Transcript
AVIATION PROFICIENCY 335 Squadron Australian Air Force Cadets Cadet / Instructor Notes AL 0
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AMENDMENT HISTORY Date 01 SEP 12
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AVIATION PROFICIENCY (AVP) 14 PERIODS AVP 1 Aerodynamics
Period(s): 2
a. With the aid of diagrams, identify the relationship between the four basic forces acting on an aircraft in flight during the following manoeuvres: 1. Straight and level 2. Climbing 3. Descending, and 4. Turning b. Define "stalling angle" and describe: 1. The symptoms affecting an aircraft when approaching stall, and 2. The general characteristics of a stall AVP 2 Aircraft Design
Period(s): 1
a. Using a diagram or model, revise (see ARB 1) the following features used in aircraft design: 1. Anhedral 2. Dihedral 3. Wing Sweepback b. With the aid of a diagram or model, identify the following secondary controls of an aircraft and state their basic use: 1. Flaps (leading and trailing edge) 2. Slats 3. Slots 4. Spoilers 5. Speed brakes AVP 3 Aircraft Engines
Period(s): 2
a. State the basic principles of operation and, with the aid of a diagram or model, identify the basic components of: b. Four stroke cycle internal combustion engine c. Basic turbo jet engine AVP 4 Flight Instruments
Period(s): 1
a. From a list, identify pressure and gyroscopic (suction and electrical) instruments used in a typical light trainer aircraft. Note: Pressure instruments are the ASI, altimeter and VSI. Gyroscopic instruments are the DI, rate of turn, turn co-ordinator and flight attitude indicator (artificial horizon). b. Interpret colour codes on an ASI.
AVP 5 Circuits
Period(s): 2
a. With the aid of a diagram, describe the circuit pattern and identify the following positions in a circuit: 1. Upwind leg 2. Crosswind leg 3. Downwind leg 4. Base leg 5. Final approach 6. Dead side of the circuit AVP 6 Flight Rules and Conditions of Flight
Period(s): 2
a. State visual flight rules (VFR) and visual meteorology conditions (aeroplanes) for operations below 10,000 feet. b. State and apply the following rules requirements: 1. Rules of the air (CAR 160 to 163) 2. The requirements relating to the operations of aircraft on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome (CAR 166[1] and 166[3]) and the conditions relating to turns after take-offs. AVP 7 Radio Telephony a. b. c. d.
Period(s): 1
State the phonetic alphabet and the method of transmitting numerals. Distinguish between a distress and an urgency message. List examples of when a distress and urgency messages should be used. State the prefix and details, which must be included in each message.
AVP 8 Air Traffic Control
Period(s): 1
a. Describe the functions of: 1. Air Traffic Services (ATS) 2. Control Tower AVP 9 Examination
Period(s): 1
AVP10 Examination Review
Period(s): 1
AVP 1 Aerodynamics
Period(s): 2
Objectives a. With the aid of diagrams, identify the relationship between the four basic forces acting on an aircraft in flight during the following manoeuvres: 1. Straight and level 2. Climbing 3. Descending, and 4. Turning b. Define "stalling angle" and describe: 1. The symptoms affecting an aircraft when approaching stall, and 2. The general characteristics of a stall Straight and Level 1001.
At a Constant Power Setting.
The Forces 1002. To fly straight requires the use of AILERONS to keep the wings level and the rudder to prevent yaw. 1003. To maintain the correct level (Altitude) the aircraft must have the correct power setting and a correct nose attitude-controlled by the elevator 1004. To maintain the correct straight and level all the forces are balanced. Those forces are: Lift Weight Thrust Drag
-
from the wings due to gravity from the propeller resistance of aircraft through the air.
Therefore: Lift = Thrust
Weight = Drag.
Figure 1-1. - The four forces - the ideal arrangement 1005. If each of these forces were exactly the same magnitude and acted through one central point in the aircraft no problems would arise. However, they all act at different positions and are of different magnitudes. Positions through which the Forces Act 1006. Lift acts at the centre of pressure. This will depend on the position of the wing on the fuselage and on the particular aerofoil shape as to its position on the chord. Its magnitude will depend on the aircraft’s speed and angle of attack. 1007. Weight acts at the centre of gravity. This depends on the weight and position of every individual part of the aircraft and its load.
Figurer 1-2. Weight acts through the centre of gravity.
1008. Thrust acts at the centre of thrust. This will be in line with the propeller shaft or centreline of the jet. This depends on the position of the engine or engines. Its magnitude depends on the power setting selected by the pilot. 1009. Drag acts at the centre of drag. This depends on the position and amount of drag of all the separate parts of the aircraft. Its magnitude will depend on the aircraft’s speed and angle of attack. 1010. A more likely distribution of the forces on an aircraft would be as shown in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3. Distribution of forces. 1011. The lift and weight, as they do not act at the same point, try to turn the aircraft tall over nose. In fact, in Figure 1-3, the lift/weight pair would win the tussle for in an efficient aircraft the lift/weight forces are about ten times more powerful than the thrust/drag. To make them balance, the designer gives more leverage - ten times more - to the thrust and drag pair. Maintaining the Balance 1012. The aircraft is in balance at normal cruising speed, but the two pairs of forces will not remain balanced throughout a flight. If the pilot wants to increase speed, and the centre of pressure will move backwards and give a nose down tendency. The weight and centre of gravity will change as fuel is used up, and when any items carried are dropped. Turbulent air will also upset balance. Climbing 1013. The four forces acting on an aircraft in a steady climb are still in balance, but distributed differently to those when in level flight. Weight now has a component which contributes to drag. Thrust must be increased to compensate for this. In a vertical climb weight and drag combine and the thrust required will be equal to weight plus drag. Since lift is not opposing weight, its vertical component is a reducing value as the angle of climb increases, until in a vertical climb lift would be zero (FIGURE 1.4.).
FIGURE 1.4. - Forces in a climb - thrust is greater than drag - lift is less than weight. 1014. As the pilot raises the nose the angle of attack is increased, the forces are no longer balanced because both lift and drag have increased. If the same power setting is maintained as for ’straight and level’, the aircraft’s speed will decrease because of the increase in drag. 1015. Increased thrust usually generates a nose-up pitching moment and, in a propeller-driven aircraft, a rolling moment due to torque reaction and a yawing moment due to uneven slipstream over the fin. To restore balance a nose-down pitching moment is needed (elevators or elevons), as well as the appropriate rolling and yawing moments (ailerons and rudder respectively). Three Types of Climb 1016. Normal or cruise climb - which allows for the aircraft to travel further in distance but not usually climb as high in a given time. The aircraft flies at a higher airspeed therefore providing better cooling for the engine and good forward visibility. 1017. Best angle of climb - this is used to reach maximum height for the distance travelled. Note - in one minute - will not climb as high as best rate of climb. The pilot should check the instruments for overheating. This type of climb allows the pilot to clear any obstacles in the flight path. 1018. Best rate of climb - this allows the pilot to gain the maximum height in a given time rather than the shortest horizontal distance.
FIGURE 1.5. - The different types of climb Descending 1019. A steady descent or glide (constant flight path, constant airspeed) is unaccelerated flight. Forces are in equilibrium – moments are cancelled. The balance of forces and moments is shown in Figure 1–6. A component of weight acts along the line of flight and so the aircraft will accelerate to a higher speed unless thrust is reduced or until the drag rises, due to the higher dynamic pressure. Thus thrust is less than drag. Lift balances the component of weight that is perpendicular to the flight path and so the lift vector is slightly less than weight in a descent. The elevators are adjusted so that the tailplane cancels any residual pitching moment and any control forces are relieved by re-trimming.
FIGURE 1.6. - Forces in a descent The Turn 1020. A turn is accelerated flight because the aircraft is changing direction, i.e. accelerating sideways. Centripetal force (CF) accelerates the aircraft towards the centre of the turn. This is offset by centripetal reaction (CR) – also known as
centrifugal force – which is an equal and opposite reaction to centripetal force (Figure 1–7).
Figure 1-7. Balance of forces in a turn. The Stall 1021. As we are aware, most for conditions of flight we have a streamlined airflow over the aerofoil. The increase of flow velocity creates lift. The lifting ability of the aerofoil increases as the angle of attack increases - but only to the critical angle.
Figure 1-8. Stalling occurs in any flight profile when the critical angle is exceeded
1022. It is at this angle that the airflow is broken into turbulence over the wing, and the wing stalls. 1023. The Centre of Pressure, which has been slowly moving forward as the angle of attack has been increasing, suddenly moves rearwards and there is a rapid increase in drag. 1024. As the aircraft is approaching the stall, the airframe may shake or buffet. This will indicate to the pilot that the aircraft is about to stall. The nose will drop and the aircraft will sink.
AVP 2 Aircraft Design
Period(s): 1
Objectives a. Using a diagram or model, revise (see ARB 1) the following features used in aircraft design: 1. Anhedral 2. Dihedral 3. Wing Sweepback b. With the aid of a diagram or model, identify the following secondary controls of an aircraft and state their basic use: 1. Flaps (leading and trailing edge) 2. Slats 3. Slots 4. Spoilers 5. Speed brakes Anhedral 2001. effect.
Negative dihedral is known as anhedral and would have an unstable
Figure 2-1. Anhedral Wing Dihedral 2002. When an aircraft is banked, the lift force is inclined, and produces a side slip into the turn. As such, the aircraft produces a rolling moment to restore the aircraft to its original position. The main contributor to LATERAL STABILITY is the wing.
Figure 2-2. Dihedral wing
2003. Dihedral increases lateral stability. Each wing is inclined upwards from the wing root to the tips. Wing Sweepback 2004. This also increases lateral stability. As an aircraft sideslips in a roll, the lower wing has more of its span to the airflow and therefore creates more lift. This tends to restore the wings to a level position.
Figure 2-3. Sweepback increases the corrective rolling moment. Flaps - Leading and Trailing Edge 2005. Trailing Edge flaps alter the camber of the aerofoil section. Most high speed aerofoils have a fairly straight mean camber line and hardly curved at all. Should the leading edge or trailing edge be able to be hinged downwards, then the aerofoil becomes more highly cambered and it can produce the required lift at a lower airspeed. This effect is primarily used for landings, however by lowering flaps at take-off; the aircraft can use a shorter run and a slower speed.
Figure 2-4. Trailing Edge Flaps 2006. Another advantage of flaps on landing is the pilots’ visibility is greatly improved due to the steeper angle of attack.
2007.
There are various types of flaps:
2008. Swept wing aircraft at high angles of attack are prone to significant increases in induced drag due to wing vortices and flow separation along the leading edge. To prevent this, and to generate more lift at high angles of attack, all swept wing transport aircraft are fitted with some form of leading-edge lift augmentation device, in addition to conventional trailing-edge flaps. Either slats, droop leading edges or leading-edge flaps are used.
Figure 2-5. Leading edge flaps Slats and Slots 2009. Some aircraft have leading edge devices that cause some of the high energy air from beneath the wing to flow through a slot and over the upper surface of the wing. This delays separation and the stall allowing the aircraft to fly at a greater angle of attack and a lower airspeed.
Figure 2-6. Leading edge slats 2010. This is achieved with slats which form part of the leading edge whilst in flight, and are extended forward and/or down to form a slot. 2011. A fixed slot, which is built into the wing, is uncommon due to high drag during normal flight. Spoilers 2012. Spoilers are located on the upper surfaces of the wings of most jet transport aircraft and gliders. They are hinged control panels which disturb the upper lift producing part of the wing and therefore decreasing lift and increasing drag. They are used to reduce airspeed and/or steepen the descent without increasing speed.
Figure 2-7. Spoilers 2013. Pilots deploy the spoilers just after landing to reduce the lift and assist the wheel brakes be more effective due to the increase in weight.
Speed Brakes 2014. Speed brakes are operated on landing and reduce the overall speed of the aircraft. Figure 2-8 shows the speed brakes located on various aircraft.
Figure 2-8. Speed Brakes
AVP 3 Aircraft Engines
Period(s): 2
Objectives: a. State the basic principles of operation and, with the aid of a diagram or model, identify the basic components of: a. Four stroke cycle internal combustion engine b. Basic turbo jet engine
Four stroke piston aircraft engine 3001. 1. 2. 3. 4.
This has a cycle of four operations: Intake; Compression; Power: and Exhaust.
3002. Intake. During the intake stroke, the piston moves from the top to the bottom of the cylinder. This decreases the pressure in the cylinder and the fuel/air mixture is drawn in. Air is drawn through the induction system and into each cylinder via inlet valve. At the end of the intake stroke, the inlet valve closes.
3003. Compression. During the compression stroke the piston moves back towards the top of the cylinder, progressively increasing the pressure and temperature (by compression) of the fuel/air mixture. At the end of the compression stroke the fuel/air mix is ignited by the spark across the gap between the electrodes of the spark plug.
3004. Power. The progressive burning of the fuel causes a rapid temperature and pressure rise within the cylinder forcing the piston away from the top of the cylinder during the power stroke. At the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. 3005. The inlet/exhaust valves are both closed throughout the compression and power strokes.
3006. Exhaust. During the exhaust stroke the piston moves under momentum from the previous power stroke from the bottom of the cylinder back to the cylinder head expelling the burnt fuel through the open exhaust valve into the exhaust system. 3007. At the end of the exhaust stroke the exhaust valve closes and the inlet valve opens for more fuel/air mixture to be drawn into the cylinder on the next down-stroke of the piston (the intake stroke), and so the cycle continues. The Jet Engine 3008. The sequence of induction, compression, expansion and exhaust can be applied to the turbojet engine. Note that all these processes are occurring continuously in the engine, and the delivery is uninterrupted, unlike that of the piston engine. 3009. The turbojet engine has no reciprocating parts and is therefore mechanically smoother and the parts less stressed than in the piston engine.
Figure above shows the parts of a turbojet engine 3010. The incoming air is squeezed through the front fan (compressor) into the compression chamber to which is added the fuel and ignited. The gases expand and flow out the rear of the engine. To maintain the movement of the compressor another fan (rear turbine) is located at the rear and connected to the compressor by a shaft. The fan is turned by the hot gases passing through at a very high velocity. After passing through the turbine, the heated gases, still expanding, issue from the exhaust nozzle as a jet. Afterburning (Reheat) 3011. Additional power can be obtained by feeding fuel into the hot gases at the back of the engine behind the rear turbine. The fuel is ignited as soon as it comes into contact with hot gases, and heats them even more. The increased expansion of the air which was originally drawn into the front of the engine gives the aircraft extra thrust. This system uses a very large amount of fuel and is usually used to shorten take-off, to increase the rate of climb or to give extra speed for a short period of time.
AVP 4 Flight Instruments
Period(s): 1
Objectives: a. From a list, identify pressure and gyroscopic (suction and electrical) instruments used in a typical light trainer aircraft. Note: Pressure instruments are the ASI, altimeter and VSI. Gyroscopic instruments are the DI, rate of turn, turn co-ordinator and flight attitude indicator (artificial horizon). b.
Interpret colour codes on an ASI.
Pressure Instruments 4001. 1. 2. 3.
The following are pressure instruments: Air Speed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator.
4002. The pitot tube mounted on the aeroplane, and provides the measurement of total pressure, and the static vent the measurement of static pressure.
Figure 4-1. Pitot Static System
Airspeed Indicator(ASI) 4003. The Airspeed Indicator (ASI) - shows the pilot the airspeed commonly referred to as indicated Airspeed (IAS). It is related to dynamic pressure.
Figure 4-2. Airspeed Indicator. Altimeter 4004. Works on the principle that as the aircraft climbs, and the static pressure decreases, the sealed capsule expands and drives the pointer.
Figure 4-3. Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator(VSI) 4005. The instrument converts the rate of change in static pressure to a rate of change in altitude. Again as the aircraft climbs, the static pressure reduces and moves the pointer.
Figure 4-3. Vertical Speed Indicator Gyroscopic Instruments. 4006. 1. 2. 3.
The following are gyroscopic instruments: Direction Indicator ( or heading indicator/directional gyro) Attitude Indicator (artificial horizon) Turn coordinator and Indicator.
4007. The gyroscopes in the flight instruments are either spun electronically or by a stream of high speed air directed onto buckets cut into the perimeter of the rotor. Directional Indicator(DI)/Heading Indicator 4008. This instrument should be continually aligned with the magnetic compass whilst in flight. It is not subject to acceleration and turning errors, and is easy to read in turbulence.
Figure 4-4. Directional Indicator
Rate of Turn/Turn coordinator 4009. Both these instruments indicate the aircraft’s rate of turn and not the angle of bank. It also indicates the roll rate. The coordination ball is simply a free ball and moves lie a pendulum bob.
Figure 4-5. Rate Of Turn Attitude Indicator (Artificial Horizon) 4010. Indicates the changes in attitude of the aircraft. It shows the pitch attitude and bank angle.
Figure 4-6. Attitude Indicator Colour Coding 4011. Green arc indicates the normal operating speed range. That is from stall speed at gross maximum weight with flaps and landing gear up (VS1) to normal operating limit speed (or maximum structural cruise speed) – VNO. 4012. Yellow arc denotes the caution range and extends from VNO up to VNE, which means never exceed. Aircraft operating at these speeds should be flying in smooth air only.
4013. White arc gives the flap operating range. This is from stall speed with max gross weight in landing configuration (full flap, landing gear down, wings level and power off) VSO up to max flap extension speed VFE. 4014. Red radial line indicates the VNE - Never Exceed speed. Should an aircraft experience gusts of wind, turbulence etc. the aircraft’s design load factors could be exceeded.
AVP 5 THE CIRCUIT
1 PERIOD
Objective. a. With the aid of a diagram, describe the circuit pattern and identify the following positions in a circuit: 1. Upwind leg 2. Crosswind leg 3. Downwind leg 4. Base leg 5. Final approach 6. Dead side of the circuit.
Figure 5-1. Typical Circuit. Take-off - upwind 5001. Take-off is made into wind. An aircraft climbs straight ahead to a height of 500’ before commencing a left turn onto Crosswind leg. Generally circuits are flown to the left, as pilots in command are seated in the left hand seat, and gives better vision. Some airports have duel runways - i.e. Parafield has runways marked 21L(left) or 21R(right) and aircraft are required to turn left or right at 500’ respectively after taking off.
Figure 5-2. Upwind Leg.
Crosswind 5002. The aircraft continues to climb to circuit height, 1,000', and level out. Should the crosswind be strong, the pilot should point the nose slightly into wind to save from being blown off track.
Figure 5-3. Crosswind. Downwind 5003. Downwind is flown at circuit height parallel to the runway. During this leg, the pilot makes a radio call, which tells the air traffic controller the aircraft's position and intentions. The pilots will also do their downwind landing checks, to ensure the aircraft is ready to land.
Figure 5-4. Downwind. Base Leg 5004. The pilot turns onto "Base" when they are at a point relative to the aircraft's performance, the aircraft is placed in a descent, power reduced and flaps used to control the aircraft's attitude. Generally, aircraft will descend to between 500' and 700' before turning onto "final".
Figure 5-5. Base Leg Final Leg 5005. During this leg, the pilot adjusts the flaps and power to ensure the aircraft does not under/over shoot the runway. Final leg completes the circuit once the aircraft has landed.
Figure 5-6. Final Leg Use of Circuit 5006. The circuit has been designed to assist the smooth flow of traffic around an airport. It should be seen that if pilots were left to their own resources, accidents would frequently occur, so a standard set of rules allows for good separation and entry into a circuit area. Dead side 5007. A circuit has a "dead" side. That is the airspace on the opposite side of the runway in use. 5008. Aircraft arriving at an aerodrome which is unmanned must overfly the airport at 1,500’ above aerodrome level, check for wind direction and then fly to the dead side and then descent to the required height to enter the circuit.
AVP 6 Flight Rules and Conditions of Flight
Period(s): 2
Objectives a. State visual flight rules (VFR) and visual meteorology conditions (aeroplanes) for operations below 10,000 feet. b. State and apply the following rules requirements: 1. Rules of the air (CAR 160 to 163) 2. The requirements relating to the operations of aircraft on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome (CAR 166[1] and 166[3]) and the conditions relating to turns after take-offs. Visual Flight Rules.(VFR) 6001. The Air Services Australia (formerly Civil Aviation Authorities) set down regulations under which visual flights can be made. They are designed to assist the pilot to maintain attitude, avoid other aircraft and to navigate their aircraft. There are different rules when flying within controlled (CTA) or outside controlled (OCTA) airspace. 6002. Visual Flight Rules are located in Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP), En Route 1.2 Visual Flight Rules. 6003.
Paragraph 1.1.1 of this publication reads “VFR may only be conducted: a. In VMC; b. Provided that, when operating at or below 2,00FT above the ground or water, the pilot is able to navigate by visual reference to the ground or water; c. At sub-sonic speeds; and d. In accordance with the speed restrictions identified in ENR1.1,65”
6004. Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) are dependent upon the class of airspace within which you are flying. 6005. Australia’s airspace is divided into either controlled or outside controlled airspace, and classified into different classes. The Classes are shown on the chart below. Note Class G is non-controlled airspace.
Class of Airspace
Application
Class A
Class C
Class D Class E
Class G
within radar coverage – lower limit above FL180 and upper limit FL600; outside radar coverage – lower limit FL245 and upper limit FL600; an area extending from 90NM south of Melbourne to Launceston and Hobart, lower limit FL180 and upper limit FL600; active military Restricted areas above FL285. within radar coverage south of Sydney, lower limit FL125 and upper limit FL180 under Class A airspace; in the control area steps associated with controlled aerodromes, excluding control area steps classified as Class D airspace in control zones of define dimensions; and active military Restricted areas at and below FL285 unless specified otherwise. Control zones of defined dimensions, and associated control area steps, upper limit 4,500FT. within radar coverage: o south of Sydney, lower limit 8500FT and upper limit FL125 under Class C airspace; o North of Sydney, lower limit 8500FT and upper limit FL180 under Class A airspace; In the vicinity of Williamtown/Newcastle: coincident with the lateral limits of R578A-E above A045 – when R578 is not active; Outside radar coverage within continental Australia, lower limit FL180 and upper limit FL245 under Class A airspace; and In two corridors: Sydney to Dubbo, lower limit FL125 and upper limit FL180; and Melbourne to Mildura, lower limit FL125 and upper limit FL180, under en route Class E airspace Uncontrolled Airspace
Figure 6-1. Australian Airspace Classes 6006. The VMC requirements within different classes of airspace are shown in the Tables below Class A 6007. Only Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flights are permitted in the Class A airspace Class C Height
Flight Visibility
At or Above 10,000FT AMSL
8KM
Below 10,000FT AMSL
5,000M
Distance from Cloud 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical
Additional Conditions
ATC may permit operations in weather conditions that do not meet this criteria (Special VFR)
Class D Height
Flight Visibility
Within Class D
5,000M
Distance from Cloud 600M Horizontal, 1,000FT vertically above cloud Or 500FT vertically below cloud.
Additional Conditions ATC may permit operations in weather conditions that do not meet this criteria (Special VFR)
Distance from Cloud 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical
Additional Conditions Nil
Distance from Cloud 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical 1,500M Horizontal 1,000FT Vertical Clear of cloud and in sight of ground or water
Additional Conditions Nil
Class E Height
Flight Visibility
At or Above 10,000FT AMSL
8KM
Below 10,000FT AMSL
5,000M
Nil
Class G Height
Flight Visibility
At or Above 10,000FT AMSL
8KM
Below 10,000FT AMSL
5,000M
At or below – whichever is the higher – of: a. 3000FT AMSL b. 1,000FT AGL
5,000M
Nil
Radio must be carried and used on the appropriate frequency
6008. Aircraft flying under 10,000’ are flown with reference to mean sea level (MSL). The local QNH is set on the subscale of the altimeter and will read the elevation of the airport above mean sea level. This setting is generally used by pilots using the local training area or by those flying circuits at the aerodrome. 6009. read:
When a pilot receives a meteorological report for a proposed route, it will
e.g.
1014 : 1016 :
1016 :
1017
20UTC 00UTC 6010.
04UTC
08UTC
These are the pressure readings for every four hours for a particular airport.
6011. Therefore when travelling to that airport, the pilot would place the required reading on the subscale at the appropriate time, and the altimeter will read the pressure height above sea level at that point. 6012. It is most important for pilots to have consistent subscale settings as it maintains correct separation and safety.
Figure 6-2. Altimeter displays height above whatever pressure level is set Rules of the Air 6013. Rule 160 reads: “an ‘overtaking’ aircraft means an aircraft that approaches another aircraft from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 70 degrees with the plane of symmetry of the latter”. 6014. This means that that if, flying at night, an aircraft’s position is such that the other aircraft cannot see the forward navigation lights of the other aircraft. 6015. The basic rules of the air are specified in the Civil Aviation Regulations and it is the pilot's responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft, and to avoid passing over or under, or crossing ahead of it, unless well clear. 6016.
The basic rules are applied as follows:
a. when two aircraft are converging at approximately the same height, the aircraft having the other on it's right shall give way (Aircraft only);
Figure 6-3. Converging Aircraft b. in any case, powered aircraft shall give way to gliders and less manoeuvrable aircraft, including aircraft towing other aircraft. In the same way, gliders shall give way to balloons; c. to avoid other aircraft, the aircraft giving way shall alter heading to the right rather than passing over, under or ahead of the other aircraft, unless well clear; d. when two aircraft are approaching head on, or approximately so, and there is danger of collision, each shall alter its heading to the right, (no exception for gliders);
Figure 6-4. When approaching head on, both aircraft will alter heading to their right. e. when overtaking an aircraft, the pilot shall overtake it to the right hand side of the other aircraft;
Figure 6-5. Overtaking Aircraft f. in keeping out of the way of other aircraft, the pilot shall avoid passing over or under it, or crossing ahead of it, unless well clear; g. a landing aircraft has right of way over other aircraft; h. with two aircraft on approach to land, the lower aircraft generally has right of way, but shall not take advantage of the lower height to cut in front of, or overtake another aircraft on approach to land; i.
when taxing, be careful and give way to the right. Overtake other aircraft, if desired, by passing on the left hand side of it to allow the pilot in command in the left seat of the other aircraft to see you.
CAR 166A Requirements for aircraft of a non-controlled aerodrome 6017. CAR 166A states the rules when operating on in the in the vicinity of a noncontrolled aerodrome. The definition of being within the vicinity of an aerodrome is: a. airspace other than controlled airspace; and b. 10 miles from the aerodrome; and c. a height above the aerodrome that could result in conflict with operations at the aerodrome. 6018.
The rules are as follows:
a. the pilot must maintain a lookout for other aircraft to avoid collision; b. the pilot must ensure that the aircraft does not cause a danger to other aircraft; c. if the pilot is flying in the vicinity of the aerodrome, the pilot must: I. join the circuit pattern for the aerodrome; or II. avoid the circuit pattern for the aerodrome; d. if the pilot joins the circuit pattern from take-off or for a landing at the aerodrome, the pilot must, after joining the circuit pattern, make all left hand turns (unless otherwise stipulated):
e. if the pilot takes off from the aerodrome, the pilot must maintain the same track from the take-off until the aircraft is 500 feet above the terrain; f. the pilot must not: I. take off from a part of the aerodrome that is outside the landing area of the aerodrome; or II. land the aircraft on a part of the aerodrome that is outside the landing area of the aerodrome; g. if the pilot takes off from, or lands at, the aerodrome, the pilot must take off or land into the wind if it is practicable. 6019.
Rule 163 stipulates the requirements for operating near other aircraft: a. The pilot in command of an aircraft must not fly the aircraft so close to another aircraft as to create a collision hazard. b. The pilot in command of an aircraft must not operate the aircraft on the ground in such a manner as to create a hazard to itself or to another aircraft.
6020. CAR163 also reads “When weather conditions permit, the flight crew of an aircraft must, regardless of whether an operation is conducted under the Instrument Flight Rules or the Visual Flight Rules, maintain vigilance so as to see, and avoid, other aircraft.”
AVP 7 Radio Telephony
Period(s): 1
Objectives a. b. c. d. 7001.
State the phonetic alphabet and the method of transmitting numerals. Distinguish between a distress and an urgency message. List examples of when a distress and urgency messages should be used. State the prefix and details, which must be included in each message Pronunciation of letters and figures are in accordance with the following: Letter Word Transmitted as A ALFA AL fah B BRAVO BRAH VOH C CHARLIE CHAR lee D DELTA DELL tah E ECHO ECK oh F FOXTROT FOKS trot G GOLF golf H HOTEL hoh TELL I INDIA IN dee ah J JULIET JEW lee ETT K KILO KEY loh L LIMA LEE mah N NOVEMBER noVEMber O OSCAR OSS car P PAPA pah PAH Q QUEBEC keh BECK R ROMEO ROW me oh S SIERRA see AIR rah T TANGO TANG go U UNIFORM YOU nee form V VICTOR VICK tah W WHISKEY WISS key X X-RAY ECKS RAY Y YANKEE YANG key Z ZULU OO loo Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number Decimal
Transmitted as ZE-RO WUN TOO TREE (OR THREE) FOW-er FIFE SIX SEV-en AIT NIN-er Transmitted as DAY-SEE-MAL
Hundred Thousand 7002.
When transmitting numbers, the following as some examples: Number 10 75 583 600 5000 7600 11000 18900 38143
7003.
HUN-dred TOU-SAND (OR THOUSAND)
Transmitted as ONE ZERO SEVEN FIVE FIVE EIGHT THREE SIX HUNDRED FIVE THOUSAND SEVEN THOUSAND SIX HUNDRED ONE ONE THOUSAND ONE EIGHT THOUSAND NINE HUNDRED THREE EIGHT ONE FOUR THREE
When transmitting time the correct pronunciation is as follows: Time 0003 0920 1500 1643 1718
Transmitted as ZE-RO ZE-RO ZE-RO THREE ZE-RO NIN-er TOO ZE-RO WUN FIFE ZE-RO ZE-RO WUN SIX FOW-er THREE WUN SEV-en WUN AIT
Distress and Urgency Messages. 7004. The radiotelephony distress signal MAYDAY of the urgency signal PAN PAN is used at the start of the first distress or urgency communication, and also required at the start of any further communication. 7005. Distress (MAYDAY) is when an aircraft, in the opinion of the captain, is threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and requires immediate assistance. 7006. An urgency condition (PAN PAN) is reported by the captain to either a particular ground station or broadcast blind if applicable. The nature of urgency is covered in 7009.
Examples of Distress & Urgency 7007. a. b. c. d. e. f. 7008. a. b.
c. d.
Distress (MAYDAY) examples are: fire in flight structural failure explosive decompression loss of control fuel exhaustion engine failure (single engine aircraft) Urgency (PAN) examples are: lost or experiencing navigational difficulties VFR aircraft operating - in cloud * - above cloud * - at night * rough running engine low fuel
If these result in loss of control, then it would obviously be more appropriate to use a ‘MAYDAY’ call. Distress & Urgency Calls. 7009. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. g. 7010. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
The details of a distress call are: ‘MAYDAY’ spoken three times. name of unit being addressed (If appropriate) “THIS IS” [OWN CALLSIGN] (repeated three times) type of aircraft nature of emergency intention of the person-in-command present or last known position flight level/altitude heading any other useful information. (Person on board, endurance, etc.) The details of an urgency call are: ‘PAN PAN’ spoken three times. the name of unit being addressed aircraft callsign (repeated three times) type of aircraft Nature of urgency condition Intention of person in command present position, flight level/altitude heading any other useful information
AVP 8 Air Traffic Control
Period(s): 1
Objectives a. Describe the functions of: 1. Air Traffic Services (ATS) 2. Control Tower Air Traffic Services 8001.
The objectives of Air Traffic Services are to:
a. prevent collisions between aircraft b. prevent collisions between aircraft on the manoeuvring area and obstructions on that area c. expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic d. provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights e. notify appropriate organisations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organisations as required. 8002.
The air traffic services comprise of three services:
a. The air traffic control service, to accomplish objectives a., b. and of Paragraph 8001. This service is divided into three parts: 1. Area control service: the provision of air traffic control service for controlled flights. 2. Approach control service: the provision of air traffic control service for those parts of controlled flights associated with arrival or departure. 3. Aerodrome control service: the provision of air traffic control service for aerodrome traffic. b. The flight information service, to accomplish objective d. of Paragraph 8001 c. c. The alerting service, to accomplish objective e. of Paragraph 8001 8003. Air Traffic Control unit will issue clearances and information in order to prevent collisions between aircraft under its control and to expedite and maintain an orderly flow of traffic 8004. Air services Australia (ASA) operates 28 Air Traffic Control towers at airports across Australia. The primary purpose of Air Traffic Control tower operations is to provide safe and efficient air traffic management for arriving and departing aircraft. They are responsible for the airspace in the immediate vicinity of the airport. Small airports may have only one person in the control tower. Larger airports usually have several controllers on duty and operate 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. ASA operate two types of Air Traffic Control towers. These are; a. Radar Towers (Class C airspace) - generally located at major cities with high density air traffic that requires radar surveillance. The types of aircraft operations are predominately large to small jets.
b. Regional Towers (Class D airspace) - located at regional hubs where there is medium density air traffic. The type of aircraft operations involve medium to small jets, helicopters and light aircraft. 8005. The tower controllers provide details to aircraft such as weather conditions and local air traffic. The tower controller also provides an alerting service to emergency services in relation to possible aircraft accidents/incidents on the airfield or in the near vicinity and notifies appropriate organisations.
