other specialized livestock farms raise horses, mules, goats, rabbits, minks, chinchillas, bees, or fish. Usually, only domesticated (tame) animals are regarded as livestock. Minks, chinchillas, bees, and fish are not domesticated. But farms that raise them are often classed as livestock farms. Farmers raise horses mainly for riding and racing. They raise mules to be work animals. Goats are raised for milk and wool, and rabbits for meat and fur. Farmers raise minks and chinchillas for their valuable fur. They keep bees for honey. Fish farms produce food fish, especially catfish, pompano, and trout Farmers raise the fish in ponds and use special feeding methods to make them grow bigger and faster than the y do in the wild. Text 3 «Mixed farms» About 5 per cent of the farms in the United States produce a variety of crops and livestock. These mixed, or diversified, farms differ greatly from the mixed farms of the 1700's and 1800's. Like specialized farms, today's mixed farms are operated for profit and raise the kinds of crops and livestock that are best suited to their region. In the Midwest, for example, the typical mixed farm raises beef cattle, hogs, and cash grains. The typical mixed farm in the South pr oduces beef cattle, pea-nuts, and tobacco. This section discusses how farmers grow field crops scientifically, Field crops are grown on more than 95 per cent of the harvested cropland In the United States, and most of them are raised in a similar manner. T he science of field crop production is called agronomy, In many cases, farmers must use special methods to grow fruits, vegetables, and nuts. The science of growing these crops is called horticulture. The articles Fruit and Gardening discuss horticul tural methods. But fruits and vegetables grown in large fields are raised in much the same way as any field crop. Text 4 «Basic principles of crop production» All crops require nutrients (nourishing substances) and water to grow. Soil supplies most of the nutrients. It also stores the water that the crops need. Crops take root in the soil and absorb the nutrients and water through their roots. Crops differ, however. In the amount of nutrients and water they require for healthy growth. A farmer must therefor e make sure that the Soil and water resources meet the needs of each crop. A farmer must also plan measures to control pests, which could damage or ruin a crop. Most farmers plan their methods of soil and water management and of pest control well in advance of the growing season. Soil management. Soil consists chiefly of mineral particles mixed with decaying organic (plant and animal) matter. Chemical reactions involving these substances produce most of the nutrients that crops need. But some of the most important chemical reactions, such as the decay of organic matter, require the help of certain microbes. To be fertile, therefore, soil must consist of the right mixture of minerals, organic matter, and helpful microbes. It must also have the proper amount s of air and water. A plant's roots need air to function properly, and some microbes need air to survive. Too much water in the soil reduces the supply of air and so drowns the plant roots and destroys helpful microbes. Too little water deprives crops of moisture. Plants need 16 nutrients for healthy growth. The major nutrients are the elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, magnesium, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur. Most crops require relatively large amounts of these elements. Elements needed in lesser amounts are called trace elements. They are boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc. Water and air supply all the necessary carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The 13 other nutrients must come from the soil. But plants differ somewhat in their food requirements, and so the need for particular nutrients varies from one kind of crop to another. After deciding which crops to grow, farmers analyze their soil to learn if any nutrients are insufficient or lacking. To get an accura tc analysis, most farmers send samples of the soil to a soil -testing laboratory. The test results help farmers plan a scientific fertilizer program for their crops. Chemical companies provide fertilizers for almost any crop requirement. Most crops absorb large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and so most commercial fertil izers consist chiefly of these elements. The richest soil lies at and just below the surface. If this topsoil is not protected, it may be blown away by strong winds or washed away by heavy- rains - a process called erosion. Effective soil management therefore also includes methods of soil conservation. These methods are discussed later in this section. Water management. Crops cannot grow without water. In most cases, farmers rely entirely on rainfall for the necessary moisture. In extremely dry areas, however, farmers must irrigate their crops. For a detailed discussion of irrigation techniques, see the Irrigation article. Where rainfall is light or uncertain, many farmers practice dry farming. In dry farming, part of the crop land is left fallow (unplanted) each year. The fallow soil can store moisture for a crop the following year. Wheat is the main crop grown by dry farming. Many farms often have too much water rather than and too little. In most instances, the problem is greatest on low -lying land and on land crossed by streams or rivers. Fields that tend to collect water must have a drainage system. Most drainage systems consist of lengths of tile pipe buried 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters) below the surface of the field. Excess moisture filters through cracks in the pipe and then flows to o pen drainage ditches at the edge of the field. Pest control. Agronomists use the word pests in referring to weeds, plant diseases, and insects that threaten crops. Most farmers control pests with chemicals called pesticides Scientists have developed hundr eds of pesticides for use on farms. Each one is designed to fight certain types of weeds, plant diseases, or harmful insects. All pesticides must be used with extreme care. If they are used improperly, they may pollute the environment or the food supply and so endanger peoples health. To help prevent this problem, the U.S. government sets and enforces standards for the manufacture, sale, and use of pesticides. Farmers also use other methods of pest control in addition to pesticides. For example turning the soil with a plow or mechanical cultivator kills most weeds. However, special pesticides called herbicides control weeds more thoroughly than does soil turning. Some herbicides remain active in the soil for some time and so kill weed seedlings as they develop. Plant scientists have developed varieties of corn, wheat, and other crops that are more resistant to diseases and insects than were earlier varieties. Text 5 «Basic methods of crop production» Crop farming involves at least five separate operations: (1) preparing the soil, (2) planting, (3) cultivating, (4) harvesting, and (5) processing and storage. Modern farm equipment can perform each of these operations easily and quickly. One of the most i mportant items of equipment is the tractor, which is used to pull or push other field machinery. The use of modern farming equipment - and of improved plant varieties and fertilizers - has enabled American farmers to produce bigger and bigger harvests with less and less labor. In the early 1900's, a farmer had to work about 135 hours, on the average, to produce 100 bushels of corn. Today, a farmer can produce 200 bushels of corn with only 12 hours work. Preparing the soil. The main purpose of soil preparation is to make a seedbed - that is, an area of soil in which seeds can be planted and in which they will sprout, take root, and grow. Most farmers make the seedbed by an age-old process called tillage. Tillage involves digging into the soil and mixing it. Tillage loosens the soil, kills weeds, and improves the circulation of the water and air in the soil. Plows are the chief tillage devices. The most widely used plows are moldboard plows. The bottom of a moldboard plow is built to turn over about the top 8 inches (20 centimeters) of soil. This clean plowing buries most weeds and other plant matter that were on the surface. See Plow (The moldboard plow bottom). At plowing time, most farm fields are scattered with dead stalks, leaves, and other plant wastes from the preceding crop. Other fields may have a cover crop, such as alfalfa or grass. Plant wastes and cover crops help protect soil from erosion. They also enrich the soil with nutrient s if they are plowed under. Microbes cause the buried plant matter to decay. The decayed matter provides nutrients. In many areas, the topsoil is too thin or too fragile for clean plowing. Farmers then use special plows that break up the soil without tur ning it over completely. This method kills fewer weeds than clean plowing does. But it leaves more plant matter on the surface and so helps reduce erosion. This kind of plowing is called conservation tillage. Some fanners prepare a seedbed with no or little tilling. Such methods are called no -till or reduced tillage. Other plowing methods also help conserve soil. On sloping land, for example, farmers plow across, rather than up and down, the slope. The plowed soil forms ridges across the slope, which helps prevent erosion by rainwater. Such plowing is called contour plowing. Soil that has been completely turned over in plowing often remains stuck together in large chunks. Most farmers therefore go over the plowed field with a device called a harrow. Harrows have sharp metal teeth or disks that break the chunks into smaller pieces and so smooth the surface for planting. Many farmers add fertilizers and pesticides to the soil during harrowing. The chemicals may be distributed by equipment attached to the harrow. In some cases, fertilizers and pesticides are applied before the soil is plowed. No-till and reduced tillage. In the no-till system, wastes from the preceding crop are left on the field as a covering called a mulch. Farmers spray the mulch with a herbicide and apply fertilizer. Rainwater washes the chemicals down through the mulch and into the soil. In most cases, no further soil preparation is necessary. The seedbed is ready for planting. The no-till method improves on traditional tillage systems in s everal ways. For example, the mulch helps prevent erosion and helps keep moisture in the soil. By eliminating plowing and harrowing, the method saves both time and tractor fuel. However, no -till may have certain disadvantages. Some weeds are not killed by herbicides, and so weed control may become a problem. Planting may be delayed because the mulch tends to keep fields cooler and moister than is desirable at the start of the growing season. In addition, the heavy use of her bicides may cause environmental problems. Few U.S. fanners used no-till until herbicides became readily available in the 1960's. Today, a growing number of farmers use the method. Many other farmers have adopted a reduced or conservation tillage system In this method, the plowing is done with a chisel plow, a harrow, or a cultivator. These devices leave more plant wastes on the surface, and so their use helps control erosion. Experts believe that more and more farmers will adopt no-till or reduced tillage systems. Planting. American farmers plant certain types of barley, oats, and wheat in the fall. The plants begin to develop before the growing season ends and then rest during the winter. The young plants start to grow again in the spring and are ready to be harvested by midsummer. Except in the warmest regions of the country, however, farmers plant most crops in the spring after the danger of frost has passed. Nearly all the field crops grown in the United States are planted by machines called planters or drills. A seed drill plants seeds. It cuts funows, drops, seeds into them, and then covers the seeds with soil. The largest drills, such as the one shown above, can plant 12 or more rows at a time. Some drills also apply a herbicide, which kills weeds. A cultivator stirs the soil between rows of corn, above. This process, used on crops planted in broadly spaced rows, uproots any weeds that herbicides have not controlled. A combine cuts and threshes grain in one operation. Combines replaced machinery that only cut or only threshed a grain crop. This combine is harvesting sorghum. These machines cut furrows in the soil, drop seeds into each funow, and cover the seeds with soil - all in one operation. Planters plant several rows of corn, cotton, and sorghum s eeds at a time. These rows are 20 inches (50 centimeters) or more apart Drills plant crops in closely spaced rows. These crops include the small grains, such as barley, oats, and wheat Soybeans can be planted in either narrow or wide rows. Planters and drills designed for no-tillage operations are similar to conventional drills. However, they also have sharp blades that slice through the mulch so that the funows can be dug. Farmers use special planting methods to help conserve soil. On sloping land, for example, crops are often planted in long strips between bands of thick clover or grass. The clover or grass helps slow the flow of rainwater down the slope. This method of planting is called strip cropping. Some fertilizers and pesticides are applied to the soil during planting. Equipment to distribute the chemicals may be attached to the seed drill just as it is to a harrow or a plow. Cultivating. Herbicides applied before or during planting kill many kinds of weeds but not all. Some weeds may therefore develop with the crops. In most cases, weeds are not a problem in small -grain fields because the plants grow close together. In fields where row crops are grown, however, weeds can multiply rapidly between rows. Farmers control such weeds with cultivators . These devices stir the soil between rows and so uproot and bury any weeds. Harvesting. Nearly all farmers in the United States harvest their field crops with machines. They use combines to harvest most grain and seed crops, including barley, com, rice, s oybeans, and wheat A combine performs several tasks. First it cuts the plant stalks. Then, it threshes the cuttings - that is, separates the grain or seeds from the straw and other wastes. The combine returns the wastes to the ground and collects the grain or seeds in a tank or bin. Some farmers harvest com with special machines. The machines pick the ears from the stalks but do not remove the grain from the ears. The grain is removed later. The grain is then processed to make livestock feed. In the case o f sweet com, the ears are left whole and sold for human consumption. Special machines are also used to harvest other field crops, including peanuts, potatoes, and sugar beets. Some machines mow such crops as alfalfa and clover. The mowed crops are left on the ground, where they dry and become hay. Machines called hay balers gather the hay and bind it into bales. Some farmers harvest green grain or grass to make a kind of livestock feed called silage. To make silage, the entire plant is harvested and then chopped up. Some silage machines harvest the crop and chop up the plants in one operation. Processing and storage. Crops raised to supply food for human beings are called food crops. Many food crops tend to spoil quickly, and so farmers ship these crops to market as soon as possible after harvesting. Food grains, however, can be stored for months on farms that have the proper facilities. Before grain is stored, it must be dried. Most farms that store large amounts of grain have grain -drying equipment and large storage bins. Crops raised to supply feed for livestock are called feed crops. Hay, silage, soybeans, and such grains as com and sorghum are the principal feed crops. Com, wheat, and soybeans are used for both food and livestock feed. Hay must be kept dry until it is used, and so it is usually stored in bams. Unlike hay, silage must be kept moist. Most farmers store it in airtight structures called silos. Soybeans must be specially processed to produce meal for livestock feed. Most farmers buy soybean meal ready-made from commercial suppliers who have removed the oil from the soybeans to use it for food products and other pur poses. Many farmers have equipment for milling feed grains other than soy beans. Com is often fed to hogs without any processing . Text 6 «Special crop-growing methods» Special crop-growing methods include (1) organic fanning and (2) hydroponics. Organic farming is the practice of raising crops without the use of synthetic chemicals. Hydroponics is the science of growing crops in water. Organic farming. American farmers depend heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However, these chemicals can cause soil and water pollution if they are overused or used improperly. In extreme cases, the chemicals may also enter the food or water supply and so directly endanger people s health. For these reasons, some people believe that farmers should use organic farming methods whenever possible. Organic farming relies on natural substances rather than on synthetic chemicals to fertilize the soil and control pests. Manure (wastes from animals) is the most widely used organic fertilizer. It is readily available on farms that raise livestock. However, most specialized crop farms raise too few livestock to provide enough manure for fertilizer. Many farmers rotate their crops from year to year to reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. The rotation crop is usually a legume, such as alfalfa or soybeans. Unlike corn, wheat, and most other crops, legumes restore nitrogen to the soil. If corn or wheat is grown in a field one year, a legume may be grown in the field the next year to replace part of the nitrogen used by the corn of wheat. Crop rotation also helps control insect pests and plant diseases. Most insects and disease-causing microbes are attracted only to particular crops. If the same kind of crop is grown in the same field year after year, the insects and microbes attracted to that crop can multiply out of control. But they gradually die out if a crop on they are not attracted to is grown in the field for several years. Hydroponics involves growing crops in large tanks filled either with water or with sand or gravel covered with water. Chemicals added to the water provide the nutrients that crops normally get from soiljHydroponics te has certain advantages over the growing of crops in soil. For example, the tanks can be kept in a greenhouse, and so crop losses due to pests or bad weather can largely be prevented. But hydroponics is un- suited to large-scale crop production. Its commercia l importance is therefore limited. In the past almost all the chores on livestock farms were done by hand These chores included milking the cows gathering eggs, feeding all the animals, and cleaning the livestock buildings of animal wastes. Farmers had to do many of these tasks once or twice a day every day of the year. The chores on a livestock farm must still be done regularly. However, farmers now have machines to do most of the work. On most large farms, cows are milked by machines, and eggs roll into c ollection troughs automatically as soon as they are laid. Feed Is distributed to the livestock buildings by conveyor belts or other machinery Similar machinery keeps the buildings cleared of wastes. The use of machines has enabled livestock farmers to raise many more animals than they could In the past In addition, improvements in livestock breeds and in livestock care have greatly increased the amount of eggs, meat or milk that an animal can produce. The output of livestock and livestock products In the United States has more than doubled since the early 1900's and with less than one -fourth the labor. Text 7 «Basic principles of livestock production» To raise livestock successfully, farmers must provide the animals with the proper care. They must also select certain animals for breeding (reproductive) purposes to replace the animals that are marketed or that outgrow their usefulness. Livestock care consists of providing feed and shatter for the animals and safeguarding their health, The success of a li vestock firm largely depends on how skillfully the farmer does each of these jobs. Feed. Livestock feeds can be divided into two main groups: (1) forage and (2) feed concentrates. Forage consists of plants that livestock graze on or that have been cut to make hay or silage. Forage supplies livestock mainly with roughage (coarse food). Feed concentrates consist chiefly of feed grains, such as com and sorghum, and soybean meal. They supply much food energy and little roughage. In most cases, the grain is milled and mixed with vitamins and minerals. Some farmers also add synthetic hormones (growth-regulating chemicals) to feed concentrates to stimulate their animals' growth. Some farmers produce their own concentrates. Others buy them from commercial suppliers . The digestive system of cattle and sheep enables them to convert forage into the protein and other nutrients they require. These animals can therefore live mainly on forage. Sheep get most of their forage by grazing. Cattle can also get forage by grazing. If either cattle or sheep are kept indoors, however, they are fed hay or silage. Although cattle and sheep can live on forage, farmers also feed them concentrates to ensure a balanced diet Cattle and sheep that are being prepared for slaughter are usually fed large amounts of concentrates. The high -energy content of such a diet helps finish (fatten) the animals quickly. Unlike cattle and sheep, hogs and poultry cannot digest forage efficiently. They are therefore raised chiefly on concentrates. Most livestock farms require great quantities of prepared feed. A herd of about 40 dairy cows, for example, may eat as much as 2 short tons (1.8 metric tons) of hay and other feed each day. An egg farm with about 20,000 laying hens uses about 2 \ short tons (2.3 metric tons) of feed concentrates daily. Shelter. Most kinds of livestock need protection against extremely cold weather. Mature beef cattle and sheep, however, are less affected by the cold than are the majority of livestock. Ranchers may keep these animals on open rangeland throughout the year. Most other farmers provide shelter for their animals at least part of the time. Some livestock, including most poultry, are raised entirely indoors. Health care for livestock has been made much easier by the development of vaccines and other modem drugs. Before these drugs were available, such diseases as anthrax and hog cholera killed large numbers of livestock. Farmers now prevent many kinds of diseases by having their animals vaccinated. Ani mals that have infectious diseases can be treated with penicillin and other germ- killing antibiotics. Farmers sometimes add antibiotics to livestock feed as a pre ventive measure. Livestock breeding. Most farm animals are raised to provide livestock products. However, farmers also raise breeding stock - that is, animals of superior quality which are used mainly to produce offspring. In many eases, the offspring will inherit their parents' qualities, such as superior size and weight or exceptional milk- or egg-producing ability. Farmers select animals to be breeding stock on the basis of their qualities and those of their offspring. For example, a cow that gives much milk and whose daughter does the same may be removed from the milk herd and placed in the breeding herd. Over a per iod of years, such selective breeding can greatly improve the quality of all the animals on a farm. For detailed information about livestock breeding Text8«Basic methods of livestock production» Livestock production involves three main types of operations. They are (1) livestock grazing, (2) livestock finishing, and (3) confinement operations. Livestock grazing. About 55 per cent of all U.S. farmland is used for the grazing of livestock, especially beef cattle and sheep. Most of this land is native grassland. The rest is pasture. Pastures are fields of cultivated grasses or other forage crops. They are used mainly to graze dairy cattle. In regions with enough rainfall many farmers who raise beef cattle or sheep also have pastures for their animals. Most of the grassland used to graze beef cattle and sheep is on ranches in the western half of the United States. However, ranches do not produce enough grain or other high -energy feed to finish the animals for slaughter. Most ranchers therefore ship their meat animals to other farms for finishing after the animals are 5 to 12 months old. Sheep raised for wool live mainly on grass, and so these animals remain on the ranch. Dairy cows do not have to be fattened. In most cases, they are allowed to graze in pastures when the weather permits. Dairy farmers supply the cows with any additional feed they need for efficient milk production. Livestock finishing, or fattening, depends on the large -scale use of feed concentrates. Most livestock finishing therefore takes place in major grain- producing areas. Hog farms, for example, are highly specialized finishing operations. The great majority of these farms are in the chief com-producing states, especially Iowa and Illinois. Some farmers finish beef cattle, hogs, or sheep t hat they have raised from birth. Many others sell their young animals for finishing, either to farmers who have excess feed grain or to feed lots. Feed lots specialize in finishing young beef cattle or sheep. The animals are kept in pens and fed large amounts of feed concentrates. The largest feed lots finish hundreds of animals at a time. Confinement operations mass-produce certain lands of livestock and livestock products. The largest operations produce poultry and eggs. Feed lots are a form of confinement operation. However, most feed lots are simply areas of open land that have been fenced in and divided into large pens. The animals can roam about freely inside the pens. In a full confinement operation, the animals are kept inside a building in small pens or cagcs that limit their movements. The animals therefore use less energy by not moving about and so produce more meat or other products. Many confinement buildings have enclosures for hundreds or even thousands of animals. Most of these buildings are equipped with automatic machinery that brings feed to the animals and clears away their wastes. In the United States, nearly all broiler chickens and a large share of laying hens are raised in confinement A growing number of American farmers also use confinement techniques to raise hogs, beef cattle, and dairy cattle. The United States today has about 2,100,000 farms, compared with about 6,500,000 in the 1930s. Yet the nations total farm output is far greater today than ever before. Much of this increase in production is due to efficient management Businesslike farming therefore not only earns profits for farmers but also helps meet and even exceed, the ever increasing demand for food. Text 9 «Combine» Combine is a farm machine that cuts and threshes grain or other crops in one operation. The word combine stands for combined harvesterthresher .Some are large, self-powered machines. Others are smaller models pulled by tractors. Large combines cut paths wider than 20 feet (6 meters). Small ones cut paths about 6 feet (1,8 meters) wide. Those with special attachments can collect and shell corn, soybeans, and other crops. As a combine crosses a field, a cutting bar on the front cuts the stalks of grain. Paddles on a long, rotating reel press the stalks against the cutting bar. The cut stalks fall onto a platform, and a feeder carries them to a threshing drum. In the drum, a revolving cylinder beats most of a grain off the stalks, creating straw. The grain falls through a grate into a grain pan. The straw moves to straw racks, which tumble it to remove any remaining grain. The straw then drops from the combine. All the grain collects in the grain pan. From there, it passes to a series of sieves, where a fan blows the husks away from the kernels. The kernels fall through the sieves and are carried to temporary storage in a grain tank. Finally, an unloading conveyor empties the grain from the grain tank into trucks or wagons that transport the grain to storage bins. One of the first successful combines was built in the 1830 by Hiram Moore and John Haskall, near Kalamazoo, Michigan. It was pulled by 20 horses. A wheel that rolled along the ground drove the cutting and threshing machinery. In the 1880 steam engines began to power combines. Internal- combustion engines were replacing steam engines by the early 1900. Most early combines were used reapers and threshing machines, which required more time and labor than did co mbines. Text 10 «Tractor» Tractor is a machine that pulls or pushes a tool or a machine over land. Tractors provide the chief source of power on most farms. They are also used for industrial and military purposes, for logging, highway construction, and snow clearance. Tractors have either gasoline or diesel engines. Tractors (from the history) Tractors were first used during the 1870's. These tractors were large, four-wheeled machines driven by steam. They provided enough power to pull as many as 40 plows, but they were too awkward to be practical. Smaller machines with internal-combustion engines soon replaced them. But the new machine had only a kerosene engine mounted on a four wheeled frame. Later, kerosene or gasoline engines were built as part of the tractor frame. The tractors could do almost all the field work, but were too low to pull a cultivator through tall crops. Then, in the 1920's, the all-purpose tractor was developed. Early manufacturing companies usually made only one tractor model or size. But modern companies make a complete line. Modern tractors have both speed and power, and are easy to operate. Most have power steering and power brakes. Many also have enclosed cabs with heating and air-conditioning systems and special structures that protect the operator if the tractor accidentally turns over. Parts of a tractor. The modern tractor has several built -in features that enable it to provide power for other farm machines. These features include the drawbar, a hydraulic system, and a power take-off. The drawbar is a device for fastening equipment to the tractor for pulling. The drawbar enables a tractor to pull such equipment as plows, wagons, harrows, combines, and hay balers. The hydraulic system controls the working position of implements hitched to or mounted onto the tractor. An engine -driven hydraulic pump and cylinder provide power to raise and lower these implements. Many rear-vvheel- drive tractors have hydraulic systems with a mechanism that shifts weight from the front to the rear wheels of the tractor. The weight shift increases traction for pulling mounted implements. The power take-off, or PTO, provides power for machines that arc either mounted on or pulled by the tractor. The coupling device between the PTO and the equipment usually consists of two universal joints, one on each end of a telescoping shaft. The flexible action of the joints and the telescoping action of the shaft allows sharp turning and movement over rough surfaces without harming the power system. The PTO drive s the moving parts of mowing machines, hay balers, combines, potato diggers, and spray pumps. Types of tractors. There two major types of tractors: the wheel tractor and the tracklayer tractor, known as the crawler. Wheel tractors make up the majority of farm tractors in the United States. Many farmers use an all-purpose tractor because it does a variety of jobs, such as planting, cultivating, and harvesting. It has rear wheels. It has either one or two small front wheels placed close together or two front wheels spaced the same as the rear wheels. The spacing of the wheels enables the tractor to be driven between rows of crops. Wheel tractors may have either two- wheel drive. Two- wheel-drive models range in weight from about 3,000 pounds (1,400 kilograms ) to more than 20,000pounds (9,000 kilograms). Four - wheel-drive tractors may weigh as much as 60,000pounds (27,000 kilograms). The demand for larger tractors has increased as the average size of farms has increased. Crawler tractors are driven on two endless tracks. They are steered by stopping or slowing one of the tracks. Crawler tractors are used for land clearing, heavy jobs, and for work on soft or rugged land. The smallest crawlers weigh about 3,800 pounds (1,720 kilograms). The largest of these tractors weigh more than 70,000 pounds (32,0000). Часть 2 Text 1 «Farm tractors» General purpose tractor. The most popular type of tractor is the general purpose tractor. This is designed to perform a wide range of tasks. Details of design differ with make and size but most have: An engine capable of producing between 30 and 85bhp A transmission system. Four rubber tyred wheels. A drawbar. A three - point linkage for mounted implements. A hydraulic system. A p.t.o. shaft (power-take-off – PTO) for driving implements. A front axle and engine chasiss. A low centre of gravity, to give stability and reduce the risk of overturning. Tracklayer tractor. The main difference between the general purpose tractor and the tracklayer is the replacement of the four wheels by two endless tracks. These tracks transmit the power and the weight of the tractor to the soil and it is therefore able to pull or push very heavy loads. The weight of the crawler is distributed over a large track area and this keeps damage to a wet soil to a minimum and allows a tracklayer to operate under conditions unsuitable for wheeled tractors. It is operated by controlling the speed of one track relative to the other. These tractors are used for heavy task such as mole drainage and earth moving. Задания к тексту Определите значение следующих слов, не пользуясь словарем: popular type, detail, transmission system, hydraulic system, centre , drainage. а) Определите по словарю значение следующих глаголов: to mount, to overturn, to replace, to control, to move. b) Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие тот же корень, что и даваемые выше глаголы. Переведите их. Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие типы тракторов. Определите, какие слова, расположенные справа, могут служить определениями к словам, расположенным слева. tractor farm, hydraulic, general purpose, implement, tracklayer, drawbar, modern, wheeled implement power, farm, mounted, engine, driving, track V. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов: быть предназначенным, выполнять (работу), действовать (работать), двигатель, трактор общего назначения (пропашной трактор), колесо, колесный, гусеница, сцепное устройство, передняя ось, трехточечное навесное устройство, вес, почва, скорость. Text 2 «Mechanisms and systems of tractor» The internal combustion, engine. The type of engine used to power the tractor is an internal combustion engine. It is here that the fuel, the chemical potential energy, is converted into the mechanical energy which causes the wheels to turn. The conversion of potential energy into mechanical energy takes place in the cylinder. How can liquid fuel be changed into rotational mechanical energy? This is achieved by accurately mixing the fuel with air and then burning it in controlled conditions. When this mixture burns, it expands and pressure builds up, forcing the piston to move down the cylinder. It is a linear motion. This linear motion is converted into ro tary motion by a connecting rod and crank arrangement joined to the piston. The burning and combustion process and the force of expansion have to be controlled. To do this, the engine must have: A tube or cylinder closed at one end, in which the mixture of fuel and air can be compressed and burnt. A piston, which slides freely and yet fits closely in the cy linder so that the expanding gases force it down the cylinder, and do not escape past it. Two passages or ports in the cylinder. One for the mixture of fuel and air to enter to cylinder, the inlet port, and the other to allow the used gasses to escape, the exhaust port. Two valves, the inlet valve to control the movement of mixture to the cylinder, and the exhaust valve to control the escape of the used g ases. Below the cylinder block there is the crankcase. To the bottom of the crankcase the sump is bolted, which forms a reservoir for the engine oil. The cylinders are sealed at the top and by fitting the cylinder head to the cylinder block. In the cylinder head, directly above each cylinder, there is a depression where the actual combustion of the fuel air mixture takes place. This is a combustion chamber. The piston is attached to the connecting rod by a pin. To obtain a perfect seat between the piston and the cylinder wall, spring rings are fitted to the piston. These are piston rings. Lubricating System. A lubricant often has to perform many duties in any one situation, in addition to its fundamental job of reducing friction and wear. These duties may include acting as a rust preventer, a coolant, a sealing agent, a hydraulic fluid and a flushing agent to remove dust and metallic particles. Lubrication, by maintaining a film of oil between the two surfaces, reduces the friction and hence the force requ ired to move one or both of the surfaces. The simplest method of lubricating an engine is to mix the oil with the petrol, as is done in two stroke engines. As the oil enters the crankcase with the petrol and air, droplets settle on the connecting rod and main bearings and also lubricate the walls of the cylinder. In four stroke engines, the oil must be fed to the bearings in some other way. Cooling System. The burning of the fuel air mixture in the combustion chamber subjects the surrounding parts of the engine, the cylinders, pistons and valves, to high temperatures. The cooling system not only reduces temperature, it also controls the temperature as excessive cooling is undesirable. This means that the running temperature of an engine is controlled between certain limits, to produce the best results. An engine may be either air or water cooled, the latter is more popular. Fuel System. The function of the fuel system is to store and supply the engine with clean fuel, in the correct ratio over a wide range of engine speeds and loads. The fuel system on spark ignition engines differs from the diesel fuel systems of compression ignition engines, as the important mechanism in the former is the carburetor and in the latter the fuel injection pump. Transmission System. The purpose of the transmission system of a tractor is to transmit the power produced by the engine to the rear wheels. It must also provide varying speeds for the tractor according to the operation that is undertaken. The transmission system consists of a clutch, gearbox, differential and final drive. Задания к тексту Определите значение следующих слов, не пользуясь словарем: chemical, potential, mechanical, linear, gas, reservoir, block, function, diesel, carburetor, temperature, method. а) Определите по словарю значение следующих глаголов: to convert, to mix, to burn, to expand, to move, to escape, to cool, to lubricate, to ignite. b) Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие тот же корень,что и даваемые выше глаголы. Переведите их. Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие детали или части двигателя внутреннего сгорания, основные части системы передач. Определите, какие слова, расположенные справа, могут сл ужить определениями к слову, расположенному слева. energy potential, linear, mechanical, exhaust, actual, rotational, internal gas used, inlet exhaust, mixing, expanding temperature clean, high, low, coolant, excessive engine two -stroke, fuel injection pump, spark ignition, compression ignition, diesel, fullair mixture, aircooled, water - cooled V. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов: превращать (ся), происходить (иметь место), расширяться, двигаться, смешивать, гореть (сжигать), двигатель внутреннего сгорания, топливо, воздух, смесь, шатун, кривошип, картер, отстойник (поддон), масло, камера сгорания, выхлопной, впускной, передавать, вырабатывать, состоять из, обеспечивать, сокращать (уменьшать), удалять, сцепление, коробка передач (коробка скоростей), конечная передача, топливо (топливный), искровое за жигание, карбюратор, топливный насос, температура, охлаждение, избы точный, двигатель воздушного охлаждения, двигатель водяного охлаж дения, смазочный материал, смазка, трение, поверхность, бензин (газо лин), двухтактный, четырехтактный, подшипник. Text 3 «Implements» The Plow. The modern plow is mounted directly behind the tractor, attached to the three - pointed linkage. It is raised and lowered hydraulically. The typical mounted plow consists of a frame, which is attached to the tractor. The main components in contact with the soil are the coulter, the share, the mold- board and the landside. The coulter is carried by the frame of the plow. The s hare, moldboard and landside are all bolted to the frog, which in turn is bolted to the leg of the plow. The plow leg is carried by the frame. The job of the share is to penetrate and then undercut through the soil at the desired depth. The function of the coulter is to make a vertical cut and divide the soil that is raised by the share from the unplowed land. The combination of the share and the coulter creates the furrow. The moldboard is the part of the plow which turns the furrow over. Cultivators. The heaviest cultivators are used for breaking up ground, prior to plowing. They consist of two rows of tines mounted on a strong frame and are known as rigid tine cultivators. Задания к тексту I. Определите значения следующих, слов, не пользуясь словарем: modern, typical, component, contact, combination, cultivator. Найдите в тексте предложение, в котором говорится о том, какое воздействие на нижние слои почвы имеет борона. Определите, какие слова, расположенные справа, могут соче таться со словом, расположенным слева: seedb to attach, to prepare, to plow, ed to mount, to cultivate soil wet, dry, to break up, layer, to carry, clod, rigid IV. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов: устанавливать (монтировать), навешивать (присоединять, крепить), поддерживать, скреплять болтами, разбивать (разрушать), плуг, рама, нож (предплужник, сошник), лемех, отвал плуга, полевая доска (плуга), опорная стойка, башмак, культиватор, борона, стойка культиватора (культиваторная лапа), борозда, пашня, глубина. Text 4 «Farm equipment abroad» Russian farm equipment appears rugged, functional, safe. Most of their equipment is conceptually similar to ours. Exceptions include a cotton picker and a harvester that picks the car corn and harvests the fodder. The basic cotton picker mechanism is conceptionally different than our spindle method. We have agreed to exchange cotton pickers to permit detailed evaluations. The amount of hydraulics, electrical controls and sensors 3 used on many implements was a suprise. For example, a sensor and warning system in the discharge spout of a forage harvester alerts the operator to plugging. The test stations are well equipped and their staffs appear to be technically knowledgeable. All Russian tractor are expected to have air conditioning. Future diesel engines may either be air - or water-cooled. Most Russian users prefer air due to the inconvenience of water, especially in areas with hard water. Tractor fuel consumption must be below 190 grams per hp-hr, which is lower than in many current U. S. tractors. All future combines and a significant percent of agricultural tractors will have hydrostatic transmissions. There will be a trend away from crawler tractors to wheel tractors. The largest agricultural tractor built in Russia is a true four - wheel drive 300 - hp model К 701. The smallest is a 25 hp two - wheel drive older model. Russian designs reflect attention to both safety and comfort. For example, noise level of the Belarus tractor tested at Nebraska was 86-5 dB (A) and a goal of 80 dB (A) was indicated. For steering, the rim pull' of the steering wheel is limited to 3 kg and 12 kg with a dead engine and moving tractor. Also, the actuation force allowed on frequently used levers is limited 3 kg. Their tractors are roll - protected and they have equipment for checking noxious gasses which may infiltrate the cab. Задания к тексту Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие сельскохозяйствен ные машины, их детали и механизмы, и переведите их на русский язык. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания: farm equipment, cotton picker mechanism, spindle method, test station, fuel consumption, noise level, dead engine. Text 5 «Set of machines for cultivation and harvesting of sugar beet» At present the industry produces a number of machines intended for the cultivation and harvesting of sugar beet. Used in sets, these machines enable complete mechanization of sugar beet production. The set of machines includes: mounted rotary cultivator КФ-5,4, combined mounted beet planter CTCH-12, cultivator-fertilizer УСМК5,4, beet thinner УСМП-5,4, six-row plant top gatherer БМ-6; six-row self-propelled root harvester KC-6. Mounted rotary cultivator КФ-5,4 is used for inter-row cultivation of 12- row crops of sugar beet and other low - stalk crops with a 45 cm inter-row spacing in zones of non - irrigated beet production on very weedy soils, and also on flood plain and peaty soils. The cultivator is operated in set with «Belarus» and T -70C tractors by means of an automatic hitch assembly CA -1. Combined mounted beet planter CTCH-12 is designed for precision planting of ordinary and pelleted sugar - beet seeds with simultaneous row placement of fertilizers. Cultivator fertilizer УСМК-5,4 is designed for prcsowing cultivation of soil and performing the operations involved in growing sugar beet and other low—stalk crops. Beet thinner УСМП-5,4 is used for down the row thinning of sprouts of sugar beet sown with the aid of precision planters, observing 45 and 60 cm inter- row spacings, and also for soil loosening and weed killing in the row zone. A set of effective six-row machines has been developed and produced for two-stage harvesting of sugar beet. With the aid of this set of machines the roots and tops of sugar beet are harvested in two stages. The top gatherer БМ-6 removes tops from six rows and loads them into an accompanying tractor trailer, while the beet roots remain in the earth. The gathered tops are carried to a silage -making or animal feeding place. The root harvester KC-6 is used to lift the beet roots, clean them from soil and remnants of tops and load the roots into an accompaning vehicle. The harvested roots are taken to a sugar refinary or to a field clamp. Задания к тексту Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие различные типы ма шин для возделывания и обработки сахарной свеклы. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов: минеральное удобрение, низкостебельные культуры, всходы, прореживание, вдольрядный, сорняк, силосование, самоходный. Text 6 «Arable disc harrow БД-10» The disc harrow БД-10 is a farm machine designed to operate in combination with high-speed tractor K-700, as well as with other types of 5-ton tractors equipped with an individual hydraulic system and a hydraulic mounting with a drawbar clevis. The given machine is used for the following type of operations on light and medium textured soils: posttillage fitting; seedbed preparation for underwinter fallow; stubble cleaning. The harrow is transported on pneumatic wheels. The harrow БД-10 consists of the following major assemblies: frame, four sections, transport wheel frame, wheel self centering mechanism, disc gangs, hydraulic system of the machine, transport cleats. Frame is made up of tubular shaped longitudinal and lateral bars interconnected by clips and cover plates, moreover, it includes a carriage hinged to the frame. Section comprises two tubular shaped frames (one fixed and one movable) hinged to one another by vertical and horizontal pivots and with the help of a brace. The rear longitudinal pipes are provided with angle pieces to accommodate the scrapers. Transport wheel frame includes a welded cranked axle terminating with cams designed to hold the axles with pneumatic wheels (paired) and to be fastened in position by bolts. Wheel self-centering mechanism represents a parallelogram including upper and lower frames. One end of these frames is connected with the bracket fitted on the axle of the selfcentering wheel, whereas the frames second end is connected with the outer end of the section and bolted. The wheel axle in its turn is locked by a cotter pin. The self centering wheel incorporates a pneumatic tyre, rim, two ball beari ngs, distance bush and an axle. The wheel is fastened on the axle with the help of two nuts and a cover. Disc gang comprises ten flat -spherical discs assembled on a square bolt. These discs are separated one from another by spacers and tightened by a nut. Each bearing assembly includes a special spacer (that holds a ball bearing) and flanges. A ball bearing is provided with special rubber rings against dust. Hydraulic system of the machine is provided with four hydraulic cylinders Ц-55, one hydraulic cylinder Ц-100 (400 mm piston stroke), special transport cleats for each hydrocylinder, pipes and high pressure hoses. The pipes are fastened on the frame of the machine and the section frames with the help of U- bolts, bolts, elastic washers and nuts. Задания к тексту Выпишите из текста термины, означающие основные узлы диско вой бороны. Перечислите работы, которые могут быть выполнены дисковой бороной. Заполните пропуски соответствующими словами из текста: 1. The disc harrow is operated in combination with The frame is one of the major... of the harrow. The ... consists of two tubular-shaped frames (one fixed and one movable). The axles with pneumatic wheels are fastened by... Ten flat—spherical discs are separated one from another by ... and tightened by a... Each hydrocylinder has special transport pipes and high -pressure... The self-centering wheel includes a pneumatic. .., rim, two, bush and an... IV. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов и словосочетаний: гидронавеска с прицепной скобой, пар, лущение стерни, брус, шарнир, рама, ось, кронштейн, закреплять, шплинт, резиновое кольцо, фланец, шайба. Text 7 «Potato planters» Four types of machine planters are used: the picker -type, assisted feed, cup-type, and tuber-unit planter. Planters are equipped with fertilizer attachments which place the fertilizer on each side of the seed. The picker-type planter is the most widely used. This planter automatically picks up the seed and plants it in a trench or furrow. This is accomplished by a number of arms attached to a revolving wheel. Each picker arm consists of two sharp prongs, the ends of which are similar to nails. As they revolve through the chamber containing the seed, the picker arms pick up the seed-pieces. As the picking arm moves toward the downward position, the seed -piece is deposited in the dropping tube and it falls into a trench that has been opened by a furrow opener. The seed is then covered by discs located at the back of the machine. This type of planter requires two men to operate a two or four-row machine. The assisted feed type handles the seed in a different manner. The seed piece is fed from the hopper by revolving cogged wheel into the pocket of a rotating horizontal disk. After the seed piece is pushed over the seed tube opening it drops into the trench. The cup type is used by growers who use whole tubers for seed. The automatic tuber unit planter is designed for planting seed which is to be used for the purpose of improving and maintaining superior seed stock and not for commercial production. This machine is equipped with cutter wheels which have four way knives designed to cut each tuber into four pieces. A two-row planter of this type requires a tractor driver and two feeders who place the individual tubers on the cutter knives. Задания к тексту I. Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие различные типы картофелесажалок, и переведите их на русский язык. II. Заполните пропуски соответствующими словами из текста. 1. The picker—type planter ... the seed and ... it in a furrow. A number of arms are attached to a... As the ... is in the downward position, the is placed in the ... tube. In the assisted feed type, the seed piece is fed into the pocket of a rotating horizontal... With the help of the ... planter whole ... are used for seed. Seeds to be used for improving seed stock are planted with planter. The automatic tuber-unit planter is equipped with ... wheels. Four-way knives cut each ... into ... pieces. III. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих слов: подбирать (захватывать), подавать, картофелесажалка, картофелесажалка с ложечными высаживающими аппаратами, картофелесажалка с накалывающими высаживающими аппаратами, сажалка для посадки клубнями, рычаг, клубень, траншея, борозда. Text 8 «Choice of equipment high-powered wheeled tractors» Different types of large tractors differ in their adaptability to a range of duties. In general, rear-wheel-drivc tractors of conventional design tend to be most adaptable to a wide range of jobs; four -wheel-drive machines with moderately small front wheels are reasonably adaptable, tractors with equalsized wheels being used mainly for soil cultivation, drilling and forage harvesting. It is therefore necessary to consider for each individual farm whether the large trac tor is expected to do such jobs as fertilizer distributing, spraying, mowing or the many other light jobs involved in making hay or silage. On most of the lighter work, such as spraying, fertilizer distributing, tedding, etc., the high-powered tractor has no technical advantages over much smaller machines; and there are often good physical reasons, such as avoidance of soil compaction why use of a ligh ter and less powerful tractor is preferable. Four-wheel-drive tractors with four large drive wheels shows a high efficiency, especially where the work is on heavy land. Efficiency tends to be lowest for tractors with only rear -wheel-drive. When considering choice of equipment, due account should be taken of the influence of soil characteristics on performance. Thus, on wet, heavy soil adhesion3 and soil compaction can present serious problems. On such soils, where draught is likely to be double that of light land, the superior ability of the tractors with four large drive wheels is likely to be most beneficial. On some lighter soil adhesion and the performance of rear -wheel-drive tractors with very large tyres can be entirely satisfactory. Ability to exploit high tractor power naturally depends on providing suitable implements. Heavy tracklayers are very expensive both to buy and to operate. There are marked economic advantages in using wheeled tractors rather than track machines wherever they are effecti ve, and much turns on ability of the tractor wheels to transmit power without excessive slip. Задания к тексту Выпишите из текста термины, обозначающие различные виды сельскохозяйственных работ, выполняемых с помощью трактора, и переведите их на русский язык. Выпишите из текста синонимы к слову a work. Выберите те виды сельскохозяйственных работ, которые реко мендуется выполнять: а) с помощью тракторов высокой мощности, б) с помощью менее мощных тракторов. soil cultivation, spraying, fertilizer distributi ng, drilling, forage harvesting, tedding, mowing, making hay, making silage. Укажите, какие тракторы больше подходят для разнообразных с.х. работ, а какие только для определенных видов работ: rear-wheeldrive tractor, four-wheel-drive tractor with small front wheel, fourwheel-drive tractor with equal sized wheels. Найдите в тексте предложение, в котором говорится о том, почему не рекомендуется использовать высокомощные тракторы на таких работах, как разбрасывание удобрений, ворошение сена и т.п. Укажите, на каких почвах рекомендуется использовать трактора: а) с приводом на задние колеса, б) с приводом на все колеса. Text 9 «Farm machines» The chief difficulty in choice of equipment is that the performance of a machine is very variable according to climate and soil conditions, size and topography of the fields, and type of both the equipment and the power unit used to operate it. Thus, in the driest parts of England, a combine harvester of the latest design can be expected to harvest 30-40 acres corn per foot (37-49 ha/m), while in wetter regions of the West the same machine may have difficulty in av eraging 20 acres per foot (24 ha/m) annually. The seasonal use of tractors generally shows two main peaks of tractor work, one in autumn and the other in spring. On heavy land, where a high proportion of crops tend to be autumn drilled, the amount of autumn work greatly exceeds the spring work. The main cultivation tractors need to be chosen to suit the farming needs. Thus, rear -wheeldrive tractors are adequate for the needs of most light -land farms and may be particularly suitable where summer work such as forage harvesting is important» On heavy land, when soil conditions are not ideal, four -wheel-drive tractors and tracklayers can be effectively use d after real-wheel-drive tractors have to stop work. Text 10 «Hydraulics» Every hydraulic system must have a reservoir for holding the fluid. In some tractors the reservoir is located in the transmission housing. Others have the same reservoir for hydraulic fluid as for transmission fluid. Still other tractors have a separate transmission reservoir but combine the differential and hydraulic system. The reservoir may be located in the frame of a loader. On a crawler, it is sometimes located under and around the driver's seat. Reservoirs and coolers are stationary parts of a hydraulic system. The design of the cylinder determines whether a system is single acting, or double-acting. The single-acting cylinder is powered in only one direction. The double-acting cylinder is powered in both directions. ' Principal parts of the cylinder include the following: piston, piston rod, packing (piston and rod), cylinder barrel, seals. The pump is the power supply of the hydraulic system. It is mechanically driven from the tractor transmission, p.t.o. shaft, directly from the front end of the en gine crankshaft or elsewhere on the engine. Valves control the hydraulic system. Accumulators in tractor hydraulic systems are used to store hydraulic energy. Text 11 «The tractor driver» The tractor driver is one of the most important workers on a farm. Let us visit a farm in Essex (England) to see how Bill, the tractor driver, prepares a field for sowing com. It is a cold autumn morning when Bill arrives at the tractor shed. First he fixes the plow at the back of his tractor. Then he climbs into his seat , starts the engine, and drives out of the yard to the field. It is fine day for plowing, as there has been no rain for several days. A field cannot be plowed properly if the soil is wet and heavy. The plow has a sharp blade, called the coulter, which cuts horizontally, thus taking a slice out of the soil. This slice is turned over by the moldboard, to form a ridge. Unlike the old horse -drawn plow, which made only one furrow, Bil's machine makes three and some tractor plows can make as many as eight furrows at once. The depth of the cut can be varied too. Bill has adjusted the plow so that it will cut to a depth of fifteen centimetres only, since deep plowing is not usually necessary for grain crops. When the whole field has been plowed. Bill has to go over it twice more, with different tools. Com will only grow well when there is a fine top layer, called the tilth. The second time he fixes a cultivator to his tractor. This has metal tines, or teeth, which dig into the plow ridges and break them down. Even this is not fine enough and he now uses another tool, called a disc harrow, which breaks the soil up even more. The discs cut into the soil and make a fine seedbed. Now the ground is ready for sowing. This is done by a seed -drill, pulled by the tractor. The seed is carried in a long box, called the hopper, at the back of the drill. As a disc opens a furrow in the ground, the seed is picked up by cups on the edge, of a revolving wheel and dropped into the furrow. Bill again has to make sur e that the furrow are straight. He harrows the ground again lightly to cover the seed and then rolls it. And he will not see the full results of his work untill next summer, when the corn will be ripening in the field-if the weather has been good. НЕМЕЦКИЙ ЯЗЫК Bodenbearbeitung Durch das Wachstum der Pflanzen werden dem Boden viele Stoffe entzogen, die infolge des Abfahrens der Ernte vom Felde auf natürlichem Wege nicht so schnell ersetzt werden können, wie es die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung verlangt. Durch die mechanische 'Bearbeitung des Bodens können die durch die intensive Bewirtschaftung verursachten Schäden ausgeglichen und die Voraussetzungen für weitere gute Erträge geschaffen werden. Die Aufgabe der Bodenbearbeitung ist es, den Boden für das Wachstum der neuen Pflanzen vorzubereiten. Dazu gehören: Beseitigen der Reste des alten Pflanzenbestandes sowie des Unkrautes, Mischen der einzelnen Bodenschichten sowie des Bodens mit den als Nahrung zugeführten Düngemitteln und Schaffen und Erhalten eines Bodenaufbaues und –zustandes der für Aufnahme und Keimung des Samens sowie für die Bewurzelung und Weiterentwicklung der jungen Pflanzen geeignet ist, die für das Wachstum notwendige Wasseraufnahme und -abgäbe sichert und die für alles Leben notwendige Durchlüftung ermöglicht. Die Bodenbearbeitungsmaschinen können zum Umwenden, zur Pflege und zur Bestellung unterteilt werden. Die zu den drei Gruppen gehörigen Maschinen sind im einzelnen aufgeführt. Maschinen zur Maschinen zur Maschinen zur Lockerung und zum Pflege Bestellung Umwenden tierbespannte Pflüge Grubber Drillmaschinen Schlepperpflüge Eggen Pflanzmaschinen Dampfpflüge Walzen Elektropflüge Vielfachgeräte Die Aufgaben der Mechanisierung der Feldarbeiten Die Werktätigen auf dem Lande haben große volkswirtschaftliche Aufgaben zu lösen. Es werden viele hochwertige Nahrungsmittel für die Verbraucher in der Stadt und auf dem Lande benötigt und viele Rohstoffe verarbeitet werden. Die Landwirtschaft muß immer mehr Erträge liefern als früher. Die Böden müssen sorgfältiger bearbeitet, leistungsfähigeres Vieh muß gezüchtet und ertragsreichere Pflanzen müssen herangezogen werden. Die großen Aufgaben der Landwirtschaft werden gelöst, wenn man die Landwirtschaft vollständig mechanisiert. Bei der landwirtschaftlichen Arbeit leisten Sähmaschinen, Pflanzmaschinen und Erntemaschinen große Hilfe. Das Gras mäht man mit Mähmaschinen und das Getreide mit Mähdreschern. Viele Arbeiten beim Hackfruchtanbau führt-man maschinell aus. Auf dem Hofe und im Stall transportiert man Dünger mit Stallbahnen. Mit Transportbändern, Höhenförderern, Aufzügen und Gebläsen wird das Futter und Getreide ab-und aufgeladen. Zur Be- und Entwässerung des Bodens werden Gräben maschinell ausgeworfen. Die landwirtschaftlichen Geräte und Maschinen Die landwirtschaftlichen Geräte und Maschinen haben in der neuesten Zeit, infolge bedeutend verbesserter und neuer Konstruktionen, eine große Verbreitung gefunden. Die Maschinen zur Putterbereitung kann man einteilen in Maschinen zum Reinigen, Maschinen zum Zerkleinern durch Schneiden oder Quetschen und Maschinen zum Dämpfen. Die Bearbeitung und Verarbeitung der Futtermittel rationell zu gestalten ist die Aufgabe der Futterbereitungsmaschinen und Anlagen. 4) Die Art der Be- und Verarbeitung hat sich zu richten: a) nach der Art des Futtermittels, b) nach der Beschaffenheit des Futtermittels, c) nach der Art der Aufbewahrung, d) nach der Tierart, an die es verfüttert werden soll, e) nach dem Tieralter. 5) Daraus folgt, daß die für diese Arbeiten notwendigen Maschinen sehr vielgestaltig sein müssen. 6) Ein landwirtschaftlicher Betrieb benötigt für die Futteraufbereitung eine größere Anzahl von Maschinen, was zu einer starken finanziellen Belastung führen kann, wenn die Wahl der Maschinen nicht sinnvoll getroffen wird. 7) Leistungsfähigkeit, Leistungsbedarf, Verwendungsmöglichkeiten, Pflegebedarf, Betriebssicherheit und einfache Bedienung sind bei der Beurteilung und beim Kauf solcher Maschinen, die oftmals täglich gebraucht werden, besonders zu beachten Einsatz der Geräte für die Bodenbearbeitung Der Pflug. Vor dem Einsatz ist der Pflug auf seine Einsatzbereitschaft zu überprüfen. Nach Beginn der Arbeit ist zu überprüfen, ob der Pflug richtig eingestellt ist und die Arbeitsqualität gut ist. Die Flächenleistung beim Pflügen kann nicht konstant sein, da sie von verschiedenen Faktoren abhängt. Solche sind: Motorleistung, Fahrgeschwindigkeit, Arbeitsbreite, Arbeitstiefe, Bodenart, Bodenzustand, Witterungsverhältnisse, Gleichmäßigkeit der Arbeitsverhältnisse, Geländegestaltung, Gerätezustand, Qualifikation des Traktoristen. Grubber. Der Grubber ist ein Gerät zum Lockern und Mischen des Bodens. Der Grubber kann zu verschiedenen Jahreszeiten mit unterschiedlicher Zielsetzung eingesetzt werden. Der Einsatz erfolgt am häufigsten: a) zur Saatbettvorbereitung im Frühjahr und im Herbst, b) zur Unkrautbekämpfung, c) zum Einbringen von gut verrottetem Stallmist und mineralischen Düngemitteln, d) zum Stoppelsturz an Stelle des Schälpfluges, e) zur Bearbeitung unkrautfreier Kartoffelfelder im Herbst an Stelle des Saatpfluges und f) vor dem Umbruch von Wiesen, Weiden, Klee- und Luzernenschlägen, um die Pflanzen von Wurzeln zu trennen und so die anschließende Pflugarbeit zu erleichtern. Beim Grubbern entsteht eine rauhe Oberfläche, die zu starker Wasserverdunstung und damit zum Austrocknen des Bodens führt. Das kann in feuchten Lagen erwünscht sein. Unter normalen Verhältnissen stehen wassersparende Maßnahmen im Vordergrund. Man koppelt deshalb den Grubber mit Ackerschleppen oder Eggen. Dadurch erfolgt eine Einebnung des Bodens und Zerkleinern von Schollen (bessere Bodenkrümelung). Eggen. Eggen lockern den Erdboden flach, zerkleinern Erdschollen und dienen zum Einebnen des gepflügten oder gegrubberten Landes. Die Form und die Wirkungsweise der Eggenwerkzeuge sind unterschiedlich. Es gibt Zinkeneggen, Krümelwalzeneggen, Scheibeneggen. Die Eggen werden hauptsächlich zur Saatbett Vorbereitung eingesetzt. Um eine günstige Wirkung zu erreichen, sollte der Einsatz bei mittlerem Feuchtigkeitsgehalt erfolgen. Im nassen Boden verschmieren die Zinken. Zu trockener Boden krümelt schlecht und die Arbeit ist kaum von Erfolg. Schwere Eggen lassen sich zur Nachbearbeitung von abgeernteten Kartoffelfeldern einsetzen. Krümelwalzeggen werden fast ausschließlich in Kopplung mit dem Pflug zur schnellen Herrichtung des Saatbettes verwendet. Die Wirkungsweise der Scheibenegge ist der des Grubbers ähnlich. Zum Zerschneiden und Krümeln der Wiesennarbe vor und nach dem Umbruch ist die Scheibenegge geeignet. Walzen. Entsprechend den Erfordernissen muß der Boden mit weniger oder größerer Tiefenwirkung verdichtet werden. Zweck dieser Bodenverdichtung ist die Regulierung des Wasserhaushaltes. Gleichzeitig erfolgt durch die Walzen eine Zerkleinerung der Erdschollen. Um diese verschiedene Aufgaben mit Erfolg lösen zu können, werden Glatt- oder Rauhwalzen eingesetzt Geräte für die Düngwirtschaft Durch die Düngmittel müssen dem Boden die Stoffe wieder zugeführt werden, die durch die Pflanzen und die Auswaschungen der oberen durchwurzelten Bodenschicht verlorengehen. Während die Handelsdünger (Mineraldünger) vorwiegend über den Boden den Pflanzen als Nährstoff zur Verfügung gestellt werden und erst in zweiter Linie bodenverbessernd wirken, dient der Stalldung als Nährstoffdünger und in sehr starkem Maße zur Erhaltung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Stalldung ist ein Gemisch der tierischen Ausscheidungen Kot und Harn mit der Einstreu. Er wird auf dem Feld verteilt und in den Boden eingearbeitet. Das Ausstreuen des Stalldunges geschieht mit Stalldungstreuern. Der Dung soll gleichmäßig auf dem Felde verteilt werden. Mit einer Fördereinrichtung wird das aufgeladene Dung kontinuierlich den Streuwalzen zugeführt und von diesen nach hinten abgeworfen. Durch evtl. vorhandene Vorrichtungen kann der Dung auch seitlich verteilt werden. Mit den Stalldungstreuern kann jeder beliebige Dung gestreut werden. Hinsichtlich der Entlastung des Streumechanismus ist Kurzstrohmist oder Häckselmist vorzuziehen. Voraussetzung für eine gleichmäßige Verteilung des Dunges ist, daß der Anhänger gleichmäßig beladen wird. Wichtig für die Einsatzbereitschaft der Stalldungstreuer ist, daß sie regelmäßig gründlich gereinigt werden. Landwirtschaft und Umwelt Die Landwirtschaft nutzt die natürlichen Produktionsfaktoren — Boden, Wasser und Klima — besonders intensiv. Die zunehmende Intensivierung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion kann aber zu Umweltbelastung führen. Diese Belastung kann die natürliche Umwelt und die Gesundheit der Menschen beschädigen. Die Landwirtschaft und die Umwelt lassen sich am besten beim alternativen (biologischen) Landbau verbinden. 1991 bewirtschafteten etwa 2100 Landwirte der BRD (0,3 Prozent) ihre Betriebe alternativ. Für alternativ wirtschaftende Betriebe sind folgende Faktoren charakteristisch: eine vielseitige Bodennutzung, niedrige Pflanzenerträge und tierische Leistungen, hohe Preise, ein geringer Verbrauch von chemischen Mittel usw. Man orientiert sich immer mehr auf den integrierten Pflanzenschutz. Die rationelle Verbindung von möglichst allen — ackerbaulichen, pflanzenbaulichen, mechanischen, biologischen und chemischen — Maßnahmen zum Schutz der Kulturpflanzen bildet das Wesen des integrierten Pflanzenschutzes. Die alternativ erzeugten Nahrungsmittel sind teurer um 50 bis 100 Prozent im Vergleich zu traditionellen Nahrungsmitteln. Eine soziologische Untersuchung hat gezeigt, dass die meisten Verbraucher bereit sind, mehr Geld für alternativ erzeugte Nahrungsmittel zu zahlen. - die konventionelle Landwirtschaft - der intensive Einsatz von PSM - der Arbeitsaufwand ist niedrig - die Erträge sind hoch - der Kampf gegen Schädlinge und Unkräuter ist effektiv Redewendungen Ich meine… Ich glaube… Meiner Meinung nach… Ich denke… DIE HOCHSCHULEN Die älteste deutsche Hochschule, die Universität Heidelberg, wurde 1386 gegründet. Mehrere andere Universitäten haben bereits ihre Fünfhundertjahrfeier hinter sich, darunter die traditionsreichen Universitäten von Leipzig (gegründet 1409) und Rostock (gegründet 1419). Daneben gibt es auch ganz junge Universitäten — mehr als 20 sind erst nach 1960 gegründet worden. Im 19. Jahrhundert und in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts stellte die Universität Berlin ein Bildungsmuster dar, sie war von Wilhelm von Humboldt 1810 gegründet worden. Neben den alten Universitäten entstanden technische Hochschulen, pädagogische Hochschulen und — insbesondere in den 70er und 80er Jahren dieses Jahrhunderts — Fachhochschulen. Die Hochschulen sind — mit Ausnahme einiger privater, insbesondere kirchlicher Hochschulen und der Bundeswehrhochschulen — Einrichtungen der Länder. Die Bundesregierung bestimmt die allgemeinen Prinzipien des Hochschulwesens; sie nimmt aber insbesondere an der Finanzierung des Hochschulbaus und der Hochschulreform teil. Die Hochschule hat das Recht der Selbstverwaltung. Die Hochschule wird von einem Rektor oder Präsidenten geleitet, der auf mehrere Jahre gewählt wird. Das Studium an diesen Hochschulen wird mit der Diplom-, Magisteroder Staatsprüfung abgeschlossen. Danach ist eine weitere Qualifizierung bis zur Doktorprüfung (Promotion) möglich. Die Fachhochschulen als jüngster Hochschultyp ermöglichen vor allem in den Bereichen Ingenieurwesen, Wirtschaft, Sozialwesen, Design und Landwirtschaft eine stärker praxisbezogene Ausbildung, die mit einer Diplomprüfung abschließt. Fast jeder dritte Studienanfänger wählt heute diesen Hochschultyp. In zwei Bundesländern gibt es seit den 70er Jahren Gesamthochschulen. Sie umfassen verschiedene Hochschulformen unter einem Dach. Aber dieses Modell hat keine weite Verbreitung gefunden. Neu für die Bundesrepublik war 1976 auch die Fernuniversität Hagen. Sie hat derzeit fast 50 000 Studierende. In der Gestaltung ihres Studiums sind die Studenten traditionell recht frei. Für viele Studiengänge werden zwar Lehrpläne ausgearbeitet und Zwischenprüfungen geplant, doch können die Studenten in vielen Studiengängen selbst entscheiden, welche Fächer und Lehrveranstaltungen sie wählen. Wenn die Studenten oder ihre Eltern die Kosten für den Lebensunterhalt nicht tragen können, gibt es die Möglichkeit, nach dem Bundesausbildungsgesetz Förderungsbeträge zu erhalten. Die Hälfte wird als Stipendium gezahlt, die andere Hälfte als Darlehen, das nach Aufnahme der Berufstätigkeit zurückgezahlt wird. Seit langem wird eine Reform des Studiums vorbereitet, die vor allem die Studienzeit verkürzen soll. Heute verbringt ein Student durchschnittlich 14 Semester, also sieben Jahre, an der Universität. Deutschland verfugt über einen hohen Wissensund Ausbildungsstandard. An den 343 Hochschulen (darunter Universitäten, Kunstund Fachhochschulen) studieren über 1,5 Millionen Männer und Frauen. Die Bundesregierung will vor allem die Kompetenz Deutschlands in Bio-und Informationstechnologie ausbauen. DIE EUROPÄISCHE UNION 1952 hoben die sechs Staaten Belgien, Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Frankreich, Italien, Luxemburg und die Niederlande in Paris die Europäische Gemeinschaft für Kohle und Stahl (EGKS, Montanunion) aus der Taufe. So begann die europäische Einigung auf wirtschaftlichem Gebiet. 1957 gründeten die sechs Staaten in den Römischen Verträgen die Europäische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft (EWG) und die Europäische Atomgemeinscjiaft (EURATOM). Sie dehnten damit die gemeinsame Politik auf weitere wirtschaftliche Bereiche aus. In einem Vertrag von 1965 beschlossen die sechs Staaten eine Fusion der Exekutive der drei Bereiche. Seit dieser Zeit spricht man von den Europäischen Gemeinschaften (EG). Seit Inkrafttreten des „Vertrages über die Europäische Union" (1. November 1993), dem sogenannten Maastrichter Vertrag, erhielten die drei europäischen Gemeinschaften einen einheitlichen Rahmen. Sie stellten den sogenannten „ersten Pfeiler" der europäischen Union (EU) oder den „Gemeinschaftspfeiler" dar, der sich durch ein hohes Maß an Integration auszeichnet. Daneben wurde die Europäische Union aber noch um zwei weitere Pfeiler ergänzt. Es handelte sich um einen um die gemeinsame Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik (GASP) und zum anderen um die Zusammenarbeit in den Bereichen Justiz und Inneres. Die EU ist im jetzigen Zustand ein Verbund von fünfzehn selbständigen Staaten, die Verträge miteinander geschlossen haben, in denen die Formen der Zusammenarbeit geregelt sind. Die ältesten Mitglieder sind die sechs Gründerstaaten der Europäischen Gemeinschaften. Am 1. Januar 1981 wurde Griechenland in die Gemeinschaft aufgenommen. Portugal und Spanien traten am 1. Januar 1986 bei. Zum 1. Januar 1973 traten Großbritannien, Irland und Dänemark bei. Der Beitritt Österreichs, Finnlands und Schwedens erfolgte zum 1. Januar 1995. Nach Intensität des Zusammenwirkens und des Zusammenspiels der Organe der EU und der Regierungen der Mitgliedstaaten kann man drei Abstufungen unterscheiden: 1. Koordinierung 2 Kooperation 3. Gemeinschaftliche Politik Meine Akademie Die Akademie für Landwirtschaft zu Pensa wurde im Jahre 1951 am Rande der Stadt in der Siedlung Achuny gegründet. Sie bildet hochqualifizierte Fachleute in 11 Fachrichtungen aus und hat einen gut Ruf im Gebiet Pensa. Zurzeit gibt es an der Akademie vier Fakultäten. Das sind Fakultät für Agronomie, technologische Fakultät, Fakultät für Ingenieurwesen und ökonomische Fakultät. Es gibt noch Fernfakultät und Studienkolleg, an dem sich die Abiturienten auf die Aufnahmeprüfungen vorbereiten können. Jede Fakultät hat auch mehrere Lehrstühle, wo hochqualifizierte Hochschullehrkräfte tätig sind. Heute ist die Akademie für Landwirtschaft zu Pensa eine große Lehranstalt. Ihre Studentenzahl beträgt ca. 5.000 Direkt- und Fernstudenten. Jeden Tag haben die Studenten 3-4 Doppelstunden Unterricht, darunter Vorlesungen, Seminare, praktische Übungen und andere Lehrveranstaltungen. Erfahrene Lektoren, unter ihnen ca. 200 Dozenten und Professoren, halten Vorlesungen, leiten Seminare, praktische Übungen und andere Lehrveranstaltungen. Die Studenten haben gute Möglichkeiten für das Studium. Das sind 3 moderne Lehrgebäude mit zahlreichen gut ausgestatteten Labors und Seminarräumen, große Hörsäle, eine schöne Aula, mehrere Lesesäle, ein modemer Sportkomplex mit dem Stadion, 4 Bibliotheken u. a. m. Die meisten Studenten wohnen h3 Studentenwohnheimen. Einige müssen jedoch ein Zimmer mieten, da es hier an Studentenwohnheimen mangelt. Die leistungsstärksten Studenten erhalten staatliche Stipendien. Das Studium in allen Fachrichtungen an der Akademie dauert 5 Jahre und schließt mit der Anfertigung einer Diplomarbeit ab. Während des Studiums haben die Studenten zahlreiche Praktika im landwirtschaftlichen Versuchsbetrieb, wo man theoretische Kenntnisse mit der praktischen Arbeit verbinden kann. Sehr schnell werden 5 Studienjahre verlaufen. Die Absolventen der Akademie werden dann aufs Land als junge Diplomlandwirte, Dipl.-Agrarökologen, Agraringenieure, -Technologen, -Zooingenieure, Betriebswirte, -Buchhalter u. a. kommen. Die Kenntnisse, die sie an der Akademie erwerben, werden sie zur Entwicklung der Landwirtschaft ausnutzen. Die leistungsstärksten Absolventen können die Aspirantur beziehen und später promovieren. So bekommen alle Absolventen gute Startchancen ins Berufsleben. Studienkosten 1. Das Studium an deutschen Hochschulen sowohl für deutsche als auch für ausländische Studenten ist gebührenfrei. Die Studienplätze finanziert man mit öffentlichen Mitteln. Dennoch entstehen im Zusammenbang mit dem Studium Kosten, mit denen man rechnen muss. Da der Lebensstandard in Deutschland höher als in vielen anderen europäischen Ländern ist, sind auch Studienkosten nicht niedrig. Die ausländischen Studenten, die an deutschen Hochschulen studieren wollen, sollen also mit monatlichen Ausgaben von mindestens 500 EURO rechnen. An jeder FH gibt es ein «Studentenwerk», das soziale Einrichtungen wie z. B. die Mensa (Studentenrestaurant), Cafes, Studentenwohnheime oder Sportanlagen unterhält. Alle Studenten sollen für die Nutzung dieser sozialen Einrichtungen Sozialgebühren zahlen, die zurzeit je nach der Hochschule 50-80 EURO pro Semester ausmachen. An einigen Hochschulen zahlt man zusammen mit den Sozialgebühren auch einen Beitrag von 30 EURO, - für das so genannte «Semesterticket», das zur Benutzung der öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel am Hochschulort und in der Umgebung berechtigt. Alle Studenten an deutschen Hochschulen sind bis zum 14. Fachsemester (z. B. an einer Uni), maximal bis zum 30. Lebensjahr, krankenversi-cherungspflichtig. Die Krankenversicherungen* zahlen unter anderem (u. a.) Arzt- und Krankenhauskosten sowie Medikamente. Die Beiträge machen bei der gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung zurzeit ca. 30 EURO - pro Semester (6 Monate) aus. Diesen Beitrag muss man vor der Immatrikulation an der Krankenkasse zahlen. Gewisse Kosten entstehen auch durch den Kauf von Lehrbüchern und Arbeitsmaterialien. Je nach dem Studienfach können diese Ausgaben zwischen 50-80 EURO pro Semester betragen. In den Studiengängen im Bereich von Ingenieurwesen und Wirtschaft muss man darüber hinaus den Gebrauch eines Personalcomputers (PC) hinzufügen. Nicht alle deutschen Hochschulen vergeben in der Regel Stipendien. In Deutschland gibt es aber andere Institutionen, die Stipendien vergeben. Das umfangreichste Stipendienprogramm wird vom DAAD* angeboten. Um DAADStipendien können sich aber nur fortgeschrittene Studenten oder, je nach Herkunftsland und Fachrichtung, auch nur Graduierte bewerben. Stipendien werden in erster Linie nach Leistungskriterien vergeben. Die soziale Lage des Studierenden spielt dabei keine große Rolle. Литература Гордон, Е.М. Грамматика современного английского языка / Е.М. Гордон.М, 1974.-274 с. Михеева. А.В. Словарь-минимум для чтения научной литературы на английском языке / А.В. Михеева. - М.,1987. - 320 с. Мэрфи, Р. Современная грамматика в речи «Кембридж пресс» / Р. Мэрфи, - 1998.-241 с. Новоселова, И.З. Словарь-минимум по английскому языку / И.З. Новоселова. - М., 1996. - 378 с. Новый англо-русский словарь - М.: Русский язык, 1994. - 842 с. Успенская, Н.В. Практический курс грамматики / Н.В. Успенская, Т.Н. Михельсон. - С-Пб., 2001. - 240 с. Уайнер, Е. Английский язык. Произношение. Грамматика. Употребление / Е. Уайнер. - М.: Наука, 1987. - 210 с. Хорнби, А.С. Учебный словарь современного английского языка. - М.: Русский язык, 2003. - 758 с. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English - 1992. - 580 ñ. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners - 2005. - 600 c. Martin Hewings. Advanced Grammar in Use - Cambridge University Press. 2006. - 785 c. Michael Swan. Practical English Usage. - Oxford University Press, 2000. - 475 c. Учебное издание Якутина Ольга Леонидовна Лупу Елена Владимировна СБОРНИК ЛЕКСИКО-ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИХ УПРАЖНЕНИЙ И ТЕКСТОВ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ БАКАЛАВРОВ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫХ ВУЗОВ Учебно-методическое пособие для бакалавров сельскохозяйственных вузов ФГБОУ ВО «Смоленская ГСХА» 214000, Смоленск, ул. Б. Советская, 10/2