Forestry Commission Journal: No.26

Transcript

JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION No. 26 : 1957 P R IN T E D FO R D E P A R T M E N T A L USE Forestry Commission ARCHIVE FO R E ST R Y C O M M IS S IO N PU B LIC A TIO N S ISS U E D IN 1957 General Reports A nnual R ep o rt o f the Comm issioners, 1956 R eport on Forest Research, 1956 Bulletins N o. 27. N o. 28. N o. 29. N o. 30. 4r. 6d. 6s. 0d. U tilisation o f H azel Coppice Sitka Spruce in British Colum bia Shelterbelts and M icroclim ate Exotic Forest Trees in G reat Britain 1Oj. 20s. 17s. 17s. 0d. 0d. 6d. 6d. Forest Records N o. 32. N ew W ays o f Using the G eneral T ariff Tables for Conifers Is. 3c/. N o . 33. Provisional Yield Tables for W estern H em lock in G reat Britain Is. 9d. N o. 34. Experim ents on the Chemical C ontrol o f R hododendron ponticum 9c/. N o. 35. The Use o f H om e-G row n Tim ber in Packaging and M aterials H andling 2s. 6d. Leaflets N o . 39. The Quality o f Poplar Plants N o. 40. The Pine Shoot M oth and Related Species 6d. 9d. Unpriced Publications for Public Circulation Papers, 'etc. for the Seventh British Commonwealth Forestry Conference, Australia and New Zealand, 1957 Statem ent by the Forestry Commission o f G reat Britain Developm ents in Pulping and Board M anufacture in G reat Britain. (A. W a'It ) Experim ents on the Control o f the Pine Weevil, H ylobius abietis L. (M . C r o o k i ) Im provem ent o f Scots Pine in Britain by Selection and Breeding. (J. D . M a t t h e w s ) Is Present D ay Forest Products Research M eeting the Needs o f the F o rester? (O . J. S a n g a r ) Planned Land Use and the Classification and D edication o f L and for Forestry. (H. B e r e s f o r d - P e ir s e ) Problem s and Techniques in Forestry Research. (J. M a c d o n a l d ) Recent O bservations on the Rusts o f Pine in B ritain. (T . R . P e a c e ) T op Dying o f N orw ay Spruce in G reat Britain (J . S. M u r r a y ) Unpriced Publications for Circulation within the Commission Research Branch Paper N o. 21. N otes on Forest Use o f Chem icals for the C ontrol o f U nwanted Trees and W oody G row th. F o r e s t r y C o m m issio n J o u r n a l , N o. 2 6 , 1957 J O U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY C OMMI SS ION No. 26 : 1957 PRINTED FOR DEPARTMENTAL CIRCULATION WITHIN THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 2 5 SAVILE ROW LONDON, W .l E D ITIN G C O M M ITTEE S ir H e n r y B e r e s f o r d - P e ir s e , B t., J am es M acdonald R. G. B r o a d w o o d D. H e a l e y H . L . E d l i n , Editor Chairman Ill CONTENTS Page E D I T O R I A L ...................................................................................................................................................V Forestry, A griculture, (t e c h n ic a l ) and M arginal c o m m it t e e L and. natural reso urces ............................................................................................................1 N otes on the Seventh British C om m onw ealth Forestry Conference, 1957, A ustralia and New Z ealand, c. d . b e g l e y . . . . 6 A T our o f Tasm ania and N o rth A uckland. G. b . r y l e . . . 14 A Y ear with A m erican Foresters, b . r . f e a v e r . 17 A Visit to Russia, r . g . s h a w . . . 21 In t h e Forests o f t h e Caucasus, j a m e s Ma c d o n a l d 27 A Visit to G erm an Forests, g . w . b a c k h o u s e . 36 G ibraltar, e. j . hale . . . . . 44 Forestry in G reat B ritain: A Review. H. l . e d l in 46 Forestry in A yrshire, r . a . g o l d i n g . 71 N otes on W hittingeham e. R. f a u l k n e r 77 C rarae Forest G arden, e . a . c r o f t s . . . . . . 79 The Tree and G arden Books at G ravetye M anor, t h e e a r l o f m o r t o n 82 Tallest and Largest Specimens o f C om m on Trees R ecorded Since 1947. A. F. MITCHELL . . . . . . . . . 87 N ew borough Forest, Anglesey, g . d . h o l m e s . . . . . 90 Advice on Choice and T reatm ent o f Forest Tree Seed, r e s e a r c h b r a n c h sta ff. . . . . . . . . . . . 92 A Key to 21 Sorts o f Conifer Seed, p a r k e n d 1951-53 s t u d e n t s . . 95 A Review o f N ursery R esearch: 1952-56. R. f a u l k n e r a n d j . r . a l d h o u s 97 The Benefit o f L ath Covers for P rotection against F rost. J. a . o g i l v i e . 112 A Review o f R esearch B ranch T rial P lantations. M. v . e d w a r d s a n d r . f . w ood . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 Trials o f a Disc Plough on U pland H eaths, g . g . s t e w a r t . 118 Some Principles o f C om bustion and their Significance in Forest Fire Behaviour. G. m . b y r a m . . . . . 1 2 2 An Experim ent to Conserve W ater U sed by a L androver F itted with a Langdon Pum p for Fire Fighting, r . t . w h e e l e r . 130 Supply Points for K napsack Sprayers, j . w . En g l a n d . . . 133 A Vision o f F.Y .85, or Fire Protection Fantasy, m . r . w . w i l l i a m s 134 Vole D am age, 1956-57. w . a . c a d m a n .............................................................. 135 The N atu ral and A rtificial C ontrol o f V ertebrate Pests o f Agriculture. I. THOMAS. . . . . . 1 3 8 The W ood-Pigeon Problem , d . r o b e r t s o n 143 iv Page W inter R oosting o f Starlings at H alvana, Wilsey Down Forest. J. k e l l ie 146 M echanical Engineering in Forestry Operations, h . p . w . h u t s o n . 151 W aterways for Culverts in Border Forest Areas, v. b l a n k e n b u r g s 159 Im pressions o f Forest W ork in Sweden, m . e . s . D ic k e n s o n . 170 N orw egian Ideas on Forest W orking Techniques, c. p. k i r k l a n d 185 R eport on Sonsterrud Forest W orkers Course, Norway, c. p . k i r k l a n d . 187 A Discussion on T ool M aintenance Instruction Courses, c. p. k i r k l a n d . 194 F orest W orker Instruction, w. f . s t o d d a r t . 199 Some N otes on T im ber Felling, h . p. w . h u t s o n 200 Heavy Tim ber Felling, n . l . g o o d l a n d . 202 T ran sp o rt o f Pit Props by Sea. r . c a r n e l l . . . . . 206 G rading o f Sawn British Softwoods, fo r est pr o d u c t s resea rch LABORATORY. . . . . . . . . . . 208 New H ard b o ard P lant Opened. Me s s r s . c e l o t e x , l t d . 215 G ood Fuel. e . j . h a l e . . . . . 216 The Soil Survey o f Scotland, r . g l e n t w o r t h . . 218 Forestry in Relation to Landscape, c. a . j . Ba r r i n g t o n 223 Forestry from the Tow n Planner’s Angle, j . c a s s o n . . 226 T he W oodlands o f Sussex, s u s s e x r u r a l c o m m u n it y c o u n c i l . 230 British Bryological Society Field Excursion, Barnstaple, i. g . h a l l . 238 Excavations at Staple Howe, Scardale Forest. T. h . b r e w s t e r . 242 B ook Review: Tim bers Used in the M usical Instrum ents Industry. H. JOHNSTON ................................................................................................. 252 M athem atika. s ir n o r m a n f r o m e . . 253 Forestry Com m ission Staff List . . 255 Photographs . . . Central Inset V EDITORIAL Royal Visit to the Forest of Dean H er M ajesty the Q ueen, accom panied by H .R .H . Prince Philip, received a trem endous reception on arrival at the historic Speech H ouse in the Forest of D ean on A pril 24th. T he R oyal party was greeted by the L ord L ieutenant o f G loucestershire, the D uke o f Beaufort, and he presented the Senior Verderer of the Forest, Lord Bledisloe, who is now 90 years o f age and has held the office for alm ost 50 years. Also honoured to m eet The Queen were other Verderers and officials including o u r D eputy-Surveyor, M r. Sanzen Baker. H er M ajesty and His R oyal Highness each planted an oak tree near the Speech H ouse. These tw o young trees were grow n from acorns from a tree planted at the sam e Speech H ouse by H .R .H . Prince A lbert in 1861, which tree was itself grow n from an acorn produced by the fam ous royal tree at Panshanger P ark, near H ereford, planted by Queen E lizabeth the First. Honours In the Birthday H onours for 1957 M r. A. H. H . Ross, who recently retired from the post o f D irector, Scotland, becam e a C om m ander o f the O rder o f the British Em pire (C.B.E.) in recognition o f his services to forestry. H ead Forester A. A. Parry, who started w ith the C om m ission in 1927 and who, since 1949, has been in charge o f the five forests in the Isle o f W ight, has received the M .B.E. H ead Forester J. M . Reid, who w orked for m any years at A rdgartan in Argyll, and is now in charge o f the Forest of Ae near D um fries, has also received the aw ard o f an M .B.E. The Commissioners There have been several changes in the com position o f the Forestry C om ­ mission during the past year. M r. J. M . B annerm an, O .B.E., who had served as a C om m issioner since 1942, retired on the expiry o f his latest term o f office: M r. B annerm an has also served on the C om m ission’s N ational C om m ittee for Scotland, and on the Scottish N atio n al F orest P arks A dvisory Com m ittee, and he is well know n for his w ork—as C hairm an o f An C om unn G aidhleach—in the pro m o tio n o f Gaelic speech and music. M r. Stanley C. L onghurst also retired on the conclusion o f six years’ service. The new Com m issioners are M r. R obert Taylor, J.P., who has been associated w ith the T rade U nion m ovem ent in Scotland, and M r. Edw ard Bryan L atham , who is well know n as a m em ber of the tim ber trade in L ondon. The Com m ission is now constituted as follows :— The E arl o f R adnor, K .C.V .O . Chairman M ajor D . C. Bowser, O.B.E. Lt. Col. Sir R ichard Cotterell, Bt., J.P. M r. A. P. F. H am ilton, C .I.E ., O .B.E., M .C. M r. Lloyd O. Owen, J.P. M ajor Sir John Stirling o f F airb u rn , K .T., M .B.E. M r. W. H . V aughan, C .B.E., J.P. M r. R obert Taylor, J.P. M r. E dw ard Bryan L atham M r. H. A. T urner, Secretary vi M r. W. H. Vaughan, who already held the O.B.E., has been prom oted to C om m ander of the British Empire (C.B.E.) in recognition of his services to Wales, which have included ten years’ work as a Forestry Commissioner and m em ber o f the N ational Com m ittee. We regret to report the death of Lord Clinton, a leading w oodland land­ ow ner in Devon. L ord C linton was one o f the original Commissioners appointed under the F orestry A ct in 1919, and served as C hairm an from 1927 to 1930. Promotions and Transfers M r. G. I. M ackenzie, who was formerly a Divisional Officer in West Scotland, has been prom oted to C onservator and is now stationed at H ead­ quarters in London. M r. T. A. Robbie, formerly a D istrict Officer in East Scotland, has been prom oted to Divisional Officer and now has charge of the Commission forests in the westerly portion o f the W est Conservancy, Scotland. M r. J. B. W haram , a Senior Executive Officer with the W ork Study Section, is now stationed at Dolgelley. M r. F. C. Redd, formerly Chief Clerk in the office o f the Deputy Surveyor D ean Forest, has moved to the South-W est Conservancy Office at Bristol. His place in the D ean has been taken by Mr. M. A. E. G ubby, who was formerly at Aberystwyth. Retirements M r. F. E. B. de U phaugh, Divisional Officer in the New Forest since 1950, retired after 30 years’ service with the Commission. Before going to the New Forest he had served at T hetford and in South East England. D istrict Officer D. L. Shaw retired after 32 years’ service with the Com ­ mission in N o rth Wales. He worked as a Forester at T intern for a year, then transferred to Gwydyr where he became H ead Forester and, in 1940, D istrict Officer. L ater he was appointed Private W oodlands Officer for the Conservancy. Two H ead Foresters went into retirem ent: H ead Forester A. E. W alker o f the F orest o f D ean retired on his 65th birthday after serving with the Office o f W oods and the Forestry Commission for a total o f 51 years. M r. John F. M acintyre, B.E.M . retired from the post of H ead Forester, Newcastleton Forest, South Scotland. Starting with the Commission in 1920 he went to a bleak and treeless stretch of Border country which the years and patient toil have clothed with the spruces, pines, and larches th at com prise Newcastleton Forest today. H e will be remembered for his kindness and consideration, as also will be M rs. M acintyre who throughout the years m ust have dispensed thousands o f cups o f tea and home-baked scones to the Commission people who “ . . . dropped in to see M ac.” . M r. S. M. O. M ackenzie, a Higher Executive Officer in the Finance Branch at H eadquarters, retired in April 1957 after thirty-five years’ service in the Comm ission. M r. M ackenzie’s duties in recent years included the paym ent of all m onthly salaries throughout the country, and in this capacity he was regarded by m any o f us as the most im portant member of the staff! The Seventh British Commonwealth Conference, 1957 This Conference was held in A ustralia and New Z ealand and opened in August, 1957. The U nited K ingdom delegation, led by the D irector-G eneral, Sir A rth u r Gosling, included M r. James M acdonald, D irector of Research and vii E ducation; M r. G. B. Ryle, D irector o f F orestry for W ales; and M r. C. D. Begley, the Secretary o f the Conference Standing Com m ittee. O ther m em bers o f the delegation were the C olonial Office Forestry Adviser, M r. C hristopher Swabey, D r. F. Y. H enderson, D irector o f the Forest Products Research L ab o rato ry ; M r. R. G . M iller, D eputy D irector, F o rest A ir Survey Centre, D irectorate o f Colonial Surveys, and, as an associate delegate, Professor M ark L. A nderson o f E dinburgh University. The Im perial Forestry Institute, O xford, was represented by Sir H arry C ham pion; the C om m onw ealth Forestry Bureau by M r. F. C. F o rd R ob ertso n ; and the Em pire Forestry Conference by M r. W. M acF arlane R obertson. Articles on their experiences in the southern hem isphere, by M essrs. Begley and Ryle, will be found on pages 6 and 14. Visit to Russia Three officers, D ivisional Officer E. G. R ichards, U tilisation Section; Divisional Officer J. W. L. Zehetm ayr, W ork Study Section; and Col. R. G. Shaw. M achinery R esearch Officer, set off in Septem ber fo r the U .S.S.R . to attend a Jo in t F. A .O ./E .C .E . C om m ittee o n forest w orking techniques and forest workers training from 9 -14th Septem ber. This was follow ed by a study to u r for about two weeks, based on M oscow and L eningrad. Visits included tim ber research establishm ents and tim ber production units, with one “ off-duty” event, a visit to the K rem lin. An article on this visit, by C olonel Shaw, will be found on page 21. The First Hundred Thousand Acres in North Wales A com m em orative stone to m ark the com pletion o f the first 100,000 acres planted in the N orth W ales C onservancy was unveiled by M r. H enry Brooke, M inister for Welsh Affairs, at G w ydyr F orest on 24th Septem ber 1957. Lord R adnor and M r. F. C. Best, the C onservator, greeted the guests. A fter the un­ veiling cerem ony, trees were planted to m ark the event and there was penillion inging. It was at Gw ydyr Forest, in 1921, th a t the C om m ission’s first planting in N orth W ales to o k place. T oday Gw ydyr is o n e o f the largest forest areas in N o rth Wales, covering 20,000 acres. W hen fully productive the annual thinning output will rise to one million hoppus feet. The following day the M inister travelled to Q ueensferry in Flintshire to open the new insulation b o ard mill o f J. R. G o rd on and C om pany, Ltd. which is m aking use o f large quantities o f thinnings from our forests in N o rth W ales and N orth ern England. National Forest Parks D uring the sum m er o f 1957, tw o cam ping grounds were opened in the N ational Forest Parks. One is in the Queen Elizabeth Forest P ark in Scotland, being situated on the eastern shore o f L och L om ond, in R ow ardennan Forest. The other, in the B order N atio n al F orest P ark, is at Lew isburn in the heart o f Kielder Forest. A lready b o th have proved p o p ular w ith cam pers and with caravanners. Lyndford Hall Forester Training School The Forester T raining School at Lynford H all in T hetford Chase Forest, having served its purpose, has been closed. Some 500 students have trained at the school since it was opened soon after the 1939-1945 war, and m any now hold appointm ents in the C om m ission’s forests throughout the country. viii Civil Service Lifeboats Is it widely know n th a t the Civil Service Lifeboat F und has contributed to the R oyal N ational L ifeboat Institution since 1886? So far 31 lifeboats have been provided, 10 being in service, including the “ D unnet H ead” at Thurso, which cost ab o u t £32,000. The Civil Service F und operates by voluntary annual subscription, organised on a D epartm ental basis. The February issue o f the “ Slasher” appealed for a volunteer collector in every Conservancy Office. W orthw hile? Over 2,500 lives have been saved by Civil Service lifeboats. Incidentally they are all, even today, made o f wood, and English oak is still chosen for the stem and the stern. The Staff Suggestions Scheme The Staff Suggestions Com mittee is continually on the look-out for new ideas th at will help the Commission to carry out its work m ore efficiently and econom ically, and it offers m onetary awards in appropriate circumstances. So if you have any brainwave that you think may qualify, send it along to: The Secretary, Staff Suggestions Committee, Forestry Commission, 25, Savile Row, L ondon, W .l. The suggestion need not be typed, but it is often an ad ­ vantage to attach drawings or photographs showing how the new m ethod or m achine actually works. Please note, however, th a t proposals from industrial staff, which may m erit m onetary awards, should not be sent to H eadquarters but to the M onetary Awards C om m ittee a t the appropriate Conservancy Office. The scope o f the suggestions scheme is shown by the following samples received in recent m o n th s: (i) The use o f m otor horns to give code signals as p art o f the forest fire alarm system. (ii) The provision o f first-aid boxes at all operational centres. (iii) A m achine for bracken beating. (iv) Labels for bags o f forest tree seed, rem inding people o f the need to store it in a cool dry place. (v) A n im proved skid pan for tushing poles, provided with serrated teeth inside to help hold them. F o r various reasons, only a small proportion of the ideas received are found to m erit a rew ard, b u t all receive careful scrutiny and consideration. We hope, from tim e to time, to include, at least in outline, selected suggestions th at have com e in. Ideas, as the saying goes, have legs, but we should like to speed them on their way so th a t they may be adopted as early as possible, wherever they will fit in. A Glimpse of the Cowal-Ari Sawmill Recently your editor was privileged to pay a brief visit to the new sawmill established by a com m ercial tim ber com pany, with the encouragem ent and financial support o f the Commission, at Strachur in the Argyll N ational Forest Park. The first sign o f activity was the presence of the new tim ber structure with its atten d an t stacks o f logs and sawn tim ber, and a new group o f thirty-six m odern houses built by the Argyll County Council, mainly to house the saw­ mill w orkers. One o f the reasons for building the mill out in Cowal, close to the forests th a t supply its tim ber, rather than in a town nearer to the firms th at use its produce, was the desirability o f retaining some o f the population am id the western glens. It is true to say th at forestry, and the sawmill, have brought new life to a lonely corner o f the Highlands. ix The operations o f the mill itself are n o t easy to describe in non-technical term s. The Swedish “ A ri” m ethod is esentially a system o f sawmilling rather than a special sort o f saw. It has been designed for the rapid and econom ic handling o f large quantities o f small coniferous logs o f varied sizes, and every operation is geared to keep pace with the next one in the chain. T he essentials are th a t all logs shall be reasonably straight, and th a t there shall be enough o f them to keep the process going continually. T he range o f diam eters taken is from 5-f inches m inim um to p to 22 inches m axim um b u tt; and the range of lengths is 6 to 30 feet. The saws are raised one floor up above ground level, and this means th at all waste, and also the finished products, are easily disposed of by gravity. It also m eans th a t every log m ust be carried upw ards to reach the saws, and this is done by a simple endless chain or “jack lad d er” . Logs are fed on to this chain by w orkers, and it stops autom atically as soon as each log reaches the first saw bench, restarting as soon as the log is rem oved. There are only three groups o f saws in the system, and the feed to each group is autom atic. Logs always move forw ard, and there is no running back o f a bench. However, m ost pieces o f tim ber have to be returned for re-sawing, and therefore an autom atic “ by-pass” is provided for their speedy return. The saws are all o f the circular type and cut at the high speed o f 180 feet a m inute. Let us follow a log through the system. It runs through the first, or breakdow n, saw, and a slab is cut off. Both log and slab are returned on the “ by-pass” , and the slab is sent forw ard on an autom atic conveyor to the second saw. The log, however, has to go back through the first saw for two m ore cuttings, yielding three slabs in all, before it is ready to proceed to the second saw. Each sawing is so arranged as to give it a definite w idth in inches. This second saw has a cunning adjustm ent for w idth o f cut, and when the log reaches it, it is set as wide as possible so th a t when the final fourth rough side is sawn away a b atten o f the greatest possible cross-section is cut out. This finished batten goes out o f the stream on to the pile o f sawn tim ber, while the slab is returned on a “ by-pass” for re-sawing. It is now the turn o f four slabs to run th ro ugh the second saw, and it is therefore adjusted to give a narrow er cut, so as to get the best thickness o f small tim ber from each. The m inim um thickness accepted is h alf an inch. Once this cutting is done, all the slabs have been sawn on two sides only; they still carry two rough, unsawn edges. The slabs, therefore, m ust go through a further edging process, and this is done by two parallel circular saws arranged to w ork together so th a t both edges are neatly trim m ed off a t one time. T he resulting thin and narrow pieces, suitable for such uses as packing cases, then proceed to the stock pile, where they are sorted into appropriate sizes. T he rough short ends are neatly cut off with a swinging cross-cut saw, and then these sh ort ends, together with the side trimm ings, are dropped into waste bins below the m ain platform . The whole business goes on continually, requiring ab o u t eight men active on the saws, others bringing in logs and stacking sawn tim ber, and a saw doctor constantly at w ork re-sharpening spare saws. M uch o f the tim ber is subsequently seasoned by a simple progressive process, whereby it passes on trucks through three cham bers, each h o tter and drier th an the preceding one. It spends 24 hours in each cham ber, thus needing 72 hours for com plete kiln seasoning. The necessary heat for the kilns is derived from burning the waste wood. N aturally the bulk o f the o u tp u t from this mill is in small sizes but it has proved suitable for house-building and box m aking, and a steady dem and has arisen. It is transported away by lorry to places as far distant as Lincolnshire. X The m ain species used are Norway and Sitka spruces, Scots pine and D ouglas fir, and about 650 cubic feet o f sawn timber, in true measure, are obtained front every thousand hoppus feet that goes in. Wooden Ships are not Dead Yet! Early in 1957 there was launched front the boat yard o f Messrs. Aitkens at A nstruther in Fife, the 97-foot vessel Radiation. A lthough described as a liner we understand that her function will be the transport of up to 1,000 hundred­ weight of fish front trawlers out at sea to Aberdeen or other landing ports. Three such vessels are being built by Aberdeen owners as part o f a program m e to modernise their fleets. All o f them can, if desired, be modified for actual trawling. The Radiation has been built front Scots-grown oak and larch for her frame and “ skin” . H er deck and masts have been cut front im ported Douglas fir. One reason for using wood rather than steel is economy; the Radiation cost £40,000 whereas a steel vessel of equal capacity would have cost £70,000. A second reason is durability, for it is estim ated that a wooden craft, properly looked after, will have twice the life of a steel one. A third reason was that the tim ber was readily available, whereas steel was in short supply. Everyone who knows the sturdy little drifters—again built o f Scots-grown oak and larch—th at p u t out from the small Scottish fishing harbours, will realise that wooden craft are still very much to the fore on the storm y northern seas. W ood is still preferred for the great m ajority of yachts and other pleasure craft launched by Scottish builders from small yards such as those at Sandbank and Clynder on the F irth of Clyde. It is apparent that, despite the invention o f plastics and the widespread use of steel and aluminium, wood still holds its own as a constructional m aterial for the smaller sea-going craft. Wood on Wheels In the days o f horse transport much skill and craftsm anship went into the building o f wooden wheels for waggons, cabs and chaises. Elm for the hub, oak for the spokes, and ash for the felloes that make up the rim, were the wheel­ w right’s choice, and everything had to be of the highest quality to w ithstand the shocks o f the road. N ow w ood is back on, if not in, the wheels that carry so m uch o f the w orld’s traffic. R ubber tyres need reinforcement, and rayon cord— made from spruce pulp— is one o f the strongest and most serviceable of the various m aterials that are used for this purpose. Slow-grown or Fast-grown Timber ? F ro m D istrict Officer J. D. M acnab, in South Scotland Conservancy, we have received the interesting suggestion that our plantations m ight be divided into two groups— fast-growing ones aimed at producing the largest am ount o f tim ber in the shortest possible time, for such uses as pulping, and slow-growing ones where quality o f tim ber is the first consideration. We p u t this idea to C. D. Begley, a D istrict Officer in the U tilisation D evelopm ent Section, and his reply suggests that the problem o f “ quality versus speed” may not be quite so straightforw ard as M acnab’s proposal implies. “ To begin w ith” , he writes, “ the rate of growth, measured by the usual criterion o f rings per inch o f radius, falls off after an initial spurt, even in the fastestgrow ing trees. xi “ Forestry C om m ission Yield Tables show :— (i) R ates o f grow th, for m ost softw ood species, involving less than four rings to the inch occur, usually, only in the early years o f a p lan tatio n ’s life, and then in the m ain crop trees rath er th an the early thinnings. (ii) Rates o f grow th giving less th an eight rings to the inch seldom occur even in the m ain crop trees o f such fast-grow ing crops as Sitka spruce o f Q uality Class 1, after 40 years o f age. Such rates are even less frequent in other species or lower Q uality Classes. A paper by J. Bryan o f the F orest P roducts R esearch L aboratory, Princes R isborough (Q uarterly Journal o f Forestry Vol. L. N o. 2 A pril 1956) tells us th a t:— Indications are that where the number o f rings to the inch exceeds fo u r or five, the effect o f growth rate on compressive strength is o f little practical significance. “ We also have reason to believe th a t a rate o f grow th not faster than 8 rings to the inch should m ake a tim ber satisfactory for all w orking properties. We can therefore expect nearly all o u r tim ber to be satisfactory as far as com ­ pressive strength is concerned, and m uch o f it to have satisfactory w orking properties, even for joinery, insofar as these properties are influenced directly by grow th rates. G row th rates and knottiness are to some extent interrelated, and the presence o f m any large knots can be an adverse factor in fast-grow n tim ber.” There is clearly m uch food for th o u g h t or perhaps for argum ent here. But one thing on which both parties are agreed is th a t grow th m ust be even. T h at is to say, there should be no sudden transition from fast-grow n to slow-grown tim ber, or vice versa, in the sam e stem. O ur thinning regimes should be so ordered as to m ake th a t unlikely. We should neither release our fast-grow ing trees too suddenly, or let them get too m uch hem m ed-in for too long. N o r should we change o u r thinning grade in m id-course, so th at the general rate o f tim ber form ation on the m ain crop trees is altered. Cutting Peat in the 1700’s We are inform ed by M r. A. D. S. M acpherson, a Forest W orker at Tulliallan, th at a w ooden spade found by M r. H olm es a t Strathyre Forest is now in the G lasgow M useum and A rt G allery. T he C u ra to r o f Archaeology at th at M useum w rites:— “ We have never been able to place the wooden spade exactly, but the general opinion o f those who have seen it is th at it is n o t o f vast age, perhaps eighteenth century.. Its blade m ay have been fram ed and rim m ed with iron, all trace o f which has perished. If so strengthened, it would probably have been suitable for p eat-cutting” . It is interesting th a t this spade— probably o f native oak— has been preserved so long in the peat an d th at wood may outlast m etal in such circum stances. Broken Glass as a Forest Fire Cause Can broken or unbroken glass on the forest floor cause a forest fire? An O ntario inspector, visiting a tow erm an one day, noticed a small wisp o f sm oke rising from the grass a t the base o f the tow er. W hen they clim bed dow n to investigate they discovered a p o rtio n o f a broken milk o f m agnesia bottle lying on the grass in the sunlight. Behind the glass individual blades o f grass were being ignited ab o u t h alf way up the stem. Each blade as it burned died out completely. T here was nothing else grow ing on the area, b u t had there been other light fuels besides the grass it is logical to assume a fire m ight have occurred. xii This was the only time this official had ever seen this happen. Foi this type o f fire to occur, all causative factors m ust be in the right sequence, but it lem ains as a possible cause o f some otherwise unexplained fires. We owe this interesting inform ation to Sylva, the beautifully pioduced magazine o f the O ntario D epartm ent o f Lands and Forests, which is legularly received by exchange and filed in the Alice H olt Library. “ The Forester” As m ost o f our readers will be aware, forestry in N orthern Ireland has been, since 1922, in the charge o f the Forestry Division of the Ministry of Agriculture o f the G overnm ent o f N orthern Ireland. Their small but enterprising staff has recently begun the production of a departm ental journal on similar lines to our own, under the title of The Forester. We have received the first two issues which show that the problem s facing foresters ju st across the N orth Channel are much the same as our ow n; fire protection, larch canker, and the awakening o f a forest sense in the general public are am ong the many topics discussed. Copies are being lodged, for convenience of reference, in the Library at Alice Holt. “ Tales of a Wildfowler” A rth u r C adm an, a Divisional Officer on the staff of D irector Wales, at A berystw yth, is the au th o r o f the book with this intriguing title, published in Novem ber, 1957, by Messrs. Collins and priced at 2\s. As the reminiscences of an expert ornithologist and sportsm an, this is a book that will appeal not only to all wildfowlers but also to everyone interested in the wild life of m oors, m arshes, and lakesides. It gives valuable hints on the training o f gundogs and also on the keeping o f wildfowl, of which M r. C adm an has a notable collection. There are forty-tw o striking illustrations o f the birds and animals o f the marshes by our leading wildfowl artist, Peter Scott. Pamphlets on Roadside Tree Planting A lthough the planting and tending o f ornam ental trees and shrubs is rath er a side-line to the Com m ission’s main w ork o f timber-growing, it is a subject on which the public expect every forester to be an expert. As an aid to answering the frequent queries that m any of our staff receive in this field, we com m end three booklets published by the Roads Beautifying A ssociation. They are obtainable from th at body a t: 41 K ipling House, 43 Villiers Street, London, W .C .2., at the prices stated, plus postage. (1) Practical Instructions fo r the Planting o f Trees and Shrubs (with special reference to roadside conditions). 6d. (2) Advice on the Pruning o f Roadside and Street Trees. (U npriced) (3) Suggestions fo r Commemorative Tree Planting. 6cl. Surveys of Private Forestry Costs, Prices and Piecework Rates in England and Wales M any readers will be aware of the surveys o f the economic factors o f forestry on private estates th a t are being carried out by M r. J. J. M acgregor and his colleagues o f the Forest Economics Section, Im perial Forestry Institute, South Parks R oad, Oxford. All these contain in a handy form, and at a reasonable price, inform ation th a t is often very useful for those who have to advise private w oodland ow ners; indeed, they provide valuable com parisons with our own costings. The figures quoted are based on returns sent in by a representative sample o f private estates, which, however, are identified only by a code num ber, xiii and n o t by name. Prices received for tim ber o f various species and grades, prices for m inor produce such as peasticks, piecew ork rates for jobs such as planting and fencing, and the average overall costs o f afforestation on private estates, are exam ples o f the inform ation included in one or other o f these helpful and factual surveys. In detail, the titles and prices o f the Surveys recently issued by the Section a re :— (a) Reports o f the Survey o f Private Forestry Costs .... Is. 6d. (postage 6 d.) (latest issue received is the Fifth Annual Report covering 1954-1956) (b) Survey o f Private Forestry Prices: Third Report, 1956 .... .... 5s. 0d. (postage 6d.) (c) Piecework Rates, 1956 .... 2s. 6d. (postage 4d.) Survey of Private Forestry Costs in Scotland A parallel series o f reports covering costs, though n o t prices, in Scotland, is issued by the Costings Survey Team o f the D ep artm ent o f Forestry, A berdeen University. T heir Fifth Annual Report, covering 1954-1956, w hich is the latest we have received, is priced at 6s. 6d. post free. Publications of the Empire Forestry Association D uring the year this A ssociation has b rought out tw o reference books on forestry, nam ely: The Empire Forestry Handbook, 1957. Price 20.J. (2D . 2d. post free) British Commonwealth Forest Terminology Pt. II. Utilisation. Price 30j. (3D . 2d. post free) Previously, in 1953, the A ssociation issued Pt. I o f the Terminology, on Silviculture, price 2D . (22s. 2d. post free). All these w orks contain m uch inform ation on the stan d ard use o f tim ber nam es and technical term s. Helicopter over the New Forest The oldest forest still m akes history. D istrict Officer J. C. H arrison hover­ ing in a helicopter m aintained two-way com m unication between an ordinary two-way pack-set radio and a radio-equipped L and-R over. N eighbouring aircraft caused some distortion, b u t the exercise proved th at air to ground radio control would be o f value in the event o f a serious o u tbreak o f fire. Contributions to the Journal The E ditorial Com m ittee invites contributions from any m em ber o f the staff on any subject connected with the C om m ission’s w ork. These should be forw arded through the usual official channel (norm ally the C onservancy office) to : M r. H. L. Edlin, E dito r o f the Forestry C om m ission Journal, 25, Savile Row, L ondon, W .l. C ontributions should preferably be typew ritten on one side only o f fool­ scap sheets, using double spacing th ro u g h o u t; but if this is not possible articles in m anuscript will be considered. The usual length is anything from 250 to 2,000 words, and we are keen to accept b rief accounts o f simple practical jobs in the forester’s daily w ork, as well as m ore lengthy and m ore highly technical m aterial. A note o f the w riter’s nam e and initials, his official position, and address for correspondence, should be appended. We can also accept sketches and ph o to ’s and are prepared to re-draw pictures if necessary for reproduction. xiv Our Photographs This year you m ay notice a small innovation on the photograph pages* in th at each picture is linked to its relevant article and author by a brief note in the caption. Unless otherwise stated, each photo has been contributed by the nam ed author, to w hom our thanks are due. Acknowledgm ents for the following p h o to ’s are made to: M r. J. Viney, for Plate 16, tim ber felling; the Com m ission’s photographic staff at Alice H olt for Plates 17 and 18, disc plough; the staff o f the K ratte Masugn Forestry School, Sweden, for Plate 25, saw sharpener’s bench; South D orset Photographic Services, for Plate 26, fire notice; M r. R. W orsley for Plates 27 and 28, fire at Alice H o lt; the E astern D aily Press for Plate 29, Lynford H all; the Farm ers W eekly for Plate 30, Glen T rool School. Plates 31 to 39 inclusive, showing Staple Howe, have kindly been provided by M r. T. H . Brewster, o f Flixton near Scarborough, the author of the related article. M r. Brewster also provided the line drawings and the plan which appear in his text. Plate 24, illustrating the peculiar m alform ation that results when pines are exposed to horm one weedkillers applied to cereal crops, was contributed by M r. W. P. K. Findlay, o f the Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes R isborough. The actual specimen was collected by Head Forester C. Heavener, from a five-year-old plantation o f Scots pine adjoining an oatfield near M arlow in Buckingham shire. M ost o f the drawings in the text have been contributed by the respective authors. Those showing forest operations in Sweden were prepared by M r. M arc Sale, after photos taken by M r. M. E. S. Dickenson. JOURNAL OF T H E F O R E S T R Y COMMISSION, FORESTRY, AGRICULTURE, No. 26, 1957 AND MARGINAL LAND An important Report by the National Resources (Technical) Com m ittee, (the Zuckerm an Report) was published in 1957, under the above title. We give below the Introduction, Sum m ary, and Conclusions, by kin d permission o f the Controller, H . M . Stationery Office. Copies o f the fu ll report are obtainable fro m H .M .S .O ., price 4 s. 0 cl. (45. 5d. post free). Introduction Products o f the soil account for one h alf o f the total im port bill for the U nited K ingdom ,1 which in 1955 was ab o u t £3900 m illions. We buy from abro ad one h alf o f all our food at a cost o f £1250 m illions; and we im port upw ards o f 85 per cent o f o u r requirem ents o f tim ber and w ood products* at a cost o f approxim ately £430 m illions. These im ports are crucial to the problem of o u r balance o f paym ents. The im portance o f their reduction, where econom ically possible, and o f the m axim um econom ic use o f our soil, needs no emphasis. Over the past five years the N atu ral Resources (Technical) C om m ittee has been considering w hat ways o f increasing the use o f indigenous sources of tim ber (cellulose) products are technically and econom ically feasible, and how any increases in the production o f such products, for exam ple through the extension o f forestry, would affect the agricultural use o f m arginal land. Different aspects o f this question have now been touched on in the recently published R eports o f five other bodies. These are the reports o f the C om ­ mission on C rofting C onditions in Scotland (Cm d. 9091), o f the Welsh A gricultural L and Sub-Com m ission on m id-W ales (Cm d. 9631), o f the N ature Conservancy for the year ended 30th Septem ber, 1955, o f the Forestry Com m ission for the year ended 30th Septem ber, 1955, and o f the Com m ittee on Hedgerow and F arm T im ber.3 In the rep o rt on crofting conditions it is stated th at these outlying parts o f G reat B ritain are in im m inent danger of becom ing com pletely depopulated, w ith a to ta l loss o f their agricultural output. In order to counteract this trend, the C om m ission recom m ended a num ber of measures o f which one o f the m ost im p o rtan t is th a t program m es o f afforestation should be speeded up in the areas concerned. The report o f the W elsh A gricultural Land Sub-Com m ission m akes the same point. Once again attention is draw n to the occurrence o f progressive depopulation, and to the value o f afforestation in stabilizing population, and, indirectly, in helping to m aintain agricultural o utput. These tw o enquiries thus highlight, for the particular areas w ith which they are concerned, a them e th at may be applicable on a national scale to all our less populated areas. The R eport o f the N ature Conservancy expresses the view th a t the fertility o f some o f these areas has been seriously reduced. The R ep o rt on H edgerow and F arm T im ber contains a w arning o f the danger th at this im p o rtan t source o f hardw ood tim ber is likely to I1) U nited K ingdom (G reat B ritain a n d N o rth e rn Ireland) figures are used in this p a rag ra p h but elsewhere the re p o rt relates to G re at B ritain only. (2) i.e. w ood and cork, p a p er a n d pulp, a n d rayon. (3) T he rep o rt o f the C om m ittee on M arketing o f W oodland P roduce (H .M .S.O . 1956), which was published while the present rep o rt was in the press, presents yet a n o th er aspect o f the problem . 2 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION become exhausted unless it is better managed than it now is. Finally the Fores ry C om m issioners’ R eport shows th at a variety o f factors are preventing e Com m issioners from m aintaining a planting program m e at the level w ic accords with the Com m ission’s directive from the G overnm ent. The purpose o f the present report o f the N atural Resources (Technical) C om m ittee is to bring these separate conclusions into the perspective o f a general study o f the use to which the m arginal land o f G reat Britain is now being, or could be put. In its exam ination of the problem , the C om m ittee has been conscious o f the fact th a t the density of population is falling fast in m any outlying areas. Associated with this depopulation is a decline in the intensity o f land use and, even m ore significant, a progressive deterioration o f the fertility o f the soil and o f the vegetative cover. The more this trend continues, the less propitious become the possibilities of any future economic exploitation o f our m arginal acres. On the other hand, we have also reached the view th at the isolated developm ent of agriculture is not by itself an effective answer to all these problem s; and th a t in some areas the am algam ation o f farm units is a necessary corollary o f economic development. The particular issue on which we have focussed our attention is the possibility that the integration of forestry with agriculture in certain districts might be more economically rewarding, and m ight have better social consequences, than would the independent developm ent o f either alone. We realize th a t available inform ation about the cost o f and returns for this kind o f investm ent is both meagre and heterogeneous, and that detailed investigation would be essential before any particular scheme was started. But we consider th at enough evidence is already available to call for a reorientation, or a re-definition, of long-term national policy with regard to our m arginal lands. In the body o f the R eport, we therefore review current policy on the use of land for agriculture and forestry, with particular reference to the less cultivated m arginal are a s; the prospects of supply and dem and for food and forest p ro d u cts; the relative profitability o f investm ent in farm and forestry; the possibilities o f integrating agriculture and forest developm ent; and the social benefits that might be expected to result from such an integration. Summary Introduction The present rep o rt summarizes the results of an extensive study o f the problem s involved in increasing the use of indigenous sources o f tim ber, and of the repercussions o f afforestation on the agricultural use of m arginal land. Background of Agricultural Policy D uring the 1939-45 war the m ain goal of agricultural policy was the m axim um o u tp u t o f milk and o f crops for direct hum an consum ption. The emphasis o f the post-w ar expansion program m e has shifted in recent years to the production o f livestock. The hill and upland livestock rearing areas are o f vital im portance to this policy, of which the general aim is to achieve the greatest econom ic production possible. Forestry Background It has long been custom ary to im port m ost o f the tim ber we use, but shortages in two world wars have emphasized the need for dom estic supplies. The Forestry Com m ission were therefore charged in 1945 with a fifty-year NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 3 planting program m e designed to supply essential requirem ents o f tim ber, given th at we might once again have to fight a w ar o f several years’ duration. Strategic considerations have changed since then, b u t on the other hand, there is a greater econom ic reason now, th a n before, for investm ent in the planting of trees. Upland Marginal Lands of Great Britain The upland districts o f Britain are already sparsely populated, and the trend is tow ards further depopulation. Soil fertility in these areas is generally low, and in some districts is progressively deteriorating. In view o f the everrecurring th reat o f trad in g difficulties, we can n ot view with equanim ity the under-use, am ounting in places to abandonm ent, o f m uch m arginal land m ade up o f rough grazings and waste lands. These categories o f land, extending over 20 million acres, constitute alm ost two-fifths o f o u r lan d surface. Possibilities of Agricultural Development Various surveys o f rough grazings and m arginal land have show n th a t the productivity o f some 4 m illion acres could readily be im proved, and th at m uch of this land could be dealt with at less th an £30 per acre (at the prices ruling in 1949 when the relevant survey was carried out). These acres play an essential p art in dom estic m eat p roduction as a breeding and rearing ground for cattle and sheep, and their d epopulation is a source o f increasing anxiety. Population and agricultural p roduction can be m aintained only by m ore capital investment, but the developm ent o f agriculture will not, by itself, be sufficient to correct the situation. Development of Forestry A lthough physical conditions in G reat Britain are m ore favourable to the growth o f trees th an in m any E uropean C ountries, the p ro p o rtio n o f the land surface o f G reat B ritain which is under forest is less th a n in any other Western European country. Even so, m uch o f the land classified as w oodland is at present unproductive. The p lanting program m e o f the Forestry Com m ission is, however, being delayed by the difficulty o f acquiring suitable land. It is estim ated th a t m ore th an 4 m illion acres o f rough grazing are suitable for afforestation. M uch o f this land is on livestock hill farm s, but areas o f coppice and com m ons also provide opportunities for forestry. Financial Return from Agriculture and Forestry C om parisons between the financial returns o f agriculture and forestry are difficult, because o f the great difference in the length o f their production cycles. Studies by the C om m ittee o f a num ber o f selected areas in G reat Britain suggest th at on m arginal u pland areas, forestry m ay have a slight advantage over agriculture in returns on invested capital. A lthough the assessm ent o f the relative im port-saving value o f forestry and agriculture on such land is very difficult, in the long term , forestry w ould apparently show an advantage over agriculture. Market for Home-Grown Timber Im ports o f w ood and w ood products cost a t present ab o u t £430 millions per annum , including a b o u t £180 millions fo r saw tim ber. T here is likely to be a continuing dom estic dem and fo r any sound com m ercial saw tim ber th a t can be produced, and even the Forestry C om m ission’s full program m e o f five m illion acres o f productive forest w ould m eet only one-third o f present requirem ents. The m ain problem is to dispose o f the increasing quantity o f thinnings. A 4 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION substantial p roportion will continue to be used for pit-props, and new factories are being erected for the m anufacture o f building board and chip board. W ood pulp for paper and for m an-m ade fibres comprises a large p art o f our im ports o f tim ber products. I f certain technical difficulties were solved, there would appear to be scope for a substantial increase in the production o f wood pulp for paper. O ther hom e sources of pulp for paper production are waste paper and surplus straw, but these are unlikely, in norm al circumstances, to provide a greatly increased contribution to our supplies o f pulp. C om m onw ealth sources of pulp, particularly rayon pulp, are likely, however, to continue to be com ­ petitive with hom e-produced supplies. The further development o f wood pulping plants in this country based on the use o f home produced tim ber will depend on the economics o f relatively small scale pulping units and on the encouragem ent given by the hom e tim ber industry and by appropriate G overnm ent D ep art­ ments to the establishm ent o f such factories. Obstacles to Afforestation A num ber o f practical difficulties are hindering the Forestry C om m ission’s planting program m e and the development o f private w oodlands. Lack of im m ediate financial advantage, the need for large capital investm ent, and the shortage o f skilled forest workers make it im probable that private interests will engage in afforestation to any significant extent. The program m e o f the Forestry Commission is ham pered by the difficulty o f acquiring suitable land; by com petition from other interests for the type o f land required; by the need for extensive consultation before acquiring land; and in some areas by the hostility of local people to the idea o f afforestation. I f present conditions continue, it is unlikely th at the rate of planting originally envisaged will be achieved. Integration of Forestry and Agriculture and the means of achieving it A num ber o f reports concerning particular areas in Scotland and Wales draw attention to the im portance o f forestry, when properly integrated with agriculture, as a means o f strengthening the social and econom ic fabric o f the countryside. T he Com m ittee regard this as generally applicable to all similar land in G reat Britain. Afforestation o f the less fertile areas o f such regions would provide shelter for livestock and supplies o f tim ber for fencing, etc. It could also lead to economies in capital services such as roads and schools; to an increase in the rural com m unity; and to the possibility o f sharing heavy equipm ent between forestry and agriculture. Even though integration would involve higher costs o f afforestation than the planting o f trees in large com pact areas, the advantages appear to outweigh the extra costs. If proper integration is to be attained, the Forestry Com m ission and the A gricultural D epartm ents would have to co-operate m ore closely in the future th an they have in the past. A few farms might be used for the purpose of dem onstrating the value o f the policy of integration to the agricultural com m unity. The Forestry Commission m ight also assist private owners by undertaking forestry development on an agency basis, with the possible assistance o f G overnm ent loans. Technical advice on the advantages o f forestry should also be m ore readily available to landowners and farmers. If the best use is to be m ade o f our m arginal hill lands for forestry and agriculture, attention will have to be directed to the continuing existence of small and uneconom ic farm units. The Com m ittee believe that the solution of this problem is closely related to the integrated use o f m arginal hill land for forestry and agriculture which they advocate. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 5 Conclusions The field th a t has been covered by the present rep o rt is m arginal in the extent to which it figures in the financial affairs o f the country, and all but m arginal to the preoccupations o f the bulk o f the population. The issues raised are nevertheless vital to our national well-being. Increasing rural de­ population: and in some cases virtually the total depopulation o f vast hill areas that were once actively w o rk e d : an acreage o f forests and w oods which in total extent covers relatively less o f o u r land surface th an does the tree-cover o f every other E uropean country, including even H o lland: yet obstacles to afforestation which unless overcom e im peril the fulfilment o f our forestry program m e: and a declining interest in the farm ing o f m arginal hill farm s, in spite o f the fact th a t these constitute a m ain breeding reservoir for the cattle and sheep reared on the low lands— these trends have already changed the pattern o f our national life, and will do so at an increasing rate if they continue. The social an d physical effects o f the transform ation th at has already taken place have been regretted and deplored by all the official bodies by which they have been considered. F ro m the econom ic point o f view the extent to which they are tolerated nationally is simply a reflection o f decisions, im plicit rather than overt, th a t the resources necessary to prevent the ill effects o f the under­ use o f our m arginal lands are in present circum stances better directed to m ore profitable causes. But in the long and short term the neglect o f our m arginal land, however rem ote it m ay often be geographically, represents a neglect o f natural resources whose cultivation m ight be urgently called for in conditions o f blockade, or if o u r position in w orld trade were to worsen m aterially. The main conclusion o f o u r study is th a t each item o f forestry and agricultural developm ent in m arginal land should be planned as a cohesive operation. N ext in im portance is the view th at end-uses for forest products additional to those th at are already being exploited should be found. O pinion is undivided th a t our first conclusion implies a greater dem and for, and a greater diversity o f rural labour, with richer opportunities for those who would continue to live in the outlying areas concerned. In tu rn this implies m ore econom ic investm ent on social services, such as roads, schools, and health; and the need to find effective measures for dealing with those farmholdings which are uneconom ic either because they are too small or too badly laid out. The second point th a t we have underlined here refers especially to pulping mills. The technical and econom ic problem s th a t have so far deterred their establishm ent in this country can hardly be insuperable. The initiative for which their solution calls w ould in itself do m uch to revivify interest in useful investm ent in o u r m arginal lands. The State accepts a large m easure o f responsibility for the use o f this land and for the welfare o f the people who continue to inhabit it. M uch public money is channelled to these areas by such G overnm ent bodies as the A gricul­ tural D epartm ents, the M inistry o f H ousing and Local G overnm ent and the Forestry Com m ission. It is im plicit in w hat we have already said th a t the D epartm ents o f A griculture and the Forestry Com m ission in these districts should in future co-operate even m ore closely than they haye in the past. It has been argued th a t there is a need for a new genus o f executive body which would discharge all adm inistrative responsibilities, including those o f the central G overnm ent D epartm ents in m arginal hill areas. W hile we recognize th a t there is a need for close consultation a t regional levels between the D epartm ents concerned, we do n o t subscribe to this view. Events are already m oving in the direction o f greater co-ordination, and it will be time enough to consider the 6 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION need for a new type o f adm inistrative machinery when, and if, it becomes national policy to divert to our millions o f acres of m arginal and hill land a greater p ro p o rtio n o f national revenue than they now attract. In the long run the value o f this land to the nation is bound to appreciate, rather than decrease, as the dem and for food and tim ber increases in the world. NOTES ON THE SEVENTH BRITISH CO M M O N W E A L T H F O R E S T R Y C O N F E R E N C E , 1957, IN A U S T R A L I A AND NEW ZEALAND By C. D. BEGLEY District Officer, Research Branch In the sum m er of 1957 I was privileged, as the Secretary o f the Standing C om m ittee on British Com m onw ealth Forestry, to attend the Seventh C o n ­ ference. It was indeed a privilege to cross the world and to see these two countries so full o f interest to the forester and indeed to anyone with an interest in the countryside and people. It would be difficult to imagine a m ore exciting and pleasurable journey. Even the swift journey by air was a stim ulating experience, passing over lands and seas, which evoke many memories o f history and legend to arrive after a journey m easured in hours, in Australia, a country so different from this island in alm ost every feature, and to meet people at once so alike and so different to one’s own people. The next stage of the journey, to New Zealand, was yet another adventure, for here was a land hardly larger than G reat Britain and yet a thousand or more miles from the nearest land mass, A ustralia, and with a climate, flora and fauna as different to A ustralia’s as is our own. N one o f the interesting things which abounded in both these countries would have m eant m uch to the traveller if it had not been for the eagerness o f our hosts to show us as much o f their countries as they could in the brief time available. But this eagerness was, in fact, only a part of the great friendliness and indeed affection with which we and all other Com m onw ealth delegates were treated. There was, in fact, a family feeling about the Conference which gave its deliberations a sense o f purpose. If nothing else, this spirit enables criticism and advice to be freely and candidly exchanged, as indeed they were. W hat did this m ean in tangible term s to the British delegation? I think I can best give my account o f this Conference by answering this question with illustrations from our conference proceedings and the tours in which we took part. On the 26th A ugust, in Adelaide, the capital city o f South A ustralia, Sir H erbert M ayo, as G overnor’s D eputy, opened the first session o f the Conference. M ost o f the proceedings were an exercise in patience for the m em bers as they consisted o f recitals of facts and figures on the progress in forestry by all the participating countries. These proceedings were enlivened by the efforts o f the representatives o f the various A ustralian States, to surpass their colleagues, in good natured, but scathing references to the insignificance o f all other A ustralian forest services but their own. Two im portant themes did emerge from all these dry if im p o rtan t facts—the rapid development o f proper forest m anagem ent th ro u g h o u t the world even in the less wealthy territories and the keen realisation th at tim ber m ust become strongly competitive in price and quality in present world m arket conditions. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 7 The Australian Tour South Australia This began in the State o f South A ustralia and was perhaps the p art o f the to u r with the greatest significance for the British delegation. South A ustralia has a very small indigenous forest area and it has virtually no native softw ood forest. The G overnm ent have therefore been faced w ith a situation n o t unlike our own— th a t is choosing between a virtually com plete reliance on im p o rt for softw oods (and, in South A ustralia, for hardw oods too) or supplying some if not all the tim ber from their own resources. They m et the problem as we have done by em barking on a program m e o f afforestation, choosing exotic conifers for the purpose. The choice eventually narrow ed dow n to a few species— and principally Pinus radiata— and, so far, their w isdom has been evident, for the tree grows rapidly (m ean annual increm ents on a 40 year rotation o f 200-400 cubic feet) and w ithout serious diseases; furtherm ore it is easy to regenerate rapidly. A good deal o f the plantations lie in the South-eastern p a rt o f the State and m ost o f them are w ithin 40 miles of the pleasant country tow n o f M ount G am bier, where we spent some days housed in the com fortable and well kept hotels which th a t prosperous tow n supports. M ount G am bier is a m icrocosm o f present day A ustralia—grow ing rapidly and with evident signs o f a high standard o f living. A longside shops and office blocks in m odern design are some o f the earliest buildings b u t these are fast disappearing. The pavem ents, on a Saturday m orning, are thronged with people enjoying their relaxation after a five day w orking week and m ore th an one E uropean language can be heard alongside English o f tw o or three different origins. This is a typical Australian scene today. The first p lan tatio n visited was Penola F orest Reserve, nearly all Pinus radiata, and there we saw a few o f the 296 p erm anent sam ple plots used for the investigation o f yields und er various thinning treatm ents, a m easure o f the intensity o f m anagem ent o f these fine stands. I m ust confess th a t there did not seem a great deal to choose between the various grades— the m oderately thinned one gave the best all ro u n d retu rn but the m argin was n o t sufficiently high as to be conclusive. Very heavy thinning is, generally speaking, in disfavour in South Australia, and an extract from an official rep o rt m ay be o f interest. " I t cannot be too strongly em phasized th a t enthusiastic advocates o f very heavy thinning, w ithout adequate reliable d ata to su p p o rt them , m ay n o t only unw ittingly lose increm ent, b u t m ay in addition seriously affect future yields and the later supply o f logs to large mills designed for a definite future intake.” The w riter o f this was encouraged to u tte r this obiter dicta by the rather surpris­ ing yield o f large saw logs (15 p er cent log volum e, o r a b o u t one-sixth o f all the logs in logs above 15 inches diam eter u nder bark) in a clear felling at the end of a forty year rotation. A t this forest we also saw some experim ents in m ethods o f n atu ral re­ generation, and here and elsewhere in A ustralia we learnt th a t natural regen­ eration, even when it is easily com e by, is n o t always as welcome as we in this country m ight think. A difficulty o f some fashionable interest is th at natural regeneration m akes the stand form and quantity m ore hazardous than with artificial regeneration, where tree breeding can be used m ore easily. We were to hear m ore o f this and o f the subject o f tree breeding when we visited Queensland. The history o f m illing developm ents associated with these Pinus radiata plantations held some interesting lessons for us. W hen we visited the saw mill at N angw arry where the Penola forest produce is milled, we learnt th at it was 8 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION one o f several departm ental sawmills. In the early days of logging these Pinus radiata p lantations, they had no option but to mill the stuff d ep artm en tal^. The South A ustralian tim ber industry originated and grew upon supplies im ported from interstate and overseas. As the official handbook says, it was not altogether surprising therefore, when the first artificial forests of a relatively unknow n tree such as Pinus radiata began to reach a stage when prelim inary yields could be expected, th at the industry showed no particular enthusiasm in its utilization. The grower had to learn by direct experience and at his own expense w hat the snags were in putting a new tim ber on the m arket, and what techniques were needed to m ake his logs into acceptable sawn timber. It took years rath er than m onths to m ake Pinus radiata a generally acceptable tim ber, and a turning point o f their efforts was the introduction of kiln seasoning. We were shown both a t N angw arry and at the M ount Burr Mills, extensive banks of kilns which can handle if necessary the whole output of the mills. A nother feature o f the milling o f these logs is the accuracy of the sawing and the p ro ­ duction o f boards free from wane. The general standard of the tim ber produced was good and there was no d oubt th at the sawyers had done everything to help the foresters justify their claim th at radiata pine is a timber which is eminently suitable for all purposes except perhaps where great beauty or durability is required. Inherently good w orking properties of a tim ber are, o f course, prerequisites for its m arketability but sound milling and seasoning techniques, we were assured, are indispensable aids, especially when the timber is new to the m arket. Victoria O ur next tour was in the State of Victoria and here we stayed in M elbourne, a m ost impressive city with a m etropolitan and sophisticated air about it (at least to a provincial like myself) which would m ake some of our provincial towns look very shabby and parochial. It is well endowed with art galleries, museums, libraries, etc.,|but to foresters its biggest attraction is the first-rate Forest Products Research L aboratory, one of the finest in the world both in equipm ent and in its achievements. Perhaps o f greatest interest to the forester is the work that has been and is being done on the anatom y and inherent properties o f the tree and their relation to the wood properties both for tim ber and for pulp. A subject on the conference agenda was “ Is forest products research serving the needs o f the forester and the tim ber tra d e ? ” Here, in this laboratory, at any rate, was a forceful reply. By precise exam ination o f the small but critical features o f the w ood the scientist was evaluating, in terms the forester could appreciate, what was needed to produce the right kind of tree. By close liaison with the geneticist and silviculturist the forest products w orker was able to give valuable guidance on the effects o f tree breeding, thinning techniques, etc. A good example o f this w ork is the studies undertaken on fibre length at this and other laboratories. The paper technologist knows that long fibres are best suited to certain kinds o f pulp m anufacture. The wood anatom ist has learn t th a t a t an early age the tree exhibits a tendency towards shorter or longer fibres which will, it is believed, persist into the later life of the tree; in consul­ ta tio n w ith the geneticist he finds that this is an inheritable feature; in consult­ atio n w ith the silviculturist he finds that thinning techniques can upset the developm ent o f long fibres so that a m ature tree can revert to producing “juvenile” shorter-fibred wood. It is not difficult to see how this team can co­ operate to produce the kind of tree the pulp m anufacturer wants. We were to see m any examples o f this kind of commonsense approach to solving the problem o f tim ber producer and consumer. But the brilliant sun­ shine which V ictoria produced m ade us thankful to leave the city and visit the the forests in the hills which surround M elbourne. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 9 The m ost m em orable o f these forests were the giant M ountain Ash, Eucalyptus regnans, which were seen in U p p er Y a rra forest district, 3,000 feet above sea level. These were indeed things o f great beauty and it was sad to hear th at w hat we saw were only rem nants o f extensive m ature stands which had been logged or extensively dam aged by savage fires in recent years. Fires and fire protection were a constant them e th ro u g h o u t o u r to u r o f V ictoria and it is not surprising when one hears o f the terrible loss o f life and property th at V ictoria has suffered in relatively recent times. A grim rem inder o f this was the well equipped dugout we were shown. They are to provide shelter for anyone trapped in the forest during a fire and by law m ust be m aintained in the forest. M ountain Ash grows in the w etter areas w ith rainfalls up to 60 inches, but we also visited some drier areas where the hardw ood grew at rates with which we were m ore fam iliar—diam eter increm ents o f the order o f £ inch per annum . Also o f interest to British visitors were the derelict coppice stands o f various eucalyptus species peculiar to these slow-growing dry areas. T he all too fam iliar problem o f thinning and cleaning w ithout a m arket for the produce was present here, but it was considered essential to undertake these operations in the early stages o f reclaim ing this coppice. T hereafter the availability o f m arkets for produce (m ainly poles, fencing tim ber and fuels) governed subsequent treatm ent. Incidentally wood is still extensively used as a fuel in A ustralia and foraging for wood fuel is a tim e-honoured pastim e by som e u rb an dwellers on their country excursions a t the weekend. I was am used to see m ore th an one car b o o t bulging with branchw ood as I sat in a car craw ling back to M elbourne from the coast one Sunday afternoon. A ustralia is well endowed with all the pleasures of m odern civilisation including traffic jam s. This question o f m arkets and silvicultural treatm ent was a recurrent theme in our tours through A ustralia an d also N ew Z ealand. It occurs in its m ost acute form in the sm aller sizes of softw ood and w ith low grade hardw oods and, as with us, the pulping industry looks like being a great help. I saw some interesting examples o f this in the activities o f the A ustralian P aper M anu­ facturers L td., at M aryvale near G ippsland, M elbourne, V ictoria. A part from using young fast-grow n pole-stage eucalyptus for their process, the com pany also perform a useful salvage operation in logged-over areas by buying logs, which are otherwise o f no value, for conversion into pulp billets. This enables the forester to do his preparation o f planting ground at a profit. T he sale o f cordw ood to the pulp mill now being built a t Sudbrook will we hope serve a som ew hat sim ilar purpose, with perhaps the same happy result! The same com pany also buys softw ood thinnings, going as far afield as the neighbouring State o f South A ustralia, whose plantations I have already described. The C om pany (A .P.M .) go as far as to claim th at w ithout the m arket for small thinnings which they an d other com panies provide, the thinnings o f young plantations could not be carried out econom ically except on a very small scale for specialised local m arkets. All this had a very fam iliar ring to British ears and we reflected, gratefully, th at the N .C.B. to some extent play the same role in this country, as the pulp com panies do in Australia. New South Wales We travelled from V ictoria to New S outh W ales visiting the bustling city o f Sydney—a great city w ith a p o pulation num bered in millions and growing apace. “ The Bridge” is o f course the sight all visitors m ust see but to me the m ost m em orable experience was a trip on the ferry across the great harbour, so unlike the m urky industrial h arbours o f E ngland with which I am fam iliar, and where to my delight I saw hundreds o f sailing boats spread as far as the eye could 10 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION see and treating the ferry boats with cheeky disregard for their bulk and speed. From the indignant hooting o f the ferry’s steam whistle I gathered th a t the skipper was n o t am used. M o st o f the forest visits m ade in New South Wales concerned problem s of regenerating an d exploiting the eucalypts, many species of which abound in the forests which extend westwards from the moist coastal valleys, across the snowy peaks o f the G reat Dividing Range tow ards the dry interior. The event of outstanding interest to me was to see the sub-tropical rainforest in virgin condition in the M o o n p ar State Forest. A n unexploited stand of 150 acres of this forest had been perm anently set aside as a mem orial to N orm an Jolly, an A ustralian forester and one o f the founders o f systematic forestry in A ustralia. We were privileged to witness the unveiling o f a m emorial to this great forester at a m oving cerem ony held in the m idst o f the tall trees of great beauty. 1 was rem inded o f the inscription on Sir C hristopher W ren’s tom b in St. Paul’s C ath ed ral:“ If you seek his m onum ent, look around you” . This grove of m ature forest trees w ith trailing vines, a rich understorey of shrubs, ferns and trees and a cloudless sky above, was one o f the m ost beautiful natural scenes I can rem em ber, and a fitting m onum ent to a forester. Queensland Q ueensland we shall rem em ber as the land o f sunshine, for the brief time we spent there was in their spring which m eans a felicitous climate that would charm the m ost thin-blooded soul, w arm days and cool nights and brilliant blue skies, day after day. Queensland is also a state full of interest for tiie forester w ith its wide variety o f forest types, from the sub-tropical hardw oods to the m ore w orkaday softw ood plantations. Two items in particular were to stim ulate our interest. Firstly the sawmill at Im bil in the beautiful M ary Valley. This was a country mill running exclusively on thinnings o f H oop pine, K auri Pine and Bunya Pine and with a capacity o f 2,300,000 super feet hoppus (12 super f e e t = l cubic foot). The size o f the thinnings was interesting; they were saw n from logs trim m ed to a 4 inch top and o f lengths down to 10 feet or less, The mill was rip-saw ing these logs into box shooks, accurately and efficiently, and the boards were m oved to the re-saws, the edgers and sorting tables by conveyors throughout. The tim ber o f these species is of good quality, some o f it pru n ed from an early age (the K au ri Pine is a self pruning tree), and blessed with a high p ro p o rtio n o f dense sum m er w ood which means few worries about rates o f grow th. B ut it was impressive to see such large quantities o f smalldim ensioned logs m oving rapidly through the mill using only simple equipm ent —the breakdow n rig for example consisted o f two small circular saws on the sam e spindle. The second item o f interest was the activity in Queensland in the field of tree breeding, with special emphasis on quality coupled with a policy o f hieh pruning. I have already referred to studies on this subject at the C om m on­ wealth Scientific an d Industrial Research O rganisation, M elbourne, and here we were to see some o f the field w ork including some impressive stands of second generation elite trees in the pole stage—som ething of a novelty to the delegates from Britain, where m uch slower rates o f growth mean th at it will be some years before we can see this sort o f thing. The high pruning, as always, aroused controversy, b u t as the foresters here were for the m ost p art concerned with grow ing peeler logs for plywood, which com m and a very high price, they seemed to have cause for expecting a good return on the undoubtedly expensive operation. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 11 Australian Capital Territory Finally we cam e to C anberra where a good deal o f the conference sessions were held. C anberra lies in a political “ no m an’s state” as it were, the A ustralian C apital T erritory (m uch as W ashington is a disfranchised area, from a Federal point o f view, in the U nited States o f Am erica). But in the sm all com pass of the T erritory lie some 18,000 acres o f w ell-m anaged forests, and we were to see some o f these too. We were m ost interested to see their experim ental w ork on the effect o f drought on trees, because it h ad a bearing on some o f the problem s we have here in Britain, and which we suspect are connected w ith the w ater supply to the tree. The A ustralians have gone to the lengths o f deliberately cutting off the supply o f rainfall w ater to som e standing trees by building a w aterproof shelter above the ro o t systems, clear o f the ground— in appearance the device is rath er like a small shed with trees grow ing through the roof. There seems little d oubt th at d rought thus produced results in sym ptom s similar to those shown by the affected Pinus radiata (the species under test) under n atu ral conditions in areas o f very low rainfall. The New Zealand Tour New Zealand m eant a com plete change in clim ate, countryside and people but still the sam e friendliness and efficient organisations geared to ensuring that we saw all th at could be seen. E verything here was overshadow ed by the vast m an-m ade forest o f K aingaroa (250,000 acres) and the industrial plants designed to convert the large volum e o f produce, m uch o f it sawlog size, which is now pouring out o f the forest as it is thinned or clear-felled. K aingaroa forest is on the K aingaroa Plains in the eastern central area o f the N o rth Island. At one time this was a desolate expanse o f w asteland w ith a poor, sparse vegetation; it had previously been denuded o f vegetation by severe volcanic eruptions. Planting began on an appreciable scale in 1901 and the tem po increased from 1924 onw ards when tens o f thousands o f acres were afforested annually until the present to tal o f 250,000 acres was reached. Over 100,000 acres is Pinus radiata an d the balance is m ade up o f Pinus ponderosa and Corsican pine and D ouglas fir, w ith a few thou san d acres each o f Pinus contorta, E uropean larch an d oth er species. The grow th rate o f trees here, as in A ustralia, was striking— Pinus radiata can produce in under 40 years a gross yield o f over 14,000 cubic feet (4 inch top) and Corsican pine can produce gross yields o f 13,000 cubic feet in little over 44 years. These are yields from unthinned stands and m any o f the tens o f thousands o f acres o f m ature trees (ro tatio n 40 years and over) are in this category. Since 1946 m any o f these unthinned stands have suffered severe attack by the E uropean w ood wasp, Sirex noctilio; the insect attack has now dim inished considerably an d one happy consequence o f the depredations o f the insect has been to thin o u t the overcrow ded stands, w ith some benefit, by way o f larger crow ns an d increased basal area, to the survivors. This plague was the occasion o f an experim ent in biological control when tw o parasites Rhyssa persuasoria and Ibalia leucospoides were released in the forest. A less pleasant consequence o f the pest was the num ber o f dead snags which were left, and this gives some o f the stands an unsightly appearance. In fact, to the eye o f a forester used to “ regim ents o f conifers” the sight o f these overcrow ded stands is an uncom fortable one. The obvious difficulty as far as utilisation was concerned was th at there had been no opportunity at an early stage to weed out and dispose o f the undesirables, and although there were 12 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION undoubtedly m any good trees in these stands so there were many bad ones. U nfortunately these cannot easily be weeded out and the evidence of this is m ade obvious when the sawn boards come under the grader’s eye in the a painful way o f learning the merits o f thinning as far as the miller is concern ed . T hinning is being done wherever possible, and we saw an example o f the well-planned logging system used. A gang consisting of three men use onem an chain saws for felling and cross-cutting, and a T D /6 tractor with small logging arch for extraction. The two fallers move with astonishing speed from tree to tree, the sawyer cutting through the b u tt in seconds; the second m an pushes against the tree with a stout pole if there is any sign of pinching o f the saw, and the tree, seventy or eighty feet high, is soon down. The gang moves, on an average, 1,000 cubic feet from the stum p to the lorry, per day. The servicing o f tools is done by a m obile squad which includes a saw doctor. All forest blocks are on the forest telephone system, and so maintenance and repairs cause the m inim um o f delay. R oading (50 per cent of which is metalled for winter work) is essential to the speed achieved in this operation. R oading both in New Zealand and A ustralia is now regarded as o f p ara­ m ount im portance in logging, even for thinning operations, and it was gratifying to realise th a t this was som ething which our own service had been quick to realise and im plem ent in our thinning operations. The E uropean larch stands, both at K aingaroa and also in the South Island, were well w orth seeing. U nthinned though they were, they were o th er­ wise healthy and the millers I spoke to at the D epartm ental saw mill near Dusky Forest, T apaniui D istrict, Kelso, were high in their praise of the tim ber which was no trouble to convert and com m anded ready m arkets—this is contrary to some o f the disparaging rem arks I have heard about sawing and selling E uropean larch board, a t home. The D ouglas fir we saw was well and quickly grown, giving 11,800 cubic feet to the acre (4 inch top) after 36 years at K aingaroa. A t D usky Forest also, I saw some w ith a m ean annual increm ent (6 inch top diam eter) of 175 cubic feet after 50 years. It had first-rate form , was fine branched and tapered only gradually. As at hom e, it does n o t do too well at high elevations; the lim it is 1.500 feet which is none too high in localities with a tim ber line well above w hat we are used to. O ur visit to K aingaroa was completed with a tour o f the giant integrated saw mill, pulp mill and new sprint mill at K aw erau. This £37,000,000 project is an awe-inspiring site; one o f our party found the ruthless efficiency with which the sawmills sorted and spewed wood hither and thither, quite horrifying. Figures are p o o r tools for conveying an impression of the scale o f the project and the insatiable appetite of the two mills for great logs scores o f feet in length and bu tt diam eters o f 15 inches and over. The pow er consum ption o f the plan t is perhaps the m ost succinct m easure o f the m ill’s scale of operating—2 steam generators rated at 150,000 lb./hr. and 650 pounds per square inch pressure and 750°F. superheat, supported by a chemical recovery boiler supply, and two 12.500 k.w. turbo-generators. The saw mill a t full capacity can produce 72 million super feet per year and the newsprint m ill can produce 75,000 tons o f new sprint per year; the pulp mill supplies 36,800 tons o f sulphate pulp in addition. We expect these figures when talking o f large N o rth A m erican mills b u t they are impressive in the content o f a m an-m ade forest started barely h alf a century ago. The visit to K aingaroa and K aw erau by no means exhausted the features of interest in forestry and forest industries in New Zealand. We had yet to see the NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 13 Research L aboratories at R o to ru a, the well m anaged co-operative and municipal forests built originally for shelter in the grazing lands o f the South Island, the beech forests o f the W estland, an d the rem ains o f the forests of giant K auri pine in the n o rth o f the N o rth Island. The num bers o f things to see, hear and discuss were bewildering, b u t nothing could d istract o u r atten tio n from the ever-changing scenery which we passed through on o u r grand tour. The British are given to boasting a b o u t the beauties o f their native heath (if nothing else) and rightly so, b u t it w ould be a grudging visitor from any corner o f the globe who did n o t grant th at New Zealand is incom parably endow ed w ith beautiful scenery, alm ost everywhere one goes. Some o f us were lucky enough to visit the Southern Alps and later the F iordland N ational Parks. H ere in pleasant sunny w eather with m ild tem peratures were m ountains and snow fields o f unforgettable grandeur, form ing in F iordland a setting for wide and deep fiords and lakes o f serene beauty. W orth crossing the world to see, indeed. T o end with the prosaic but im p o rtan t task for which the 80 or so foresters were assembled, I m ust refer to the conference proceedings themselves. It would be im possible to sum m arise them and pointless too, for a sum m ary o f the proceedings will be published in 1958 by the A ustralians. B ut I would, at the risk o f sounding pom pous, advise the earnest few who read technical papers not to neglect the proceedings when they are published for some at least o f those who spoke were world authorities in their subject, and the clash o f opinion which took place in the friendly atm osphere o f the conference room did produce one or two gems o f wisdom. O f especial interest, if I may m ake invidious distinctions, were the discussions on tree grow th characteristics and their influence on w ood structure and properties, a high-flown title for “ w hat the buyer w ants an d how to give it to him ” w ith its corollary “ The influence of m arkets on silviculture” . Also w orth hearing was the discussion on “ Forest tree disorders” , with some astringent exchanges on the folly o r otherwise o f experim enting with too many or too few exotics, and, as a bon bouche some o f the wry rem arks o f D r. O rchard o f the B ritish C olum bia F orest Service, scattered th ro u g h o u t the report like the occasional currants in a very dry bun. BEGLEY: AUSTRALIA: FULL DETAILS OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plate 1. Plate 2. Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Plate 6. Le T ourneau electric logging arch in K aingaroa Forest, N o rth Island, New Zealand. The 6-ft. wheels are each driven independently by an electric m o to r in the hub. It is claim ed to haul 12,000 cubic feet for 20 to 30 chains, per 8 h o u r day. It carries its ow n generator. Pinus radiata, 31 years old, w ith tw o-year-old regeneration, under the shelterw ood system. M o u n t B urr F orest Reserve, South A ustralia. M echanical sorting and handling o f sawlogs up to the headrigs at N angw arry Saw M ill, South A ustralia. Eucalyptus grandis, m ountain ash, ab o u t to fall. The tree is 200 feet high, 90 feet clear bole. Little Y arra, Victoria. Log and Tim ber yard o f sawmill a t Im bil, Queensland. The mill handles thinnings only. Logs are hoop pine and bunya pine (Araucaria sp.) 10 feet in length, 4 inches top diam eter. Shadow s cast by bright sunlight th ro u gh high shelter in nursery at Little Y abba, Q ueensland. The seedlings are Araucaria sp. JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 14 A TOUR O F T A S M A N IA AND N O R TH AUCKLAND: S E V E N T H B R IT IS H C O M M O N W E A L T H F O R E S T R Y C O N F E R E N C E , 1957 By G. B. RY LE Director o f Forestry fo r Wales The pre-Conference and post-Conference tours arranged by our A ustralian and N ew Zealand hosts enabled delegates to obtain a m ore domestic picture o f activities th an was possible in the large gatherings of the full Conference party. The w riter has no regrets th a t he opted to visit Tasm ania before the Conference opened and to finish with a tour in N o rth A uckland prior to returning hom e via British C olum bia and the N o rth Pole route. Tasm ania, 18-22nd August, 1957 O ur small party set off by air from M elbourne and was welcomed at the T asm anian airp o rt o f W ynyard by the Chief Commissioner, Alec Crane and several o f his officers. It took us but a few hours to realise th at the Tasm anian Forestry D epartm ent m akes up for its small size (28 Officers are listed in the Empire Forestry Handbook for the m anagem ent of 8,932 square miles o f State and Crow n Forests) by an unusual degree of keenness and team work. The main them e o f the to u r was arranged around the several huge pulp and plywood industries, b u t as the Com panies concerned also manage their own private forests or operate long-term concessions in the Crown Forests, we were able to see the whole range of the works from the felling, exploitation and regeneration in the woods to the finished products of the mills. The native Eucalyptus forests in T asm ania have suffered terribly from fires in past years, and in its early days the Forestry D epartm ent m ade itself unpopular with the graziers by instituting severe fire prevention m easures. It is however now gaining a proper place in pop u lar public opinion and it is receiving acclam ation for its activities in re­ placing the areas o f scrub Eucalypt species by large forests of exotic conifers. Praise also goes to the forest and the agricultural services for their completely realistic m ethods o f rab b it exterm ination. Nowhere in Tasm ania (or in the other countries visited for th a t m atter) did we hear anything but amused derision for the half-hearted m ethods adopted in the H om e Country. The A ssociated Pulp and Paper Mills L td., with its subsidiaries, operates its own private forests o f some 220,000 acres and has concessions over large areas o f adjoining Crow n forests near Burnie. The main species are Stringybark Eucalyptus obliqua) and M yrtle (Nothofagus cunninghamii) on the N o rth coastal belt, w ith A sh (Eucalyptus gigantea) becoming dom inant in the Surrey Hills. W hile m uch o f the virgin tim ber now being exploited may be around 300 years o f age there is no com m ercial advantage in growing such huge logs for pulping and it is probable th a t a general rotation o f about 75 years will finally be adopted, especially if the right kind o f m aterial can be obtained by natural regeneration followed by ju st one com m ercial thinning. We saw fine natural crops of 30-year Stringybark and M yrtle carrying 20,000 cubic feet per acre in the process of being thinned (for the first time) dow n to 10,000 cubic feet and giving the opportunity to reduce the percentage of M yrtle which tends to sm other the Eucalypt, especially by intense ro o t com petition. Though the A .P.P.M . L td. goes in fo r a high degree o f m echanisation it was interesting to find th at they have reverted to horses for thinning extraction. The forest roads struck me as being very sim ilar in construction to ours, though occasionally gradients NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 15 were allowed a t which we w ould frown. The widths were slightly greater but so is the m axim um perm itted width o f the vehicles. So far as one can com pare roading costs, there was little difference between theirs and ours. W hile m uch o f the logging was followed quickly by a good natu ral re­ generation, the A .P .P .M . Ltd. is not neglectful o f its responsibilities. Clearance o f undesirable scrub species, norm ally by dozer-rake before logging, is necessary in some places. Elsewhere artificial re-stocking with Eucalypt, using J-year seedlings in paper tubes, or with Pinus radiata, follows very quickly after a clear felling. The A ustralian N ew sprint Mills Ltd. operates in a C row n F orest concession o f 340,000 acres in the D erw ent Valley but only a b o u t one-third o f this territory contains m erchantable forest o f M ountain Ash {Eucalyptus regnans), Stringy­ bark (Eucalyptus obliqua) and Ash (Eucalyptus gigantea), with subsidiary M yrtle (Nothofagus cunninghamii) and Sassafras (Antherosperma moschata) which are useless for groundw ood pulping. U nder the term s o f the concession the C om ­ pany has to m anage the forest in accordance w ith a W orking Plan, which is rather extensively supervised by the Forestry D epartm ent, and it is under obligation to provide stated quantities o f milling logs to other trade mills. It runs subsidiary factories to consum e the M yrtle and Sassafras which are not required at the pulpm ill and notable am ongst these we inspected a factory which uses Sassafras for supplying 90 per cent o f the w orld’s requirem ents in spring-clip clothes pegs. We were highly im pressed at the C om pany’s care for the welfare o f its em ployees: the village o f M aydena with its trim bungalows, single m en’s quarters, com m unity hall, school and shops for its 280 employees struck us as a model o f perfection. H ere again in the forest it was difficult for a stranger to ascertain w hether the wise policy o f changing the virgin grow ing stock from a m axim um age o f maybe 300 years to a ro tatio n o f 75 years was being achieved with or w ithout regard to a sustained yield policy; but it was evident that the D epartm ent will need to keep a close control dn the long-term M anagem ent. The short fibre o f the Eucalyptus species needs an adm ixture o f long fibre from softwood pulp to give paper a necessary degree o f strength. A t present pulp of Pinus radiata is im ported from K inleith in New Z ealand, but the T as­ m anian State forests o f P. radiata and other exotic softw oods are rapidly reaching a productive stage and it is hoped th a t the island State will soon be self suppor­ ting in its needs for this purpose. We visited several o f these conifer plantations where form ation, m aintenance and thinning were receiving really keen attention. It was not till we came to a certain private forest o f P. radiata which was being systematically devastated th at I discovered th a t the D epartm ent has no control whatsoever over the activities o f the private owner. A nother w riter will doubtless m ention the status o f the w ood-boring Sirex noctilio in New Zealand. In T asm ania this insect has recently arrived, probably im bedded in packing cases o f P. radiata from the land o f the Kiwi. We hope th a t the Forestry D epartm ent will find m eans to cope with it before it attains suprem acy over their pine crops. And so, after a grand reception in P arliam ent H ouse, H o bart, given by th a t G rand O ld M an the Prem ier, the Rt. H on. R obert Cosgrove, we departed from T asm ania to jo in the other 70 delegates for the m ain Conferences in Adelaide. North Auckland, 12-16th October, 1957 This peninsula o f rolling country w ith steep ridges and gullies was originally the hom e o f the K au ri pine (Agathis australis) but m uch o f it had certainly been 16 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION denuded by fire before the arrival o f Europeans in the early nineteenth century. Discovery o f its wonderful qualities for ship building and other purposes was quickly followed by intensive slaughter o f the K auri forests. The story of uncontrolled forest exploitation and w ater transportation in difficult country is beautifully told and illustrated in The Story o f the Kauri by A. H. Reed (A. H . & A. W. Reed, W ellington, New Zealand). B ut the K auri and its associated sub-tropical rain forest species dem anded everything from the soil and though forest was followed for a short time by good grazing, m uch o f the land quickly became infested by native M anuka or T ea Tree (Leptospermum ericoides) and in places by Gorse ( Ulex europaeus) and B room (Cytisus scoparius) which had been thoughtlessly im ported from Europe. The recent discovery o f the absence o f the trace element cobalt has changed the agricultural potential o f m uch o f this land and there is now a wise land-use policy by which agriculturist and forester work together to decide on the allocation o f the available land between the two industries. However m uch of the country is dedicated as “ M aori land” and cannot be appropriated for econom ic m anagem ent. Large scale afforestation o f this M anuka-infested land with Pirms radiata occurred, notably at Riverhead Forest, in the period between 1926 and 1933, before the soil lim itations were properly appreciated; and we were shown areas o f extremely sickly plantations. Some were so bad that they were being "w ritten off” and replanted after dressing with superphosphate: others, not quite so degenerate, showed rem arkable recovery after top dressing from the air. N ever­ theless m uch o f the soil is heavily podsolised and has a highly impervious clayp a n ; I felt strongly th a t any new planting should wisely be preceded by deep sub-soil ploughing. This is an operation which the New Zealand foresters have not tried, b u t as they habitually crush the M anuka (where the ground is not too steep) by the use o f heavy caterpillar tractors, the cost o f ploughing would be a very sm all extra expense. The New Zealand Forest Service is rapidly extending its exotic pine forests on this M anuka land, and as we had all seen so m uch o f their thinning—o r lack o f thinning—problem s during the m ain Conference tour around R o to ru a in W hakarew arew a and K aingaroa Forests, we were interested to find out what early preparations they were m aking in this far m ore rugged country. Though there were obvious systems of ridge-top “jeep tracks” , some o f them at fearsome gradients, for fire protection access purposes, we thought th at a carefully graded netw ork o f pre-roading tracks in the valleys would have been inestim ably m ore valuable. They w ould have served better for fire accesses and could later have been developed into real haulage roads. A t W aipoua Forest and T rounson P ark we were treated to a real feast in inspecting some o f the all too small rem nants o f the virgin K auri pine stands— a single tree carrying over 9,000 cubic feet is a sight not soon forgotten and a stand containing scores of trees m easuring well over 3,000 cubic feet apiece is none the less impressive because it has taken a thousand years or so in its developm ent. T h a t day too we sat down to lunch at the very spot where the 1928 Conference had been wined and dined under the trees: the original table legs still stood firm in the soil after 29 years, even though the table to p had rotted away to form a grand seed-bed m ulch for a m at o f wee K auri seedlings. I tho u g h t o f the late L ord C linton who had sat at th at table and seen the m ag­ nificent giants which had shed those seeds. G ood w ork is being done to solve the intractable problem s o f K auri re­ generation, b o th n atu ral and artificial, and we all felt th a t even if there was d o ub t ab o u t the pure economics o f growing this tree, some expense was fully NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 17 justified simply because it is such a fine tree and yields such a fine tim ber. A large area o f W aipoua F orest has been reserved as a sanctuary wherein no live tree m ay be felled, b u t we were n o t convinced th a t this was necessarily the best way to ensure the preservation o f a species or o f a forest. H ow ever the Forest Service has alternative land to w ork on and we hope th a t they will accept the challenge. Though, on the one h and we were show n at K iapara, an area o f Pinus radiata in ow nership o f a com pany, th a t the F orest Service has no jurisdiction over private forest devastation, we saw on the o th er hand th a t a N o rth A uckland farm ers’ forestry association has begun to take a really lively interest in shelterbelting and the p roper use o f small w oodlots. We were entertained by this pioneer association and found th a t its m em bers were full o f interest and enquiries abou t co-operative forestry developm ents in Britain. N o rth A uckland includes am ongst its pop u lation a very high proportion of M aoris who w ork w ith and alongside the E uropeans and are particularly expert in the use and care o f the m echanical equipm ent in the forests. As the only delegate from Britain 1 was h o noured to p lant an English O ak (seed ex W indsor Park) in front o f the forest office at G lenbervie, and we later visited the spot where the T reaty o f W aitangi was signed by the M aori chiefs and the Queen’s officers in 1840. M ay this oak flourish and grow to cast its shade upon the delegates o f some future C om m onw ealth Forestry Conference. H E IW I T A H I T A T O U (M a o ri: We are one people) A YEAR WITH AM ERICAN FO R E ST E R S By B. R. F E A V E R Divisional Officer, East Scotland [This article has also appeared in A rbor, the magazine o f the Aberdeen University Forestry Society.] In Septem ber, 1953, the C om m onw ealth F u nd granted me a Fellow ship to study the “ M echanisation o f A m erican F orestry” and I was able to spend a year travelling through m ost o f the m ain forest regions except the South W est, seeing all types o f operations. A m erican hospitality and friendliness are proverbial but I was quite astonished to find such a trem endous welcome, enthusiasm and willingness to help all along my route. N o t only is the U nited States Forest Service m ost forthcom ing with help and inform ation b u t the logging contractors for exam ple will also freely give you facts and figures and are always ready to talk ab o u t their w ork. A n A berdeen graduate had already blazed a trail along p a rt o f my route and I m et m any foresters who rem em bered and enquired for Faulkner, having met him in 1951. A m erican forestry today is dem anding m ore skilled attention th an it has ever had in the past. The F orest Service was only established in 1905, following the creation o f the first forest reserves in 1891, and their initial w ork was closely tied to the great lum bering trade th a t in little m ore th an 100 years cut over nearly all the vast areas o f virgin forest. O ne com petent graduate forester m ade me think deeply when he said it was a good thing th a t all the old grow th had 18 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION been cut over, as there had been no value in the tim ber to the growers, w heieas today there was far m ore em ploym ent in their new forests where all sizes o f produce from pulp to saw tim ber provided steady em ploym ent for far more men, including higher trained men. This is quite a good subject for debate but I quote it only because it shows a very fresh outlook. The American mind is quite free o f traditional practices and it was a pleasant surprise to read a published article dealing quite seriously with the use o f dom estic geese for weeding transplant lines in the nursery. F rom the econom ic angle it was m ost profitable as the conclusion o f the weeding season saw the slaughter and eating of the “ w orkm en ! The system had some draw backs though and was not the answer to the nursery­ m an’s problem . A nother radical I met was a graduate forester employed by a big southern pulp com pany. He was com plaining ab o u t the early costs o f cleaning dense pine natural regeneration w ithout any yield and was convinced it was m ore econom ical to plant in nine foot rows so th at anything cut in early thinnings could be easily taken out on trucks that could pass between rows. His task was to grow as m uch bulk in as short a time as possible for the least money and within those limits he was possibly right, but it seemed alm ost sacrilegious to hear o f copious n atu ral regeneration being unw anted when we go to such trouble in Britain to get any at all. Because A m erican forest areas are so vast their forestry is 011 an extensive scale and cannot bear the form ation costs we incur with our intensive forestry an d high value o f the produce. F or example you will never see any field drains being dug to m ake ground suitable for tree grow th; there is no fencing against rabbits to be paid fo r; little fencing is done even against stock, but I did see some against hogs in the south. Field planting is not on a big scale, as in m any areas the forest regenerates freely after felling, but planting o f desirable species often has to be done if no seed trees rem ain. It was astonishing to see shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) being planted in n o rth Mississippi beneath a heavy canopy o f scrub oaks. The oaks were to be girdled immediately to release the pine. In m any instances I saw pines regenerating or being planted where we would only have risked a m ost shade-tolerant species like beech or D ouglas fir. Both Eastern W hite pine and shortleaf pine had amazing powers o f recovery after release from shade, so tree girdling was widely practised and was very successful because the clim ate encouraged rapid decay o f the dead trees. One o f the m ain silvicultural problem s is to secure the regeneration of valuable species, as indiscrim inate fellings have resulted in a great brush problem . Chem ical sprays are widely used and 2-4-D and 2-4-5-T are the m ost efficient for the con tro l o f brush or unw anted coppice by spraying either from the ground or even from the air for large areas. I did not see any scrub-clearing m achines whose cost and perform ance were suitable for our forest use, but heavy discs or brush cutting rollers would give tem porary relief. Silviculture in the Southern pine areas, where Longleaf pine (Pinuspalustris) and Slash pine (P. elliottii, syn. P. taeda) are grown, now makes use o f fire for m aintaining these subclim ax species. It was very interesting to see the unw anted shrubs, vines, etc., controlled by burning and seed bed conditions obtained. Y oung pines were alm ost u n h u rt if burning was skilfully done and really small Longleaf pines, in w hat is know n as the “ grass stage” —when they look m ore like tussocks o f grass than trees—benefited directly by having their rust-infected needles b u rn t off. I exam ined the term inal buds after burning and found them green and alive, being protected by the densely packed needles. T here is great interest and argum ent in A m erican silvicultural circles regard­ ing the place o f fire in the m anagem ent o f their forests, as the forests were sub- NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 35 Beech tends to be dom inant on the n o rth ern slopes; on the south-facing slopes and at lower elevations, hornbeam dom inates. This was our first opportunity o f exam ining the eastern beech, a tree which has been strangely neglected in G reat Britain, where it m ight grow very well. It does n o t differ very m uch in appearance from the E uropean beech and in h ab it it is very similar, b u t it does not seem to form pure crops as readily as F. syh a tica which m akes me think that it may be less in tolerant o f com petition and m ay throw a less dense shade. This suggestion gains som e su p p o rt from the presence o f num erous other species in this type o f forest, am ong them being Acer pseudoplatanus, A . laetum, A . campestre, Quercus iberica, Quercus petraea, Q. hartwissiana, Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia caucasica, Ulmus glabra, U. effusa (scarse) and Prunus avium. In the shrub layer were Ostrya carpinifolia, Prunus divaricata, Staphylea colchica and Euonymus leiophleus. A m ong the herbaceous vegetation, Sanicula, Polygonatum, Scolopendrium, Trachystemon orientate, Epimedium colchicum, a species o f Bromus and various others were noted. W here we were standing, the soil occurred in pockets am ong boulders and outcrops o f lim estone. It seemed to m e a typical rendzina and it was surprisingly moist. Like the beech, the oaks fare better on the north-facing slopes. F ro m the tower on the top o f the hill, there was a very fine view to the n o rth and n o rth ­ west, o f the foothills o f the Caucasus, w ooded, like ours, to the to p and with cultivated valleys between. T here were various patches which h a d been clearfelled, but these were some way off, for clear felling is n o t allow ed near the holiday resorts. On the way down, we had a better view o f the forest th an we had coming up, and one feature, at the low er levels, is the profusion o f climbing plants— Clematis vitalba chiefly, and Sm ilax, but I was able to pick out one specimen o f Periploca graeca which is m ore characteristic o f the sub-tropical plain. I saw one tree o f Pterocarya caucasica but I am sorry to say I saw no specimens o f Zel/cova crenata, th a t other w ell-known tree o f the Caucasus. On our way to the A dler airp o rt for o u r retu rn flight to M oscow we visited the yew and box grove o f K hosta, which is possibly the best exam ple o f the mixed broadleaved forest w ith evergreen undergrow th. W e turned off up a side valley and along a very bad piece o f road to arrive at a kind o f small car-park before a gate leading into the K hosta reserve. T here were good paths through the forest, recently m ade up, an d we h ad n o t gone far along the track before we discovered th a t this b it o f w oodland was one o f the regular ports o f call for the tourists. We m et several parties o f them on the p a th and, at one place where there was a clearing provided w ith rustic seats, an o th er group were sitting dow n listening to a lecture given by a w om an guide. T here is som ething rath er fine abou t this organised pursuit o f know ledge and, to a forester, it is m ost gratifying th at an interesting type o f forest should be m ade the subject o f study by the general public. The hardw ood trees, beech, hornbeam , sycam ore and N orw ay m aple are old but very fine, som e o f them being quite large and handsom ely shaped. Beneath them is the yew, running up to 70 feet or so, and beneath the yew a layer o f box trees 30-40 feet high a t the m ost. In places the box form s a very dense com plete undergrow th. T here are som e patches o f Prunus lauro-cerasus and holly, while we were to ld th a t Rhododendron flavum occurs. Ivy, Clematis, and honeysuckle are the com m on climbers. U nfortunately we did n o t have time to discuss w ith the R ussians how they were going to preserve it w ithout changing its character. N o r could we discover how th e ecological tide was flowing, whether it w ould help or hinder the m easures taken for preservation. 36 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A V IS IT T O GERM AN FO R ESTS JU N E 1956 By G. W . B A C K H O U SE Conservator, East England General. The visit, which to o k place betw een June 4th and 9th, was m ade at the invitation o f His R oyal Highness T he M arg raf o f Baden. Forests visited were: 1 Salem E state n o rth o f and abutting on Lake Constance. II Eberstein on the n o rth ern slopes o f the Black Forest. III Zw ingenberg in the N eckar Valley again owned by the M arg raf of Baden. IV Three C om m unal Forests in the N eckar Valley to the east of Zw ingen­ berg. V K arlsruhe State Forest. T he to u r o f Salem was conducted by a well-known G erm an forester, F orstd irek to r Meiss, who is in charge; the eldest son o f the M argraf, Prince M axim ilian, acted as interpreter. T he tour o f the rem aining areas was con­ ducted by F orstm eister H outenm ans o f Zwingenberg who speaks excellent English. The object o f the to u r was to study the n atural regeneration o f beech and to see som ething o f the m anagem ent o f pine forests in G erm any. Description of the Forests I. Salem E state The area under forest m anagem ent totals 10,800 acres and com prises no less th a n seventy separate blocks. It is the second largest forest unit in West G erm any. These w oods fall into tw o m ain g ro u p s: (a) the Salem group reaching dow n to the shores o f Lake C onstance and including a very varied hill system w ith m any small valleys o f glacial origin. A griculture here is m ainly fruit and vine growing and the forest is largely confined to the steeper slopes, and average altitude is 1,500 feet. (b) the u pland group slightly further n o rth and on the steeper and more rugged hillsides reaching up to the Heilingenberg p la te a u ; here altitudes average 2,250 feet. In b o th areas there is a noticeable absence o f any­ thing m ore th an a large stream . A griculture in the region o f the upland groups is largely corn growing. Climate. Over an area o f 40 by 20 miles it is to be expected th at the clim ate will vary greatly. D ow n by the lake the clim ate is m ild; in the uplands it is relatively harsh though exposure is never severe. T he high m ean tem peratures in the Salem group produce optim um growing conditions for beech and other valuable hardw oods. This area is considered to be to o hot for optim um grow th of spruce. T he lower m ean tem peratures on th e upland zone produces excellent growing conditions for spruce and silver fir. T here is little d o ubt th at the presence o f Lake C onstance produces a m ore equable climate in its vicinity— indeed on a small island in the lake sem i-tropical plants thrive. It has also been show n th a t th e “ lens effect” o f this large stretch o f w ater increases the light intensity u p to six miles aw ay; this is said to be sufficient to affect tree growth. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 37 R ainfall varies between 28 and 44 inches per annum , average 36 inches, and is well distributed over the year. Close to Lake C onstance little snow falls but in the upland areas there are heavy falls. Geology and Soils. T he geological basis is m orainic alluvium and diluvium . There is very considerable variation even locally; thus there are chalky clays and sands, sandstone and pebble beds. Soils are generally very fertile brow n forest soils though locally on the highly calcareous types rendzinas are dis­ tinguishable. Silviculture and Management. The chief species is beech with N orw ay spruce, Scots pine, E uropean larch and som e oak, ash, sycam ore and D ouglas fir. The system on which the w oods are w orked is in the m ain a strip felling system with natural regeneration though at times group regeneration m ay be used. The F orstdirektor has full freedom to adapt the m ethod to be used to the particular circumstances. Starting with the young regeneration this will probably consist o f 95 per cent beech with groups o f N orw ay spruce, E uropean larch and some Scots pine. Infrequently there m ay be groups o f ash, oak and sycamore. This re­ generation is relieved o f all cover quite early in its life—when 12 to 18 inches high. In spite o f the quite excellent conditions for regeneration over alm ost the whole area there are always a few gaps, usually n o t m ore th a n a m etre or two across, and there are always w eaker patches in addition. A dvantage is taken o f such gaps to introduce conifers, e.g. D ouglas fir, Japanese larch, N orw ay spruce, E uropean larch and Scots pine where these are lacking in the regenera­ tion. All planted trees, an d N orw ay spruce, Scots pine and E uropean larch if scarce, m ust be protected against rubbing by roe deer. The ideal is considered to be dense regeneration really well established before grass has had tim e to becom e established. H ow ever dense m ats o f grass were rarely seen even on the heavier soils and if a herb layer did manage to get established it was predom inantly w oodrush, Luzula sp. The regeneration is weeded if below the grasses and weeds, even twice a year if necessary. Subsequently the regeneration is gone through each year— weed species are cut as necessary, the m ore valuable conifers relieved (p ar­ ticularly E uropean larch) and rough forked beech are cut back. This work is mostly done at this stage with long-handled secateurs. G radually this im provem ent treatm ent drops to a three year cycle and the wood develops into a dense thicket o f rath er draw n beech o f fine quality with the conifers out on top. G reat em phasis is placed on keeping the E uropean larch free and m aintaining deep crowns on every one. The treatm ent proceeds gradually, rem oving the weaker unw anted beech until a pole w ood forms. So treatm ent passes from Stage 1— the negative stage, to Stage II the positive stage which aims at rem oving all trees which would dam age the final crop. D am age to the final crop is always anticipated and action is never delayed until dam age has occurred. T he thinnings in Stage II— always crown thinnings—aim at the retention o f the m inor constituent o f the crop. This treatm ent gradually produces stands which ideally consist o f three definite layers—the upperm ost o f scattered E uropean larch— Scots pine, all fine clean 38 JO U RN A L OF TI-IL FORFSTRY COMMISSION poles ultimately reaching a height o f 140 feet or so and having fine crowns, the middle or m ain layer o f beech, N orw ay spruce and such other shade-tolerant species as the crop may contain, and then the lower layer o f suppressed beech which provides perfect soil cover. The persistent crown thinnings enable this understorey to survive and great em phasis is put on its m aintenance. O ften regeneration will come in also but it is never cared for until required—age and grow th o f the overw ood only determ ines this, and the staff is safe in the knowledge that good regeneration can always be obtained w ith little trouble when required. On this point it seems reasonably obvious th at, though bum per m ast years may be but little m ore frequent th an in Britain, years in which there is no m ast are rare. It is equally obvious th a t at Salem masts which in Britain would produce negligible regeneration produce there excellent crops. This is alm ost certainly due to better m anagem ent o f the soil and soil cover and absence o f such enemies as the pigeon and grey squirrel. There being no winged game, raptorial birds are n o t controlled, and this may welf result in low population o f vole, etc. Som etim es regeneration produces a stand o f pure N orw ay spruce, pure beech or ash, but the total area is never large and this rarely repeats in the subsequent rotatio n . The aim is always for this mixed forest and it was noted th at in the younger stands there were fewer areas o f pure species th an in the older crops. A t the higher elevation silver fir (Abies alba) comes in, tending to replace the N orw ay spruce but never doing so entirely and the general effect is as before. The general objective in the mixed woods is to remove any Douglas fir at 70 years and the N orw ay spruce between the 70th and 100th years, but this is not a hard and fast rule and rem oval is always adjusted to allow the crop to close up quickly. Stocking a t all ages is very dense by British standards. T here is no definite rule as to when regeneration shall commence. The F orstd irek to r starts when he feels (senses) th a t it is opportune. Occasionally he m ay start with a group which he has m ade, or which has occurred naturally, and from this work outw ards gradually, coalescing it with similar groups and so m oving on a wide front th ro u g h the wood. How ever the m ore usual m ethod is a strip system ; strips three or so chains wide a t right angles to the prevailing wind. T he first step is to cut all advance regeneration and m uch o f the lower storey to let in light; at the sam e tim e the upper storey is lightened. R e­ generation comes quickly and then two to three years later the rem aining over­ w ood is removed. The group system tends to be used m ore at higher elevations but even here there is no h ard and fast rule. Successive strips o f regeneration are always ‘m erged’ by cutting in the m argin o f the older strip and indeed this policy is applied to groups also so th a t after treatm ent the group is like an inverted saucer. W here the young regeneration does n o t contain the desired proportion o f such species as Scots pine, a m other tree m ay b e left— often 100 feet high with a fine cylindrical stem. Such a tree rarely blows and is left to be cut with the advance portion o f the next crop. Occasionally the advance regeneration contains Scots pine up to 20 feet high perhaps 20 to 30 years old. Such are o f course, slow-grown, partially suppressed individuals w ith fine branches. These trees are greatly prized; they are pruned and cared for an d retained as p a rt o f the new crop. They are said to be the type which grow on to m ake the finest and biggest trees at an age o f 130 years or more. P runing o f pole w oods is often carried out with the object o f m aintaining one-third o f the stem clean, but never pruning higher than one dead whorl below the living crown. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 39 Production. The aim is fine cylindrical poles o f to p quality in all species. Beech is only valuable in big sizes. C ontrol o f production is based on the “ M ethode du C ontrole” . Assessment is m ade every ten years and one was recently com pleted though the results had not been w orked up at the tim e o f the visi’t. The cut has been fixed at 924,000 hoppus feet per annum for som e tim e— this over 9,750 acres. Increm ent averages 112.2 hoppus feet per acre per annum over the whole and the standing volum e 4,350 per acre (all ages). The 924,000 hoppus feet cut each year is m ade up as follows: N orw ay spruce, silver fir, D ouglas fir 40% Scots pine sleepers and joists 2% Scots pine an d E uropean larch logs 10% V arious conifer poles 7% Conifer pulpw ood .... 9% Beech logs .... 7% Beech sleepers 2% Various hardw ood logs 1% H ardw ood pulpw ood 1% F irew ood (conifers) 5% B rushw ood (fuel?) .... 8% H ardw ood firewood 8% H ardw ood brushw ood 6% Overcutting is always avoided and a reserve is always available to m eet an emergency and hence the last war had no serious effect. All felling is done by the forest staff and extraction is by horse and provides useful seasonal w ork for th e local farm ers. T ractors and winches are however coming in b u t are n o t liked as causing m ore dam age. Rotations. The following ro tations are average only; there are always exceptions as local circum stances dictate. N orw ay spruce 80— 100 years D ouglas fir .... 60— 70 „ Scots pine .... 140 „ E uropean larch 140 „ Beech 130 „ O ak .... 140 „ Poplar 60 „ Ash, etc. 90 „ Silver fir 120 „ Protection. T he m ixed n atu re o f th e stands and the high standard o f m anage­ m ent produces w oods w hich are rem arkably free from diseases. The only m ajor insect pest is a b ark beetle (Ips sp. ?) which attacks spruce, and has given m uch trouble in the province in recent years, necessitating heavy clear fellings on neighbouring estates. A t Salem no really serious dam age has occurred but any trees showing signs o f attack are felled and all felled trees are peeled at once. R abbits are non-existent, pigeons are scarce and squirrels uncom m on. Sporting. F rom the 16th to 18th centuries sporting had precedence over silvi­ culture in the Salem W ood an d indeed this appears to have been norm al over the whole o f G erm any at th a t time. The G ran d D uke ordered the reduction o f the deer stock (red deer) in 1835 and this order was carried out w ithin three years. But they increased again 40 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION until in the year 1848 the revolution resulted in uncontrolled hunting over a very wide area and the head o f deer was again greatly reduced. M any o f the fine stands seen on the estate today date from this period. Today, however, destruction by deer is rarely seen in the Salem W oods. T o some extent this is due to the nature o f the woods but mainly to the fact th a t deer are kept w ithin p roper bounds. T he owner is an enthusiastic hunter but first and forem ost is a forester and farmer. T he annual kill each tenth year up to 1943 was: — 223 1943 — 137 1933 — 58 1923 — 94 1913 — 65 1903 — 47 1893 — 97 1883 — 34 1873 — 33 1863 T he increase in the last two decades— in spite o f a reduction o f total area o f woods, is notew orthy and it is recognised th a t the population o f roe deer is by no m eans small. How ever there is no conflict between forestry and game and the latter m aintains its proper place in the forest com m unity. Very careful costing o f the sporting has been m ade at Salem for over 80 years and the figures show th at it is always run at a loss. This in spite o f the fact th a t roe venison is the m ost expensive m eat in G erm any. Browsing o f young beech is u n im p o rtan t as there is always alm ost an un­ lim ited am o u n t o f this available. How ever the m ore uncom m on species such as E uropean larch, Japanese larch, D ouglas fir and Scots pine have always to be protected. Even N orw ay spruce is protected when in small num bers. This protection against browsing is confined to the first few years o f the life o f the trees and usually takes the form o f sm earing the trees with a m ixture o f clay, lime or chalk, mixed w ith liquid cow m anure. Each forester has his favourite specific. W hen the trees to be protected get slightly larger they are protected from browsing and rubbing by various m eans—strips o f tinfoil w ound round the branches, spiky wire contraptions, spirals o f wire round the leaders, very often augm ented by a stake driven into the ground close to the tree. W ithout such measures there is little dou b t th a t the desired proportion o f these valuable species could n o t be m aintained. Roads. T here is trem endous em phasis on the im portance o f roads in the forest and on extraction facilities generally. W ithin the forest all roads are merely d irt roads an d in spite o f the heavy rainfall they stand up very well. Some 160 miles o f such roads have been constructed in the last thirty years. The great intensity o f roads m eans th a t no ro ad gets continuous heavy use and hence m aintenance is less. T here is a definite policy o f avoiding wide unplanted strips along ro ad sides which w ould be necessary if wide m etalled roads o f a higher standard were adopted. These roads cost 10^. to 40j. per running yard for the form ation and 10j\ to 20s. per yard for surfacing. Miscellaneous. Each gang o f w orkm en—usually not m ore than six in num ber is provided with a p ortable w ooden hut. Such a hut can be dism antled and re­ erected w ithin an hour. It saves the cost o f large num bers o f shelters scattered over the forest an d provides a higher stan d ard o f com fort th an w ould these NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 41 latter. Each hut has a portab le stove—an essential in a country where the m id­ day meal is the m ain m eal o f the day. II. Forest of Eberstein General. Situated on n o rth ern edge o f Black M ountains, 825 acres only. G ranitic soils. Exposure never severe, as sheltered by Black F orest m ountains to South and South West. V egetation varies from bracken on the better soils to VacciniumjDeschampsia flexuosa on dry ridges. There was som e heavy felling during the w ar years, m uch w indblow n and some felled due to attacks o f spruce b ark beetles; hence there is an undue p ro ­ portion o f young plantations. Species and Silviculture. The older plantations consist o f silver fir, beech, spruce and E uropean larch an d are up to 140 years old. G enerally they are even-aged and often have a sparse understorey o f beech regeneration. G row th is m oderate only, though better in the hollows, and there are some larch on the ridges. Strip fellings som e 100 yards wide are used, and regeneration which is sparse is com pleted by planting. P lanting is an o pportunity to introduce exotics and every effort is m ade to thus enrich all young crops. T hus the n atu ral young crops of E uropean larch, beech, N orw ay spruce and silver fir also contain a proportion o f Scots pine, thuya, D ouglas fir and W eym outh pine. Y oung plantations o f red o ak were also seen. Miscellaneous. A gain great em phasis is p u t on the im portance o f a good road system to enable tim ber m erchants to get their equipm ent close to the stum p. Bird-boxes to encourage the nesting o f coal-tits are w idespread. R oe deer are present in such num bers as to necessitate deer fencing o f all newly planted or regenerated areas. Trees introduced as enrichm ent have to be protected individually—either by sleeve netting or one o f the m any other means employed. III. Forest of Zwingenberg General. The forest covers 5,000 acres in 16 blocks and is situated in the south­ east p art o f the O denw ald. Elevations range from 400 to 1,500 feet though m ost is between 900 an d 1,500 feet. Generally the forest is on the steep slopes o f the valley o f the N eckar and its tributaries. Climate. Rainfall 36 to 40 inches per annum . T he clim ate is n o t severe any­ where though the tops are fairly exposed an d here snow can lie for long periods. Soils, etc. The underlying rocks are variegated sandstones which are soft and erode easily. T here is loess over the sandstone in places. Soils are deep sandy loams which are lacking in lime. Silviculture and M anagem ent. T he forest was originally coppice oak, beech> hornbeam , birch an d hazel but was converted to H igh Forest during the early nineteenth century. G enerally th e forest now consists o f beech, larch, spruce and Scots pine w ith som e stands o f mixed spruce and silver fir. There is one stand o f 50 acres o f red oak. The annual cut is fixed at 320,000 hoppus feet, i.e. 64 hoppus feet per acre. In the four years 1951 to 1955, however, over 1 million hoppus feet were lost because o f gale dam age and snowbreak. The forest has been the subject o f a W orking Plan since 1839. Each plan covers a ten year period an d an essential prelim inary to the preparation o f a new plan is a com plete stocktaking o f the whole forest. G reat care is taken to 42 JO URNAL OF fH E FORESTRY COMMISSION ensure th at th e increm ent is not overcut, while the opposite evil o f over-stocking is avoided. F ro m time to tim e the local state forest “ C onservator” is called in to give a full rep o rt on m anagem ent. R egeneration is carried out by a system o f strip fellings m oving progressively from N orth-E ast to South-W est. R e­ generation usually comes readily provided “ the wind is kept out and the m oisture in” . A m ixed w ood is always the aim and again great emphasis is placed on the im portance o f a small p ro p o rtio n o f E uropean larch, Scots pine and D ouglas fir to produce the early financial returns, these being planted if necessary. O n the h o t dry slopes regeneration o f beech is not easy and an overwood is essential. In some such sites strip cultivation is carried out and it is n o te­ w orthy th a t in such areas the beech are virtually confined to the cultivated strips. R egeneration once established is given m uch the same treatm ent as seen at Salem—cutting out bad beech for the benefit o f better ones and also to keep a deep crow n on the E uropean larch, etc. A djoining strips o f regeneration are ‘m erged’ by cutting into the older strips. The com parative depths o f rooting o f the three m ain species was illustrated in soil pits on th e loess plateau—N orw ay spruce shallow and both beech and silver fir very deep. T he silver fir suffers from Adelges dam age, but its share in the woods is strictly limited by m aintaining an uneven canopy, mixing plantations and avoiding large even-aged blocks. Every tree introduced as enrichm ent has to be protected from deer and it is recognised th a t the population o f red and roe deer necessitates expensive counter-m easures if the plantations are n o t to suffer. W here the soil is considered to be deteriorating due to base deficiency, pow dered lime is applied by blow ing into the p lantation from the rides, using a pow er-blow er, a t the rate o f 32 tons p er acre. Roads. G reat em phasis is p u t on the value o f a good road system which has been greatly extended in recent years. T he intensity o f roads is greater th an in neighbouring State Forests. Each o f the six beats has a roadm an whose jo b is first aid repairs—particularly to see th a t all gutters are open and w ater kept off the road. Utilization. A ll tim ber is felled by th e forest staff and extracted to roadside by the ubiquitous U nim og tractor. There is a ready sale for all tim ber except red oak. Miscellaneous. A ll foresters are provided w ith motorcycles. T here is a scheme whereby w orkers are helped to buy m otorcycles by loans. Birds are encouraged by provision o f nesting boxes and it is found econom ical to purchase boxes m ade from saw dust brickettes. IV. Communal and Church Forests Several C om m unal and one C hurch F orest were visited. All were situated in the O denw ald and in each the general object o f m anagem ent is to produce beech forest m ixed w ith other species, though on areas at higher elevation this gives way to spruce an d silver fir. R egeneration is usually by strip fellings though som e groups were seen. In the C hurch F orest heavier stockings o f larch were seen and dam age by Ips was pointed out. A few badly dam aged trees h ad been felled to act as tra p s ; the b ark was sprayed, an d before breeding was com pleted the logs were peeled and all sprayed again. M ost larch in forest were suffering from a severe NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 43 attack o f leaf-m iner an d it was gathered th a t this is usual. Y oung larch plants are protected from weevil attack by placing strips o f spruce bark, w ith twigs of Douglas fir inside, aro u n d the area. W hen prepared, the bark is sprayed w ith an insecticide which kills the weevils and obviates the necessity o f hand collection. Parts o f these C om m unal Forests are at high elevation and a vegetation o f Vaccinium under the mixed beech w oods was n o t uncom m on; such areas were being im proved by application o f lime as previously described. The last forest visited, th at o f N eckareltz, is situated on lim estone and here the m ost extensive and dense regeneration o f beech was seen. It resulted from rem oval o f firewood by the local populace in 1946 coinciding with a good m ast year. In this forest good beech m ast occurs on an average every five to six years. General Note on State Control of Private Forestry in Germany The State F orest district officer generally prepares the W orking Plan for the C om m unal Forests and the C om m une pays a small fee for his general aid. Each year this officer produces an annual w orking plan which has to be approved by the burgom aster before passing on to the forester who will have to carry out its prescription. If the burgom aster and district officer do n o t agree the la tte rs superior officer gives his decision. Over the large private estates control is light but each m ust have a W orking Plan approved by the State Service. T he State only steps in w hen the estate fails to restock a felled area and when necessary in the interests o f forest hygiene. The smaller estates are subject to closer control. T he careful supervision is aim ed at preventing devastation and the spreading o f disease. These small estates usually are w ithout w orking plans and hence any clear felling is subject to licence to which suitable conditions are attached. A g u arantor is required by each applicant. The State can take over control if things go wrong. There is extensive forest legislation over the whole o f W est G erm any but the provinces have additional laws. In Baden the present law enables the State to say w hat land shall be forest land (the local A gricultural Officer takes the decision) and a gran t for new planting following such an order is m ade by the State—about £4 per acre followed by a sm aller m aintenance grant for three years. Conclusion O f the m any lessons learned, the following have been chosen as applying m ost readily to conditions in England. The im portance o f m anaging beech w oods so as to enable regeneration to be obtained when w anted. The m aintenance o f an understorey to protect the soil is obviously the m ost im p o rtan t single factor—m any o f the beech woods in England are com pletely bare underneath a tall dense canopy, or else growing dense grasses or bram bles if the canopy is open. The great value o f enriching even perfect beech regeneration both to obtain a m ore valuable retu rn from the area an d to m aintain a healthier wood. The im portance o f early treatm ent o f beech regeneration in order to obtain a crop of fine stems from which an elite crop can later be selected. The value o f a really adequate netw ork o f dirt roads for all m anagem ent reasons. On the question o f deer the lesson to be learned is th a t even in mixed woods with a norm al series o f age-classes an d m ore or less perfect conditions for roe deer the price which can be paid to m ain tain a heavy stock is high. It seems unlikely th a t our ow n even-aged forests, often w ith large blocks o f one species, can sustain even a m oderate head o f deer w ithout serious dam age resulting. 44 JOURNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION GIBRALTAR By E. J. H A L E Clerical Officer, Alice Holt T arik ibn Zeyad! H ow gratifying such a nam e m ust have been to its owner — a M oorish leader o f the 8th century—for when emphasis is placed on Zeyad! it rings out like a w ar cry th at this bearded w arrior, astride his restless arab horse, may often have used when he captured and held as a fortress the mighty bluff o f rock tw ixt his hom eland and Spain. F rom the flowery title o f this rollicking cut-throat cam e the nam e G ebel T arik (T arik’s hill) and from this was derived G ibraltar, a nam e as h ard an d heavy as the rock itself. M ention G ibraltar and som eone is alm ost sure to say “ But surely very little can grow in such a place” . I too until I lived there f o r a year imagined it to be but a military and naval base. M y first big surprise was on a brilliant m orning when I looked through m y cabin porthole and found we were at anchor close in; the steep western slopes o f “ G ib” filled my circle o f vision so th a t only by craning my neck could I discern a strip o f blue sky. I saw plenty o f rock but also to my am azem ent large expanses o f sunlit greenery stood out boldly against the white limestone. F o r the next twelve m onths I spent m any pleasant spare tim e hours roam ing the rock from the seabirds’nesting places on the East side around E uropa point w ith its dangerous swirling currents and tiny bays where octopus could always be found, up and dow n the western slopes where a m ultitude o f plants, shrubs and trees were flourishing in the scanty soil, over the unstable screes o f north front, w ater catchm ent areas, sandy beaches, and the com parative subtropical lushness o f the public gardens—flora and fauna in plenty I discovered every­ where an d I h ad thought it was m ostly bare rock. G ib raltar is only three miles long by ab o u t a mile wide with a to tal area of under three square miles and the highest poin t is 1,396 feet but the natural and artificial w orks th a t exist in this tiny space are truly rem arkable. The population o f over 30,000 is daily augm ented by an influx o f thousands o f Spaniards who w ork in the dockyards and tow n. T here is a cathedral and a num ber of churches, the streets are full o f cars and there are m any shops, cinemas, theatres, clubs, hotels, schools, barracks, w orkshops an d hundreds o f houses to m ake a busy built-up area, but there are also m any acres o f public gardens and steep hillside covered w ith vegetation. T he clim ate is one o f the m ost enjoyable one could wish for as m ost o f the annual rainfall o f 28-30 inches occurs in N ovem ber, D ecem ber and January and the rest o f the year is m ostly dry, the tem perature range being between 40°F and 80°F, for the sum m er heat is tem pered by a sea breeze. As there is a negligible rainfall for eight or nine m onths every year w ater supply is a real problem an d large catchm ent areas have been laid out which have piped outlets to tanks in the rock. T he prevailing wind in the sum m er is from the E ast and sometimes a w arm breeze laden w ith m oisture know n as the “ Levanter” strikes the eastern face o f the rock, condenses in the sky above and causes a cloud pall to hang over the city and bay. D uring this period the clim ate is hum id and relaxing. T he geological form ation o f G ib raltar is o f a basic rock o f white/grey lim estone. A bove this is a m ixture o f shales, grit, sandstone and lim estone with here an d there lim estone breccias, bone breccias and calcareous sandstones as well as loose sand an d debris. T he whole place is honeycom bed w ith caverns the greatest o f which is St. M ichael’s cave w ith its entrance 1,100 feet above sea level on the w estern face. A steep slope a t the entrance leads to a hall 200 feet NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 45 long and 70 feet high containing a w onderful display o f stalactites and this cave is connected by tw isting passages to four other caves and deep pools o f w ater but now it is all electrically lit and som ething o f a tourist attraction. A century ago D r. E. F. K elaart in his Flora Calpensis listed over 400 flowering plants an d ferns as indigenous to G ib raltar and about 50 as introduced. Since then the form er have decreased but introduced species have doubled or even trebled. A t all times o f the year there is colour and verdure. In autum n the “ Pepper tree” , Schinus molle, has its gracefully drooping branches laden w ith clusters o f red berries an d in sum m er the aloes flaunt long spikes o f scarlet. Fig trees grow out o f old walls everywhere and the wild olive is a welcome shade tree. The stone pine grows well in and aro u n d the public A lam eda gardens and here too can be seen a few date palms, the d w arf palm, Chamaerops humilis, orange, lem on an d ban an a and m ost colourful o f all hedges o f bougainvillea with flowers o f m ost brilliant m auve and red. W hat a place this is too for geraniums, now here have I seen better whilst high up in the rock white drifts o f “ rock lilies” , Narcissus bulbocodium, were a delight to the eye. The tall variety prickly pear, Opumia monocantha, which is I believe n o t a native but was introduced from South Am erica, flourishes all over the place and has quite handsom e golden yellow flowers. Here and there are odd trees o f Scots pine b u t the flat spreading crown and scaly bark o f Pinus pinea is m ore in evidence. T here are too a few old trees o f the C arob or locust bean, Ceratonia siliqua, an evergreen th a t is hung with brow n beans 6 to 9 inches long in the autum n. A peculiar tree w ith an odd name is Phytolacca dioica, thought to have been introduced by G eneral D on and also known as bella-som bra. It is a very fast growing evergreen w ith a b u tt­ ressed tru n k up to six feet thick an d leaves like those o f black poplar. A relation o f the elms, Celtis australis, or the nettle tree, is found here and there but never grows very tall, the b ark is sm ooth and grey and there are small greenish flowers, b u t it is the fruit which is o f interest for it is a drupe about as long as a pea, alm ost black, sweet to the taste and is said to have been the lotus of the ancients—th a t delicious fruit which . . . “ m ade those who ate it forget their own cou n try ” . O n the upper rock are native oaks, Quercus ilex, which bear burdens o f long pointed acorns in Septem ber ; lining the roads th at zig-zag to the top o f the rock are blue gums whilst on the w estern side are some m ountain cedars—in actual fact the jun ip er—Juniperus oxycedrus, another native and a hardier form o f Juniperus cedrus. It grows up to 25 feet and has reddish brow n berries ab o u t h a lf an inch across. Shrubs were plentiful and grew on all but the steepest slopes— Cistusalbidus sported large pink flowers in M ay with white dow ny leaves and Genista scorpius grew up to 6 feet high having m any spreading spiny branches and clusters o f yellow flowers in spring. I found three ox four kinds o f Cytisus, one 8 feet tall and all having yellow flowers. There were a few castor oil plants w ith thick stems and green leaves tinged with purple and some shrubby sages with violet flowers which were, I think, Salvia triloba var. calpeana. A nother herb I noticed was pennyroyal, but this was a prostrate variety w ith deep green leaves an d pale purple flowers, probably M entha pulegium var. gibraltarica. O f wild orchids I saw only tw o— Orchis speculum—the looking glass orchid which bears yellowish-green flowers in A pril and Orchis lactea with pale lilac flowers in M arch, but I understand th a t a t least six kinds have been seen growing on the rock. I m ust also m ention two lovely little irises th a t grow on the upper rock, one o f them bears pale lilac flowers and the other has blooms o f violet-purple w ith yellow bands. B arbary apes which are protected, like the cows in India, roam everywhere, hoopoes stru t and flourish their crests in the A lam eda gardens and blue rock 46 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION thrushes sing in the sunshine, whilst a climb to a thousand feet will reveal a brilliant blue sea on three sides and the sunburnt Spanish countryside on the fo u rth w ith th e little tow n o f San R oque a startling white in the m iddle distance fram ed by the high Sierras beyond. Across the straits distance lends enchant­ m ent to the A frican coastline which is dom inated by the A tlas m ountains, deep blue snow -capped and magnificent. FO RESTRY IN G R E A T B R I T A I N A R EV IEW By H. L. E D L IN Publications Officer T he forestry situation in G reat Britain is rem arkable for two factors. First, the n et quantity o f tim ber and tim ber products im ported is the largest for any country in Europe, or indeed the whole world. Second, the pro p o rtio n of land devoted to the raising of tree crops is little m ore th an 6 per cent and so alm ost the lowest in Europe, and hom e-grow n tim ber consequently form s only a small proportion, less th an 10 per cent, o f the total consum ption o f wood. T he forest policy o f G reat Britain is directed to redressing this unfavourable situation by large scale replanting and afforestation. The N atural Setting Situation, Topography, Geology and Soils. T he m ainland o f G reat Britain forms an island o f very irregular outline extending for 700 miles from N o rth to South, and being 300 miles from W est to E ast a t its widest point. It lies between 50° and 58° 20' N o rth in latitude an d 2° E ast an d 6° W est in longitude. A lthough only 20 miles from the coast o f France at its nearest south-easterly point, it is separated from Scandinavia by distances as great as 400 miles further N orth. It m ay thus be regarded as an insular projection o f the m ain E uropean C ontinent far out into the A tlantic Ocean, and this circum stance gives it a m aritim e clim ate very different from th a t o f other E uropean countries in the sam e latitudes. T he m aritim e influence o f the w arm G u lf Stream in the N o rth A tlantic gives a generally m ild winter clim ate, b u t the situation o f G reat B ritain a t the meeting point o f continental an d oceanic air masses results in very unstable w eather conditions, characterised by sudden changes a t any season o f the year. F u rth er B ritain’s isolated and insular position renders it liable to high winds and gales. Politically, G reat B ritain is divided into three countries which will be used for convenience in the descriptions th a t follow. The ancient kingdom o f Scot­ land extends to the N o rth o f a boundary running from the Solway F irth on the W est to the River Tw eed on the East, occupying about 30 per cent o f the island. W ales, occupying ab o u t 10 per cent, lies to the W est o f England, betw een the River D ee an d the River Severn, while E ngland comprises the rem aining Southern and E astern areas, or some 60 per cent o f the whole. M ost o f E ngland consists o f plains or low hills seldom exceeding 1,000 feet in altitude, b u t in the N o rth and also in the South-west, m oorlands and m o u n ­ tains reaching 2,000 or even 3,000 feet are found. Both W ales and Scotland are m ountainous, with m any peaks reaching 3,000 feet and a m axim um height o f 4,400 feet on Ben Nevis in the W est o f Scotland. The hills and m ountains occupy roughly h a lf o f the island, and all lie tow ards the N o rth and West. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 47 A lthough the elevations are not high by E uropean standards, they com bine with the N ortherly latitude and severe exposure to the W esterly gales to form a m ajor lim iting factor to tree grow th. The upper limit o f econom ic afforestation is now here higher th an 2,000 feet, and locally in the W est o f Scotland it may be as low as 500 feet. It follows from this th at in Scotland, the N o rth and W est of England and W ales, forests are confined to the valleys am id the higher m oun­ tains, or to the lower hills; whereas in the South and E ast o f E ngland there is no altitudinal limit to tree growth. The pattern o f geological strata is very complex, since all geological periods are represented, though often by fairly narrow bands or sm all areas o f each particular stratum . But broadly speaking it follows the m ain topography. The older and h arder rocks, which are m ost resistant to erosion and yield the least fertile soils, lie tow ards the N o rth and W est, where they build up the m ountain ranges. The South and East have younger and softer rocks, w ith on the whole gentler slopes and m ore fertile soils. T hroughout the country, the general run o f the strata is from South-w est to N orth-east. M ost o f the rocks are siliceous in character, but there are several groups o f calcareous rocks, lying m ostly in the South-eastern or low land portion o f G reat Britain. One is the chalk, which forms the fam ous white cliffs o f D over in the extrem e South-east; bands of chalk form ing low hills know n as “ dow ns” or “ w olds” are found as far W est as Devon and as far N o rth as Y orkshire. The others consist o f C arboniferous and Jurassic limestones, which outcrop as long narrow bands from the South coast across the M idlands to the N o rth o f England, and locally in Scotland and Wales. In Scotland, N o rth Wales, and South-w est England, there are con­ siderable areas o f volcanic rocks, while m etam orphic rocks prevail over m ost of the Scottish Highlands. It is not possible to indicate any broad distribution o f soils in G reat Britain, for they are spread in an intricate pattern th at is n o t always closely related to the underlying rocks. One reason for this is the extensive glaciation th at affected nearly all the country during the great Ice Ages. There is often a thick deposit o f clay, m orainic gravel, or even blown sand, covering the underlying rock; and it is this deposit, and not the m ain stratum , th at form s the soil’s parent m aterial. Organic soils form ed m ore recently from peat also cover great areas, and hide both the glacial drift and the m ain rock form ation. These peaty soils are m ost frequent under the high rainfall o f the N o rth and W est, and because o f their low agricultural value are frequently available for afforestation. Podsolized soils, usually associated with a vegetation o f heather, Calluna vulgaris, are com m on over glacial drifts in the E ast o f Scotland and N orth-east England, and also locally over sandy strata farther South in England. Gley soils, associated with waterlogged sites, are found on glacial clays along the Borders between England and Scotland, and also on other clays in the English M idlands and elsewhere. Rendzina soils are com m on on the chalk and the limestones, while sand dunes or sandy deposits have been afforested at several points along the coast and locally inland. Brown earths are found under standing tree crops in m any districts, but are seldom available for new planting. In general, the m ore favourable soils in B ritain have been cleared for agriculture, and the forester is usually concerned w ith the less fertile or less tractable soil types. Climate A lthough the clim ate o f G reat Britain is often described as tem perate, th at conclusion rests on average values for tem perature, rainfall, and wind, which conceal wide extremes. The m ain clim atic features vary to a surprising extent an d w ithin short periods o f time, in an unpredictable fashion, so it would be misleading to attem pt any simple account. The British clim ate includes 48 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION som e characteristics which are favourable to tree growth, but others very adverse to the forester’s work. The extrem e range o f tem perature is from 10°F to 100°F, the means varying from 40°F in January to 60°F in July. Since the tem peratures, even in winter, are generally above freezing point, it is possible to dig the ground and therefore to carry out nursery w ork an d tree planting from A utum n through W inter to Spring; but this favourable circum stance cannot be entirely relied on, for work is apt to be stopped by a spell o f frosty w eather th at may last for several weeks. B rief and often local night frosts are ap t to occur very late in the Spring, in M ay or even in June, and these do severe harm to young shoots o f trees th at may have proved quite hardy to w inter cold. Severe winters occur with sufficient frequency to rule o u t several kinds o f exotics from the w arm er tem perate zones, in particular the A ustralian Eucalyptus genus. R ainfall shows great local v ariation; some districts on the East coast receive only 20 inches a year, whereas certain W estern m ountains get 200 inches. Average values are 30 inches for the South-eastern lowlands and 50 to 60 inches for the N o rth ern and W estern hills. It has been custom ary to regard these am ounts as everywhere adequate for tree growth, but it has recently been appreciated (R. F. W ood, 1957) th a t during the m ain growing season, from A pril to Septem ber, the loss from evaporation exceeds the gain from rainfall over m ost o f South and E ast England, though not elsewhere. This may explain why the rate o f grow th o f spruces and other moisture-loving trees is higher in the N o rth and West. A lthough the rainfall is fairly evenly spread around the year, there is usually a pronounced dry spell during the spring m onths, between M arch and M ay. This renders nursery w ork m ore difficult and tree planting less certain, and it greatly increases the risk from forest fires. O ccasional sum m er droughts can also be serious. Snow seldom lies for long in' winter below 2,000 feet, but heavy snow storm s are fairly frequent, particularly on the eastern side o f the country. D am age to branches and foliage caused by clinging wet snow or hoar frost is occasionally severe. Average w ind speeds range from 10 miles per hour in the M idlands o f E ngland to 15 miles per h o u r on the W est coast o f Scotland. The prevailing winds are w arm , m oisture-laden, south-westerly ones, but cold, dry, n o rth ­ easterly winds m ay blow for several weeks on end, particularly in spring. Gales w ith w ind speeds u p to 80 miles per h o u r occur quite frequently, and on extrem e occasions speeds o f 100 miles per h our have been recorded. D uring an average w inter m ost parts o f the country suffer two or three severe gales, usually from the South-w est b u t occasionally from the N orth-w est or N orth-cast. The risk o f dam age to tree crops from windblow is therefore a constant concern of the forester, an d is a subject o f current research. The native forest flora o f Britain, having been derived originally from the neighbouring continent o f E urope, appears well suited to the clim atic conditions o f the South and East. B ut it is perhaps less well adapted to the N o rth ern and W estern highlands, from which indeed certain species, such as beech, black poplar, an d field elm, are absent. The in troduction o f new tim ber-producing trees from ab ro ad has involved their testing under our uncertain climate. G enerally, it has been found th a t trees from regions with a clearly defined m arch o f sum m er and w inter tem perature, such as E astern N o rth America, thrive poorly in Britain. But those from regions w ith a m aritim e climate, being accustom ed to m ore fluctuating conditions, succeed; in particular, conifers from W estern N o rth A m erica have done well. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 49 Historical Review Natural Forest Cover Over the whole o f Britain th e processes o f deforestation by grazing, burning, and clearances for agriculture, tim ber or firewood, have been carried to a point further th an is found in m ost E uropean countries. So little natural forest cover remains th a t it can contribute nothing substantial to the co untry’s tim ber supplies. It is o f little m ore than academ ic interest to botanists, ecologists, and o f course, to foresters. But m uch research has been carried out on it, p ar­ ticularly through the m edium o f pollen grains an d fragm ents o f w ood preserved in peat bogs. D ealing with the historical period only, from the beginning o f the C hristian era onw ards, the following b road picture can be drawn. The principal tree grow ing in the South and E ast o f Britain was the pedun­ culate oak, Quercus robur, which form ed extensive forests on the heavier so ils; towards the N o rth and W est, and particularly in the Scottish H ighlands and in Wales, its place was taken by the sessile oak, Quercus petraea, which is m ore at hom e on the lighter soils. A ssociated w ith these oaks, in different parts o f the country, were various kinds o f elms ( Ulmus species), poplars (Populus species), limes (Tilia species), and birches (Betula species), and also ash (Fraxinus excelsior), beech (Fagus sylvatica), and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). Hazel ('Corylus avellana) was com m on as an undershrub. Some o f these trees form ed pure woods in certain situations, notably ash on lim estone and beech on chalk. Alder (Alnus glutinosa) and several kinds o f willows (Salix species) prevailed in m oist places. This kind o f w oodland is regarded as an extension o f the deciduous broadleaved forest o f Europe. Over the Scottish H ighlands, an d locally farther South, a different type o f woodland was found. This is regarded as an outlier o f the n o rthern coniferous forest of E urope, but possessed only one im p o rtant coniferous tree, the Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris. T he spruce (Picea abies), the silver fir (Abies alba), and the larch (Larix decidua), com m on in continental Europe, are n o t native to Britain. W ith the evergreen pines was associated the deciduous birch. Small areas of this prim eval n atu ral forest survive in certain Scottish glens, where they are the subject o f m uch interest an d some research. Planted Woods under Private Ownership The early developm ent o f silviculture in B ritain was based on the artificial establishm ent o f coppices an d plantations, rath er th an on the m anagem ent o f existing natural woods. In this respect it provides a contrast with European practice. The underlying reason was probably the m ore com plete devastation o f the original forest cover, particularly in the m ore closely settled areas. Evidence o f early concern with the form ation and protection o f w oodlands is found in an “ A ct for enclosing o f W oods” in hunting grounds, passed by King Edw ard IV in 1482, and a further “ A ct for the preservation o f W oods” passed by King H enry V III in 1543. In Scotland, which was then a separate country, an Act was passed by K ing Jam es IV in 1504 requiring every landow ner to establish a t least one acre o f w ood “ where there are no great woods nor forests” . A t first atten tio n was directed to the m anagem ent o f coppices, mainly o f hazel, but also o f hornbeam , ash, sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa), birch and oak, with the object o f securing small-sized m aterial for hurdle-m aking, fencing, firewood, charcoal and bark for tanning leather. A rotational system o f cutting was followed to ensure an annual supply. Later, as the original forest cover became further dim inished, it became custom ary in the South o f E ngland to preserve large oaks, ashes, an d sweet chestnuts, know n as “ stan d ard ” trees, to provide occasional large tim bers for building houses, barns, or ships. 50 JOURNAJL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Originally, m uch o f the open forest land used for hunting had been owned by the king, but a steady process o f enclosure went on, accom panied by the disposal o f the royal lands to the great landow ners. It was these landowners, therefore, who underto o k the planting and m anagem ent o f the new woods, until eventually nearly all the co u n try ’s w oodlands were under private ow ner­ ship. D uring the seventeenth century, these landed proprietors began to take an interest in form ing high forest plantations, and this w ork was greatly ex­ panded during the prosperous eighteenth century, and has been continued ever since. The principal broadleaved trees grow n as high forest were oak, ash, beech and sycamore, the latter having been introduced from Europe certainly as long ago as the fifteenth century. T he planting o f coniferous trees began with the native Scots pine, but during the eighteenth century the N orw ay spruce and the E uropean larch were used on a growing scale. These seven trees com prised the bulk o f the planting for tim ber, others being used only as auxiliaries or for ornam ent. It is rath er surprising to note th a t there was little regional variation in the selection o f trees for planting, the same seven kinds being used to a greater or less degree, in every county. This was only possible because m any o f these new w oodlands were form ed on fairly good sites th at are not lim iting for any o f these species. It was custom ary for each landow ner to select for planting some of the better ground close to his m ansion house, where woods would provide shelter for his park and garden, and cover for his game birds, as well as a supply o f tim ber for estate use or sale. Besides these “ hom e w oods” there are, on m any estates, others m ore rem otely situated and concerned m ainly with com m ercial tim ber production, and these are usually on poorer ground, such as hillsides too steep for agriculture. Tow ards the close o f the nineteenth century, the private w oodland owners began to use, on a small scale, four new conifers namely Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Japanese larch (L arix leptolepis), C orsican pine (Pinus nigra var. calabrica), and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), but as yet there are few m ature w oods o f these kinds. It should be noted th a t out o f the eleven trees com m only planted on private estates, seven have been introduced from abroad. Because so m any privately owned woods were developed by separate individuals, each planting up som e o f his better an d usually some o f his poorer land to suit the econom y o f his agricultural estate or his personal taste, they tend to be indi­ vidually sm all and scattered. Large woods are rare, and even where they occur are often divided between several landow ners. A recent investigation by D r. F. C. H um m el (1957) showed th a t in seven English counties the average area of w oodland held by each owner was only some 50 acres. This scattered dis­ tribution, and small-scale ownership, adds greatly to the difficulties o f m anage­ m ent by the individual, and to the encouragem ent o f better m anagem ent by the state. A feature o f the English landscape is the prevalence o f small woods, often occupying less th an 5 acres, and o f tim ber trees growing along the hedge­ rows o f haw thorn th at enclose the agricultural fields. N o individual county has m ore th a n 20 per cent o f its surface under tree crops. D espite the scattered character o f the w oodlands, and their varied com ­ position, they constituted a large reserve o f tim ber. This was found invaluable during the tw o W orld W ars o f the present century, first between 1914 and 1918, and again between 1939 and 1945. B ut the tim ber supplies essential to the survival o f the country were only secured by serious overfelling and this has brought m ajor problem s o f forest m anagem ent in its train. Between the two W orld W ars, from 1918 to 1939, the am ount o f re-planting done on the private estates was disappointing: indeed it has been estim ated th a t it only kept pace with current felling an d did nothing to m ake good the w artim e losses. But NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 19 jected to natural fires or even those set by the Indians long before they were exploited by the white m an. Rigid fire control has resulted in heavy brush grow th and invasion by unw anted hardw oods, especially as the coniferous species has been the one consistently rem oved by logging. Use o f controlled burning however raises social problem s, as the State and Federal forest services have spent m any years slowly driving hom e to the A m erican public the loss caused by forest fires and it would be difficult to change this policy. The bulk o f the planting program m es are in the Southern States where quick growth o f pines prom ises early returns for the expanding pulp industry. O ut of a national total from 48 states o f some h alf a m illion acres planted in 1952 the nine Southern states o f Louisiana, A rkansas, M ississippi, A labam a, Tennessee, Florida, G eorgia and N o rth and South C arolina accounted for alm ost 50 per cent. On old agricultural land tree planting is m echanised and a tra cto r and planting m achine with a crew o f two will reach a daily ou t-tu rn of 16,000 trees, planted at ab o u t 1,200 per acre. The land is level, free o f stones or rocks and vegetation is slight. H and planting, w ithout exception, used a steel “ planting b a r” very sim ilar to the Schlich vertical notching spade; I never saw a garden spade used. The quality o f the h and planting was quite good b u t I was not so impressed with the m achine planting. U nder o ur conditions o f exposure we would have suffered disastrous losses from some o f the w ork seen. Practically all the plants used are seedlings, except in the N o rthern States, where W hite pine and spruce need transplanting. T here is very little planting o f hardw oods. M ost of the shelterbelt planting was carried out during the 1930’s as a relief measure in the G reat Plains area o f the m id-west and little is being done today. The logging industry is active and highly m echanised and I was interested to find nearly all felling is done w ith a pow er saw. The one-m an model o f 4 to 5 h.p. with a straight blade and chipper chain and weighing at m ost 30 lb. is the most popular, although there are several m akes and m odels ranging from the standard beaver-tail to bow-saw m odels or attachm ents and tw o-m an saws o f both types. I did not see any saws with ordinary scratcher teeth and the chipper tooth has the advantage o f being suitable for cutting either softwoods or h ard ­ woods w ithout any alteration to the set. Two m akers have m ost o f the m arket and there is little to choose between them . Designs are com pact and aero-type carburettors and fuel pum ps m ake cutting possible from any angle w ithout relevelling the fuel tan k and carb u retto r. Because woods crews are the backbone of fire-fighting squads research is aim ing at m aking the power saw m otor suitable for fitting to w ater pum ps. E xtraction follows norm al lines seen here but power is increased an d bigger loads m oved often resulting in considerable dam age to the regeneration or residual grow th, but extensive caterpillar disturbance o f the ground is very useful for im proving n atu ral seed bed conditions. H orses and mules were rarely seen except on small operations or very steep ground and I saw no mechanical solution to British problem s o f w orking early thinnings off steep and difficult ground. Sim ilar crops would be left until their size m ade an economic operation— probably clear felling— quite feasible. E xtraction o f pulp­ wood was m ade easier, because the level ground o f the south enabled trucks to be taken well into the forest w ith only simple ro ad m aking and so pulpw ood was felled and bucked (crosscut) at stum p and either loaded direct on to lorries, or put in pallets and the pallet loads skidded out to where they could be winched on to a lorry at roadside. Pallets are simply U -shaped cradles made o f tubular steel which will hold ab o u t a cord o f pulpw ood. Once loaded the pulpw ood remains in the pallet until delivered to the mill or concentration yard, being winched or handled by crane or yardster. W ith some adaptation the system suggests itself for o u r pitw ood handling or pulpw ood when this m arket is opened up here. Small pulpw ood (below say 10 inches diam eter at stum p) is 20 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION still cut by bow saw and this is reckoned to be the m ost econom ical way. In the level forests o f the south a w heelbarrow saw is the m ost productive type b u t it is dangerous to use. A large circular saw (36 inch diam eter) is driven by a belt from a m otor, all m ounted on a carriage with two wheels. The saw can be swivelled to cut horizontally— for felling, or vertically for crosscutting. Costs are low, m aintenance is simple and production is high. It is better suited to clear felling th an thinning, as it is slow to move about. M ost saw logs go away to the mill in 8 to 16 foot lengths and long length logging is only seen on a small scale except in the west. To take advantage of long logging full tru ck loads going to the mills would be over the weights allow ed by the State H ighway authorities, but when big com panies have their own forest roads leading right to the mills I saw loads o f nearly 2,000 cubic feet tran sp o rted on huge diesel trucks. M any small operators set up mills on the sale areas an d these “ peckerw ood mills” are a feature o f the South where good w eather even allows them to dispense w ith a ro o f over the mill. These mill crews are eight to ten men and cut 8-10,000 board feet per day, taking their pow er from a stationary gasolene or diesel engine and usually burning mill w aste. I saw one big mill in n orthern C alifornia converting redw oods and D ouglas fir and m illing 120 m illion b oard feet (say 10 m illion hoppus feet) per year. W aste here was negligible as they also m ade presto-logs for fuel and insulating m aterial from the bark. Fire fighting equipm ent and techniques have m ade rapid advances since the w ar and w ith im proved radio o f high frequency, frequency-m odulated type now in wide use m any look-out tow ers are becom ing obsolete and patrol spotting and reporting is done from the air. G ro u n d telephone lines are dispensed with and all the F orest R angers who to o k me round in their pick-up trucks kept in constan t touch w ith their fire dispatchers by radio. In roadless and m ountainous country p arachute sm oke jum pers are now depended on for first attack, supplies and equipm ent being parachuted dow n to them . H elicopters, although very desirable, are still too expensive for everyday use. M ain m ethods o f fighting fires are to establish fire lines or traces around them and so ploughs and bull­ dozers have been widely used and m ethod devised for transporting them quickly to the fires. In the nurseries there is a high degree o f m echanisation for ground pre­ p aratio n , bed form ation, seed sowing and either inter-row cultivation or chem ical control o f weeds. Plants are loosened w ith lifter bars sim ilar to our ow n tracto r attachm ents, and bundling and tying both em ploy jigs and machines. T he dem and is m ostly for pine seedlings, except on the west coast, and the plants generally were bigger th a n we would like and had strongly developed tap roots. All species h ad their roots chopped off a t eight inch depth when lifted. Overhead sprinkler systems gave th e nurserym an great assistance when tran s­ planting, avoiding frost dam age or getting correct seed bed consolidation, quite a p a rt from their principal use for watering. It was interesting to find m ost sowing was done in the Fall as the brief spring season did not allow enough tim e for all operations. I cannot conclude w ithout referring to the w idespread cam paign for safety in A m erican Forestry. W oods crews w ear protective helmets, girdling crews have alum inium shinguards and strengthened boots, all operators wear gloves, notices are everywhere exhorting m en to w ork safely and avoid lost time through injuries. M any m irrors bear a little sticker with the grim question, “ Are you looking at the next F orest Service accident victim ?” This cam paign is producing very w orthw hile results. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 21 I have only been able to touch briefly on the m ain points o f interest to a visiting British forester. O f lasting m em ory will be the m any fine m en I m et all along my journey, the help they so cheerfully gave me and the friendships we established. A V IS IT T O R U S S IA By R. G. SHAW M achinery Research Officer, Headquarters Some reminiscences on a visit to Soviet Russia to attend the Second Session o f the F .A .O ./E .C .E . Joint Committee on Forest W orking Techniques and Training o f Forest Workers, 9th— 25th September, 1957 A visit to Russia at the present tim e is som ething th at anyone would like to do and the o p portunity o f a three weeks’ visit on official business seems like a dream come true. Small w onder then, th at I received instructions to attend this meeting with undisguised pleasure. The preparations were m ore com plicated th an for a norm al continental visit. A visa for R ussia apparently is som ething th a t ju st m ust be done at the last minute and to provide the m ost m odest financial requirem ents seemed to call out all the resources o f the Foreign Office and the Em bassy in Moscow. However, the scene was set and w ith M r. Zehetm ayr (M r. R ichards having gone ahead) I set o u t shortly after 11 a.m . one Sunday m orning to fly the first leg of the journey to Copenhagen. The m achine was a b rand new V iscount 800 and apart from the fact th a t the seats are designed for frailer figures th an mine the journey was entirely enjoyable. A n excellent lunch was served on board and we found adequate tran sit arrangem ents in the m odern a irp o rt a t Copenhagen. With only two hours to w ait we were n o t allowed to leave the tran sit lounge so had to spend the tim e being tem pted by the attractive shops p u t there for ju st that purpose. In due tim e we were called for the second leg to H elsinki and there was the usual scrimmage to be first in the aircraft. This struggle for the outside seats seems to be an inseparable incident in air travel and the only difference between London and the C ontinent is th a t whilst here we scrum w ith some slight pretence of reserve, over there it is fought out a little m ore w holeheartedly. However with 15 stone to m ove I did n o t com e o u t o f it too badly and when we cam e up for air in the aircraft I was at one o f the prized w indow seats and M r. Zehetm ayr had turned up beside me. This flight was in a F in n air C onvair m achine which,, though smaller and slower than the Viscount, provides seats for travellers o f full stature. A nother excellent m eal was served on b o ard during a flight in which we saw the Southern part of Sweden. W e com m enced the usual practice w hen travelling Eastw ards of putting on o u r watches and so were never quite sure w hat the tim e really was. At Helsinki it was getting d ark and we again had a tw o ho u r w ait in a transit lounge. These tran sit lounges are, o f course, necessary because travellers passing through do n o t pass through custom s. H elsinki provided nothing to equal the Copenhagen A irport b u t we survived the boring two ho u r wait. Eventually the Moscow flight was announced and we w ent o u t to our first excitement, a flight in a Russian plane. I eyed it fairly critically in the dusk and form ed the opinion of a fairly shabby crate. This, however, proved quite w rong as the Russians have a rem arkably high record o f flying safety and once inside the aircraft all 22 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION seemed well. We were soon up above the clouds in clear air with a full moon and were following the usual flight custom o f being offered a good meal served by a charm ing stewardess, in this case a Russian to make it all more exciting. We had our first introduction to V odka served free w ith the meal. W hen I asked for a second glass it was very politely b u t very firmly refused. W hether this was the rule or w hether the girl thought th at I looked as if I had had enough I never found out. Flying into M oscow was a m ost unusual sight. We had dropped below the cloud a long way away and owing to the extreme flatness o f the country, the lights o f M oscow could be seen for nearly the last hour. We were very glad to find M r. Richards w aiting for us w ith a senior official o f the Ministry of Timber P roduction, o f w hom we were to see a great deal during our stay. This official had been instructed to see th a t no difficulties were placed in the way of any delegates to the meeting. He opened up by “ chewing u p ” all the officials at the A irp o rt and through his activities we were away from the A irport long before our less fortunate fellow passengers had even been looked at. It was V.I.P. treatm ent in a big way and o u r feeling o f self im portance grew almost visibly. W e arrived a t the Sovetskya H otel at ab o u t m idnight and there found a m ost m odern hotel w ith lavish use o f m arble and every luxury. Mr. Zehetmayr and I shared a room which was provided w ith private bathroom and a row of bells to call every kind o f service. The following m orning we tried one of the bells and it im m ediately b rought a w aiter w ith an excellent breakfast for two. We tried the same bell on every succeeding m orning with the same result and it was n o t until the day we were leaving th a t we found th at we had been confused with som eone else an d were not supposed to have received this V.I.P. treatment. O ur feeling o f self im portance received a shock! H aving arrived on Sunday evening the m eeting started on M onday morning w ith an opening address by M r. Orlov, the M inister for Tim ber Production, who im m ediately seized the attention o f everyone by the casual remark that the annual cut in Russia is, at present, over 300,000,000 cubic metres (about 300 m illion tons). This aroused a few incredulous gasps, so to drive home the point he m entioned th a t this figure could be doubled w ithout eating into reserves. A simple calculation showed th at the present o u tp ut means cutting and extracting a m illion tons a w orking day, a figure which m akes our scale o f operations seem child’s play. It m ust be rem em bered, however, th at this is one o f the major industries in a country o f vast acreage so this o utput is not really very surprising. A t the beginning o f the Session, M r. R ichards, who was well known to most o f the delegates, was elected chairm an and thereafter the meeting ran like clock­ w ork. The items discussed included w orking m ethods, testing of tractors and forest m achinery, application of machinery, tran sp o rt o f tim ber in mountainous regions, Intern atio n al L abour Office Scholarship Scheme and Accident Pre­ vention. Every afternoon an h our or so was devoted to the showing of films. M o st o f the countries represented had brought interesting films showing various aspects o f forestry and we were fortunately able to show the M achinery Research film supported by tw o F o rd newsreels showing, am ongst other things, the long C ounty T racto r perform ing in bog. One o f the items which drew the greatest interest was our experim ents in extraction o f tim ber by helicopter. This was a subject which m any countries said that they had thought about but no one else had actually done it so our figures were eagerly devoured. The m eeting lasted a week and some sort o f entertainm ent was laid on by the Russians every evening. In fact, it was seldom possible to sit down to dinner w ithout some “ whipper in ” rounding everyone up to get into the coach to go to whatever perform ance was on the program m e. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 23 We went to the ballet and saw a first class perform ance o f Swan Lake. A circus occupied an o th er evening and this included a young lady swimming in a pool w ith a live tiger who did not seem to regard the incident as particularly am using. We were also taken to see the semi-final o f a M oscow football tournam ent at the Lenin Stadium . This was between the M oscow Locom otive W orks and the A rm y. It was an exhibition o f clean hard football with both teams going “ all o u t” from the first whistle. As so often happens here the only really unpopular figure on the field was the referee, who was hooted by all the spectators from beginning to end and finally left under police protection. I do not think anyone is allowed to leave M oscow w ithout being shown the M etro, their equivalent to our U nderground. T he Russians are rightly proud of this sam ple o f their engineering and artistic skill. Every station resembles the lounge o f a luxury hotel being built largely o f m arble and having a painted ceiling and mosaics on the walls. The whole place is spotlessly clean as no sm oking is perm itted once inside the entrance at ground level. We were taken for a ride on the M etro on a jo u rney involving five changes (mainly to show us the m agnificent stations) but it seemed to be very m uch the “ rush h o u r” . It was a constant anxiety lest one o f us was left behind either on a train or at a station, mixed up with the surging m ob, w ithout an interpreter. The M oscow m eeting having closed at 4 p.m . on Saturday, Septem ber 14th (a six day week is w orked in Russia) we were taken to the K rem lin before sta rt­ ing on the study tour. It was a visit th a t none o f us will forget as it was so unlike the conception th a t m ost o f us have o f the K rem lin. It is now, in fact, a vast treasure house filled w ith collections gathered in T sarist days. A pparently all the valuable art collections in Russia were n o t destroyed in the revolution but were preserved and are now kept m ost carefully in places like the K rem lin and the W inter Palace at L eningrad which are m aintained in perfect order as museums. The study to u r com m enced with a visit to the C entral Research Institute o f M echanical an d Pow er R esearch for the T im ber Industry at M oscow. This is a vast organisation covering every aspect o f m echanisation n o t only including design b u t considerable m anufacturing resources as well. Samples o f all the m achines in use were seen an d the story o f their developm ent was explained. G reat use is m ade o f instrum entation in this w ork and a whole departm ent in charge o f an electronic engineer is m aintained. A trem endous am ount of research has gone into such things as pow er saws and the R ussians have produced their own, the D ro u g h b a with a 94 c.c. engine and an all-up weight o f 27 lb. (See Plate 10.) The policy seems to be to go for simplicity and such things as hydraulic transm ission were said by the R ussians to be o f interest to them but not being introduced. They volunteered th a t they knew all ab o u t the H am blin system. This has o f course been widely publicised but it is clear th a t the Russians do keep track o f w hat is happening outside their own country. I form ed the opinion th a t in spite o f the vastness o f this research institute the field being covered is probably not m uch greater than is being covered in Britain. W ith us, however, the main p art o f the w ork is split u p between a num ber o f centres, notably, the N ational Institute o f A gricultural Engineering and the Forest Products Research L aboratory, with a contribution by the Forestry Commission. The final official visit in M oscow was to the A ll-U nion Industrial and A gricultural Exhibition which is a perm anent installation open th roughout the sum m er m onths in a p ark a few miles outside M oscow. Every aspect o f the R ussian econom y is represented but the greater p a rt o f our tim e was spent in the forestry and agricultural sections. A lot o f m achinery was on view but I saw 24 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION nothing th a t was really original. The R ussians are obviously m oving tow ards larger and larger agricultural tractors, having one o f 140 h.p. already in use and one o f 225 h.p. on view in pro to ty p e form . On the night o f Septem ber the 18th we all entrained in a special train for a four day visit to the forests. As we were to live in the train for four nights we to o k a m ore than norm al interest in the coaches and everything else connected w ith the railway. N o criticism could be m ade o f the coaches which were com ­ fortable an d clean. A n excellent dining car was provided and the fare, including supplies o f vodka, was good. The only difficulty th a t we had to contend with was ten people trying to shave in each o f the only tw o wash basins in each coach. This apparently small problem caused a long delay in the planned early start each m orning. U n fortunately all the m ovem ent by train was done a t night so we saw little o f the country through which we passed. The first call was at the logging cam p a t O leninsky where we did a 17 mile road journ ey over a very wet forest road by coach to reach the felling site. As this was an experim ental site all the latest m achinery and equipm ent was on view. C lear felling is always practised and this o f course m akes m echanization very m uch easier. The usual plan is to select a large block for felling and then m ove on to an o th er block, leaving a considerable belt o f standing trees to look after regeneration. As Oleninsky was served with a good earth road, a “ top landing” was established on the roadside where the logs were collected and loaded on to road vehicles. Full tree logging was practised, and this m eans literal full tree logging in th a t the trees are brought out w ith the crow n still on, as far as the top landing. Felling is done w ith the D rou g h b a one-m an saw and it is interesting to note th at we saw virtually no h and saws or axes during the whole tour. E xtraction from stum p to top landing is done entirely by tra c to r drag and for this role the Russians have developed special forestry tractors. The main feature is th at the load is picked up and carried with the butts resting on the top o f the tractor, thus achieving the very desirable object o f getting the point o f loading reasonably well forw ard on the tractor. This helps enorm ously in keeping the front end o f the tra c to r dow n and distributing the load over the length o f track on the ground. A loaded tra c to r is seen in Plate 12. The trac to r in general use is the T .D .T . 40 (40 h.p.) but a new m odel is now com ing o u t— the T .D .T . 60 (60 h.p.). The T .D .T . 40 carries 4 | tons and the T .D .T . 60 carries 6 tons (Plate 12). The extraction team is three m en—tra c to r driver— feller with pow er saw and choker m an. Clear felling allows the Russians to m ake far greater use of chokers th an we do and we saw during this to u r how m uch chokers help the assem bly o f logs. The technique used is for the choker m an to put a choker on the b u tt o f each tree th a t he w ants to collect. He then runs the tracto r winch rope th ro u g h the ring on the end o f each choker and, as soon as the winch hauls in, all the logs are collected together. They are then hauled up the tail ram p on to the to p o f the tra c to r where they are secured for travel. If the tracto r stalls on the journ ey the load is easily jettisoned and picked up again when the tracto r has extricated itself. D istance travelled w ith the load to the roadside is usually up to 1,200 yards but distances up to five miles are som etim es undertaken. Experim ental m achines seen a t O leninsky w ere:— (a) A tracto r which was loaded as the tree was felled. See Plate 11. This was a tra c to r w ith a superstructure on top to carry the load. The tracto r would stand in fro n t o f a tree to be felled w ith the winch rope fastened to the tru n k . The feller would then cut the tree so th a t it fell tow ards the tracto r with the driver hauling in on the winch. W ith reasonable luck the tree would fall NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 25 into place on the superstructure and would be secured before the tractor m oved on to the next tree. Usually this happened as desired b u t we did see the wind take charge once, p u ttin g the tree askew on the tractor. It took a long tim e to recover from this predicam ent and, as always happens when a dem onstration has gone wrong, everyone connected w ith it got cross with everyone else. I know th at the R ussians have had this m achine for over 18 m onths and, as it is still experim ental, it is evidently not regarded as a com plete success. (b) A 4-wheel-drive tra c to r on large-diam eter large-section tyres. The unusual feature was th a t tyre pressures could be varied by the driver on the move. The idea was to use low pressures off the road and then raise the pressure as soon as the road was reached. It was n o t dem onstrated and I have great doubts on the life o f tyres running at low pressures over tree stum ps. M uch the same thing is being done by Straussler at fixed pressures in this country b u t little progress is being m ade owing to the very high tyre costs. Loading o n to ro ad vehicles a t the top landing was done by m obile cranes and an overhead ropew ay o f norm al pattern . R oad tran sp o rt to the low er landing was provided by stan d ard articulated vehicles carrying 14 tons o f logs in the length. The lower landing was alongside the railway siding and the vehicle u n ­ loading was done w ith a simple system o f winch ropes onto a platform , where the logs were cut to stan d ard lengths for onw ard m ovem ent by rail. It was noticeable th a t wherever possible the Russians use electric one-m an pow er saws in preference to petrol. They said th a t they found them lighter and m ore reliable. Lower landings are usually provided with electric pow er as they are semi-static installations. The next stop was a t K restetsky, one o f the larger logging cam ps and also one of the newest w ith some experim ental m achines and ideas. It differed from Oleninsky in th a t no forest road was available and the ground was too wet for the operation o f tractors. A narrow gauge railway ran from the cam p and lower landing up to the felling areas, a distance o f some 15 miles. A gain the practice being followed was to clear-fell blocks ab o u t 1,000 yards square and then leave this cut-over area surro u n d ed by standing trees. B ranch lines were tem porarily laid, on each o f these areas, so th a t the haul from stum p to railway was never m ore than 500 yards. The species were aspen, spruce and birch. As the ground was too wet for tractors all log m ovem ent was by winch. The general plan was to establish one o f the big L4 or L5 (50 h.p.) winches close to the railway and use a 40ft. m ast to provide a high lead. These winches have five drum s for the following roles :— 1 M ain line haul, 1 H aul back line, 2 D ragging load into line w ith rail car, 1 L oading on to car. They are either diesel o r electric driven. T here are various layouts for this winching o peration b u t all use the high lead system. As ranges up to 500 yards are used the high lead effect on the longer hauls is largely lost, and loads have to be reduced far below the fo u r tons th a t can be hauled from positions within 100 yards o f the m ast. As at O leninsky, full tree logging was practised and the whole tree was sent on the railway dow n to the low er landing. F a r m ore conversion was done a t the low er landing a t K restetsky th an at Oleninsky. T he crow ns were cu t off an d chopped up for fuel for the pow er station. The logs were then cut up w ith electric one-m an pow er saws and p u t 26 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION onto separate conveyors to go to building tim ber, pulpw ood or firewood. F o r firewood, a pow erful conveyor drives the yard-length logs hard against two knives splitting the log vertically an d horizontally. O u tp u t figures for the cam p as a w hole were given as 2 cu. m etres (60 hoppus feet) p er m an per day, taking into account all the non-productive bodies such as tra n sp o rt driver, cooks, etc. T he p ro d u ctio n o f the felling team s o f winchm an, chokerm an and feller was given as 7-8 cu. m etres (ab o u t 230 hoppus feet) per m an per day. F ro m w hat was said it appeared th a t these were target figures. D uring o u r stay in b o th O leninsky and K restetsky we were invited to visit the forest villages w here we were en tertained by m ost friendly people and saw som ething o f the life led by these isolated com m unities. (Plate 9.) The accom m odation an d oth er buildings provided can be described as adequate but no m ore, since housing is on a basis o f som ething under 100 sq. ft. per head an d whole families live in tw o-room ed apartm ents. T he houses are w arm an d the ow ners take a considerable pride in keeping them clean and tending a few flowers in very sim ple gardens. T here is no piped w ater supply and no w ater-borne sanitation in these villages. R oads are n o t m ade up and a wet day m eans a sea o f m ud. G um b o o ts are the stan d ard footw ear. The school and club play an im p o rtan t p a rt in village life in this very education-conscious country. A ll the w orkers and their families seemed to be perfectly happy, but it is indeed an austere an d isolated life. The field to u r ended a t L eningrad where we visited the various forestry institutes in th a t city. A t the C entral Research Institute fo r T im ber F loating it was learned th a t 50 p er cent o f the forest o u tp u t uses flotation for p a rt o f its jo u rn ey to the consum er. Large tanks are used fo r investigation, on models, o f the effects o f river depth, bends, speed, etc. D istances travelled by tim ber rafts m ay be anything up to 2,000 miles, largely on the Volga at speeds o f 50-70 miles per day. A very interesting conveyor was seen collecting logs from the water, m easuring them an d then distributing them by sizes. A new type o f launch driven by w ater je t provided light en tertainm ent for any delegates who w anted to go fo r a sail. A n o th er visit was to the institute where the whole o f the planning for forest exploitation is carried out. A ir p h otography is used to draw up the plan and tim etable, arrange suitable tra n sp o rt an d fix sites for the forest villages and landings. Standard designs are m aintained here for all buildings and every kind o f equipm ent. Costs are k ept an d can be quoted for every phase o f any p a r­ ticular project. W hen it is realised th a t there arc a th o u san d o r m ore logging cam ps in the Soviet U nion th e im portance o f this co-ordinating centre is appreciated. W hilst in L eningrad visits were paid to the a rt galleries o f the W inter Palace (E rm itage M useum ) and Peter Palace som e miles outside Leningrad which was occupied by the G erm ans during the w ar. I t was interesting to see th a t there are still som e relics o f the G erm an occupation. F ro m L eningrad m ost o f the delegates returned to M oscow to start their journeys hom e an d so ended three weeks o f im m ense interest and equally im m ense hospitality. T h at a generous sharing o f inform ation had taken place there can be no doubt, and none o f us could have left w ithout a deeper un d er­ standing o f the way in which all countries are leaning on m echanisation to solve the problem s o f the forest. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 27 FULL DETAILS OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plate 9. F orest W orkers and their families outside the village store at K restetsky. Plate 10. The R ussian-designed D rou g h b a Petrol Saw. N ote th a t the saw has handles allow ing the o p erato r to stand up w hether felling o r cross­ cutting. Plate 11. A n experim ental m achine w hich loads itself as the tree is felled across its back. N ote th a t the feller has cut the trunk to fall tow ards the tracto r, and the tra c to r driver is hauling-in on a front w inch rope. Plate 12. The T .D .T . 40 Forestry T ractor. N ote th a t the load is carried on a platform on the back o f the tracto r. W hen loading, the platform is let dow n at the back, form ing b o th a ram p up which the load is hauled, and also an anchor. IN T H E F O R E S T S OF TH E CA U CA SU S By JA M E S M A C D O N A L D Director, Research and Education The official Commission delegation to Russia, in 1956, was privileged to visit the little-known fo rests o f the Caucasus, on the verge o f Asia, and here M r. Jam es M acdonald records his personal impressions o f that remote region. On the 4th Septem ber we breakfasted earlier th an usual because we had a long journey before us from K hark o v into the Caucasus. This w ould take us into G eorgia, along the inland edge o f the fabulous country o f Colchis, whence Jason stole the G olden Fleece. Perhaps we m ight pass by the shore where he beached the A rgo. T hen, aw ay behind, but possibly too far east for us to see it. stands the great m ountain o f K azbek, where Prom etheus was chained after stealing fire from heaven. I decided th a t when I reached the m ountains, I w ould keep my eyes on the sky in case I m ight see a vulture, perhaps a descen­ d an t o f those which gnawed the h ero ’s liver on K azbek. So I set off w ith some inw ard excitem ent on w hat prom ised to be a m em orable journey. N ear Sochi, the hills cam e straight dow n into the sea, and the slope is cut into by sm all valleys, some o f them steep-sided. The result is th a t the road is rather exciting, especially when taken at the speed favoured by the local drivers. F o r the first tw enty miles or so, the countryside is m ost attractive w ith the forest on the lim estone hills running dow n to the sea, and the valleys taken up w ith residences each w ith its garden or shrubbery where hibiscus and oleanders flowered and where cedars and cypresses stood up high above the roofs. A t some points, the ro ad is cut out o f the hill side, w ith a steep slope above and an alm ost sheer d ro p below into the w ater. T here is m uch crum bling rock on the hill side, which m ust com e dow n on the ro ad after every heavy storm ; indeed, after we had passed, at one point a small avalanche o f stones rushed dow n on to the roadw ay. Beyond A dler we left the hills and came dow n on to the coastal plain. The farm s here are sm all but one or two had fairly large flocks o f poultry and I asked w hat risk there was o f dam age by foxes. The answer was 28 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION th a t they have no foxes in this p art o f the w orld, only a jackal, which is not so troublesom e. H ere we saw the first cattle o f the buffalo type with pronounced fro n tal bosses and sw ept-back horns. They are used for d raught although they are not very large and are quite lightly built. T here were also num erous little thin, sharp-snouted pigs running ab o u t the roadside. M ost o f the women who were w alking on the roads were carrying parasols, and some o f the holiday m akers were w earing large floppy w hite hats. G radually, the plain narrow ed an d we cam e to a place, on the outskirts o f the tow n o f G agry, where the hills cam e dow n again, alm ost to the beach. H ere the party stopped to bathe, and I noted a very nice row o f Phoenix palm s along the shore, not tall, but uniform an d all ab o u t the same size and height; behind was a pleasure garden w ith m any specimens o f M agnolia grandifolia, one o f which was nearly three feet in diam eter. T here was also a fine display o f olean­ ders and hibiscus, w ith one or two acacias. Behind, the hills were covered with forest right up to the top, except for bare white patches where the limestone outcropped. This is m ostly h o rn b eam on the coastal side but one or two oaks and m aples could be distinguished. This type o f forest goes up to over 2,000 feet. O n the beach there is a small bookstall where I found th a t m ost o f the books were not printed in R ussian, but in G eorgian, with characters resembling Persian or some script like that. W e drove on into G agry which is a pleasant little tow n with a wide m ain street, on each side o f which a row o f cam phor trees, Cinnamonum camphora, was planted. They had been nicely pruned and h ad shapely crow ns, giving shade w ithout taking up too m uch room . N o t far beyond G agry we left the m ain road and turned N o rth tow ards the m ountains up the valley o f a small river called the Bzyb. Here, we followed a new to u rist road, which had recently been constructed, into country which hitherto h ad been closed except to visitors who were prepared to walk or ride. T here are very few roads in the m ain chain o f the Caucasus, and only two, I believe, which actually cross the range. The river is a typical Alpine stream , fast flowing and w ith the blue-green lim estone w ater which one sees in the Alps and in th e Tyrol. T he valley is narrow an d the road clim bed steadily through the broad-leaved forest w ith Clematis everywhere and odd bushes o f Staphylea and Philadelphus coronarius. A fter a few miles, we cam e on an igneous intrusion, a basalt, I thin k and it was curious to see how the Clematis disappeared. A part from th at, we were on lim estone all the way for the rest o f the time. We passed various sm all fields o f tobacco and patches o f vegetables, artichokes, tom atoes, etc. an d there were num erous beehives. O ur guide told us th a t G eorgian honey is poisonous to all b u t natives o f the country and w arned us against eating it. H e could n o t tell m e w hat it is the bees pick up but he said it w asn’t arsenic. T he valley w ound constantly and gave us a succession o f m ost charm ing views: the forest rem ained m uch the same except th a t beech was becom ing more p rom inent and evergreen shrubs, such as box and cherry laurel, began to appear. W e stopped first at a little pool o f w ater under a cliff, the Blue Lake, which is a favourite h au n t o f tourists. Little charabancs o f tourists kept stopping, and local people, sitting by the roadside, were selling apples and corncobs to the visitors. F ro m this point, looking up the valley, we had our first view o f the coniferous forest ab o u t a mile away. As we m oved upw ards into the m ountains, the valley became narrow er and deeper and we ran, in one o r two places, th ro u g h deep canyons with lim estone cliffs rising for several hun d red feet, on either side. In the bottom , by the stream , alders an d box trees were growing, festooned w ith great hanging tufts o f the m oss N eckera crispa, rem iniscent o f som e o f m oister w oodlands in south-w estern Ireland. These b o tto m lands m ust have a peculiar m icro-clim ate as they are NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 29 moist and cold an d sh o rt o f light and sunshine. The coniferous forest we found to be com posed o f Abies nordmanniana, mixed, a t first, with beech but later alm ost pure, save for occasional beech and m aple trees. H ere and there, on the hillsides were patches o f Scots pine, standing out blue-grey am ong the darkgreen firs, but 1 was surprised to find no spruce which I had expected to occur in m ixture with the Abies, as it does in Sw itzerland and the Jura. W e eventually saw, at nearly 3,000 feet, o u r first P icea orientalis by the roadside, b u t there were few o f them . A t ju st over 3,000 feet, we cam e to the R itza lake, a pleasant alpine sheet o f w ater, w ith pleasure boats on it and with a big hotel on the shore. It is not a large lake, but it is in a beautiful setting, with forest all ro u n d it, above which the bare lim estone m ountains rise to ab o u t 12,000 feet. G oing up the road to an elevation o f nearly 5,000 feet, we had a very good im pression o f an old untouched forest, full o f tall old trees dying back at the top and others beginning to decay. T he strange thing ab o u t it was the absence o f young trees, which one would have expected to find, b u t the reason for this is the heavy grazing to which these forests have been subjected. On the way up we had glimpses o f some o f the plants for which the Caucasus is celebrated, a w onderful yellow patch o f Telekia speciosa in full flower, a clum p of Heracleum m antegazzanianum by a stream . Valeriana alliarifolia and Aconitum orientale by the roadside. W hat a pity it was th at we had no tim e to go beyond the forest to the A lpine m eadows, where there is a m ost w onderful flora, and where T elekia grows ab o u t 6 or 7 feet in height. Also by the roadside we saw one or two sm all patches o f the fire-weed, Chamaenerion angustifolium, which is spreading along the ro ad as the traffic increases. It would be a disaster if this plant got loose and crow ded out the rich native flora o f the region. I saw later, again by the roadside, some plants o f Erigeron canadense, a plague in my own garden at hom e, an d a m ost determ ined invader. These forests are classed as protective, and clear felling and exploitation are not allowed. But the Forest Service are carrying out w hat they call ‘sanitary’ fellings, clearing patches o f old grow th, hoping for natural regeneration, although they may have to plant. We looked at one o f these clearings, three or four acres, in extent, where the logs o f silver fir had been collected in the centre o f the space. M any o f them were very badly decayed and the butts m ight ju st as well have been*left where they fell; this decay in these old stands m ust alm ost equal the increm ent, if it does n o t exceed it. The logs are extracted by tracto r or with horses or, som etimes, bullocks. N o w ork is done between January and M ay, when m uch o f this country m ust be under snow ; when M ay comes, w ork starts in earnest. T he ‘sanitary ’ fellings rem ove a b o u t 40 cubic m etres per hectare or 450 cubic feet per acre approxim ately, which on a five year cycle represents roughly 90 cubic feet per acre per annum . W ith the severe and wide­ spread decay, this m ust be m ore th an the nett increm ent, b u t they have no option here but to cut an d regenerate. T he alternative is the slow disappearance o f the forest. T here are num erous seedlings o f silver fir appearing round the edges of the cut an d there should be an o th er good crop next year, for there are heavy crops o f cones. The forest here is m ainly o f A bies nordmanniana, but there are some very good beech, as well as trees like sycam ore an d row an. The beech continues, with the fir, right to the u pper lim it o f the forest, which is generally found at ju st under 6,000 feet, though som e fir and beech are found as high as 7,000 feet. In the higher ranges, these species are accom panied by Betula pubescens, Sorbus aucuparia, Sorbus aria and A cer trau tvetteri, while a t the heads o f the m ountain stream s, Alnus barbata also occurs. In these places, also, there occur Rhododen­ dron flavum , R. ponticum an d A rctostaphylos uva-ursi. A t those elevations, the trees are sh o rt an d stunted. W e did n o t see the high lying forest edge, u n ­ 30 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION fortunately, but I h ad this inform ation from one o f the local officers. I have m entioned som e o f the plants already, b u t one has no real conception o f the wealth o f the flora until one goes into the forest and begins to look around. U nder the trees by the edge o f the clearing, here are some o f the plants 1 noted in a tw enty m inutes’ stroll. Polygonum carneum, Sym phytum asperatum , Scu tel­ laria galericu/ata, Im patiens noli-tangere , Rubus caesius, P aris incom plete, P olygonatum multiflorum, M ulgedium tataricum , Asperula odorata, Sanicula europoea, O xalis ocetosella, Aconitum orientate, Senecio stenocephalus. Canpanula lactiflora, a Geum, a Saxifraga, L ysim ach iapu nctata, H elleborus caucasicus and Geranium gracile. W ith a little m ore tim e and with closer observation, the list could have been greatly lengthened. It was, indeed, a wonderful experience to be able even to have a glimpse o f a flora o f such richness. I asked w hether it w ould be possible to see a specim en o f A cer trau tvetteri, which we h a d been grow ing in the nursery at Alice H olt. I was told th a t there were some, n o t far away, up the valley, and it was arranged th at I should go in the jeep, w ith J. Q. W illiam son to take photographs. W e set off along the road at a cracking pace and, after ab o u t three miles, we saw the trees on the other side o f th e stream . To get to them we turned off the road, dropped over an alm ost vertical bank, at the foot o f which was the river, with a w ooden bridge set at right angles to our line o f descent. The bridge was old and had no hand rails, b u t it h ad a sizeable gap in the middle about half way over. O ur driver, by the m ost rem arkable exhibition o f trick driving I have ever participated in, got across alm ost w ithout changing speed. O n the other side, we found o u r­ selves am ong the herdsm en and their families and their cattle, up for the sum m er's grazing in the m ountains. T he cattle were a m ixed lot, m ostly dun coloured and some o f them w ith m ore than a suspicion o f a hum p. Bulls and cows o f all ages were running together, ab o u t two bulls to every five cows as near as I could determ ine. T he herdsm en and their families were living am ong their cattle in the ancient m anner, having built for themselves shacks m ade out o f boards o f freshly felled silver fir and roofed w ith rough shingles. Very few o f these shacks h ad windows an d the occupants to o k their meals outside where they set up ro u g h tables. T he A cers were m ost interesting trees, grow ing in groups near the river but, further up, as we could see in the distance, interspersed w ith the silver firs, in the forest. A b o u t 50 feet tall, they were not very straight, but they seemed vigorous, though quite old. Below them , on either side o f the stream , there were som e fine trees o f Alnus barbata. All this relic o f the antique way o f life existed n o t m uch m ore th an a hun d red yards from the new road, along which loads o f tourists from the cities were passing backw ards and forw ards all day long, and we w ondered how long the old custom s would survive this daily contact w ith the w orld outside. W hen we reached the m ain ro ad again, o u r driver insisted on taking us up to the A v ath ar m ineral spring at th e end o f the road. There we found quite a com pany o f people. Some o f the locals were busy filling bottles at the well, for sale to visitors, and some m ountain herdsm en, m ostly old men, and m ost picturesque, were resting on a bench. O ne or two o f these, dark lean fellows, with tight trousers, looked very tough indeed. A nother one, with slightly m ore benevolence in his aspect, m ade me th in k o f an o th er herdsm an, Am os of Tekoa. A nd then there was a party o f students, up for an outing, and singing songs under a tree. It was w arm and sunny b u t the air was fresh, for we were at ab o u t 5,300 feet. W e lunched in th e hotel on the shore o f the R itza Lake. It was a very jolly m eal, the m ain dish being schlaske, a piece o f m u tto n cut from the back of a sheep, ro asted on a skewer and very nicely flavoured w ith herbs. The cuts have to be carefully selected and som eone said th a t they had to kill five sheep to NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 31 make our lunch. We had tw o rath er nice wines, a red and a white, both I think local, though they may have been C rim ean. M y neighbours at lunch told me that grazing, in the forests here, is a very serious problem , for they are very heavily over-stocked w ith cattle. W e h a d seen evidence enough o f this during the m orning and, looking from the dining room window, across the lake, to the m ountain on the further side, we could see th a t the forest cam e to an end, on the heights, in a firm line; there was no gradual tapering off; it stopped suddenly like a plantation. They to ld us th at this was the result o f very heavy stocking o f cattle on the high alpine m eadows in the sum m er; the small stunted forest grow th, which naturally occurs at the tree lim it, had been destroyed by brow sing and everything had been eaten which was n o t too tall for the cattle to reach. A pparently, the herdsm en o f the Caucasus have n o t been collectivised and they still ow n their cattle and this is the source o f difficulty. The forest authorities would like to fix a lim it o f one beast per hectare, a heavy enough stocking for forests like these, but they are n o t sure o f success for these G eorgian hillm en are form idable custom ers, n o t to be offended lightly. N ear the hotel, we inspected an unusual stand o f pine, Pinus h am ata, according to the Soviet authorities, but only a strain o f P . sylvestris to us. As we could see, com ing up the valley, it occurs on dry shoulders in p u re crop and it is restricted to these sites by the A bies nordmanniana, w hich overwhelms it on the better ground and which cannot itself survive on the dry sites. This is one o f those exam ples, showing how a tree grows in a certain type o f site, n o t because it likes it, or is particularly well suited to it, but because it has no option and no chance to escape from it. This kind o f occurrence m akes nonsense o f the view put forw ard by certain enthusiasts th a t because a tree is found growing naturally on a site, th a t site m ust be specially adapted to the tree an d the tree adapted to it. The tree may tolerate the site but, given the chance, it m ight well do m uch better in another. H ere the pine is the prisoner o f the fir. The pine crop, when we got near it, im pressed us m ore than it h ad from a distance. T he trees are tall, ab o u t 80 feet or so, and, although the age m ust be considerable, the early grow th m ust have been fairly fast. T he stems are straight, with reddish grey bark in large, long flakes passing, higher up the tree, into the typical thin light red bark o f the Scots pine. T he crow ns are rath er thin and it looks as though the branches do not carry m ore th a n two years’ needles, although we could not test this, for the cattle h ad rem oved everything w ithin reach. The soil is m ainly a scree o f sm all lim estone rubble but we h ad no tim e to look at it properly. The vegetation is an extrem ely varied m ixture o f species, some m ost discordant. A m ong the w oody and shrubby grow th, we noted Quercus petra ea , Rhamnus frangula, Sorbus aria, Sorbus velutina, Rhus cotinus, Ruscus hyphophyllus and am ong the herbs Campanula alliantrifolia, C otoneaster australis, A rctostaphylos uva-ursi, M elam pyrum sylvaticun, H edera colchica, Solidago virga-aurea, G oodyerne repens, and Silea trilobium. There are a few yellowish seedlings o f silver fir on the ground, but no pine, as far as we could see. G oing dow n from the hills was m ore im pressive th an com ing up because we realised then how high we h ad clim bed, and, w ith the sun dropping low, we had the m ost interesting shadow effects w hich show ed up the forest types and made th e valleys an d gorges look deeper. In one o f the deep gorges we persuaded our guide to stop and give us the chance o f looking at the vegetation. It was not the best o f the gorges for this purpose, but, nevertheless, it gave us some im ­ pression o f w hat type o f forest could be expected in them . It was well below the coniferous forest, in the zone o f the beech-hornbeam forest. T he gorge was not one o f the deepest, although it was narrow , and we stopped by theToadside, with the river behind, and a cliff o f lim estone in front o f us. The cliff was n o t very high, no m ore than 100 feet, an d from its upper edge the m ountain sloped away 32 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION backw ards, carrying the broadleaved forest. These gorges are characterised by lower tem peratures th a n the surrounding country, as was quite obvious when we came out o f the cars; the light intensity is less, and the hum idity o f the air is high. One feature o f these sites is the presence o f an understorey o f yew and shrubs w ith shiny evergreen leaves. In this p articular place, there were one or two beech trees 50 or 60 feet high and a num ber o f yews, n o t quite as tall, but obviously o f some age. A long w ith these were small trees o f box. In the lower layers o f vegetation there were S taphvlea colchica, Ilex aquifoliuni, H edera colchica, Vinca m ajor, Polygonatum and roadside plants like Lapsana and Geranium robertianum . M osses were frequent everywhere, on the soil and on the trunks and branches o f the trees. O n the banks o f the stream , Alnus barbata was grow ing w ith grasses underneath and clum ps o f Struthiopteris. The light was fading when we cam e out o f the m ountains on to the Colchian plain once m ore, and we all tho u g h t we w ould tu rn north, along the coast, to retu rn direct to Sochi but, in fact, we turned south. Just before we m oved in this direction, we passed under an electric cable running away tow ards the so uth­ east. This, we were told, is the direct telegraph cable between M oscow and India. As we travelled south across the coastal plain we passed m ore plantations o f E ucalyptus viminalis and then came to an area planted w ith Citrus fruits. E ach orchard o f oranges or lem ons was com pletely surrounded by a high hedge, som etim es o f bam boo, sometimes o f cypress, to protect the crops from the winds from the sea. A long the road, there were num erous villagers o u t for their evening walk, th e little pigs were picking up w hat they could by the ro a d ­ side, dogs o f the Collie type were running about, som etim es chasing the pigs, sometim es paying atten tio n to the cars. Vines and fig trees ( Ficus carica) grow by the cottage doors an d we saw one small field o f cotton. Finally we cam e to an old village o f som e size, grow n around a very large, walled m onastery, and a place o f great antiquity. The name, as far as I could m ake out is Pithys, because o u r guide to ld us th a t it was founded by G reek colonists in the seventh century B.C. an d th a t they gave it their own nam e for pine because o f the pine forests on the shore. T he m onastery dates from 551 A .D . and the place rem ained largely G reek until the T urks seized it ab o u t the year 1600. It has thus had a colourful history. A t the edge o f the village, on the shore, we cam e to a solitary stand o f pine, the object o f o u r journey, and it was a thou san d pities th at we arrived to see it as the light was failing fast. The pine is Pinus pith you sa Steven, nam ed after the village. T he Soviet people are very sure th a t this pine is an independent species, grow ing only as a relic in a few small patches on the coast o f the Black Sea; other authorities, however, take the view th at it is a form or. variety o f Pinus halepensis while some describe it as a form o f Pinus brutia which, in turn, is regarded by others, as a variety also o f the A leppo pine. I t was m ost interes­ ting to see this crop o f this unusual pine. T he trees are very tall, with open, slightly flattened crow ns and, in general appearance, they do n o t differ very greatly, as far as we could determ ine, from the m aritim e pine. The small w ood stands on a flat sandy beach, open on all four sides to the winds, b u t there was no sign o f exposure effects, even along the seaw ard edge. One sees the sam e thing ro u n d the M editerranean coasts. The soils is a coarse sea sand. There was ju st enough light to distinguish m ost o f th e plants in the undergrow th, which con­ sisted m ainly o f a dense shrubby layer. A m ong them are Ruscus ponticus, P yracantha coccinea, Carpinus caucasica, S m ilax effusa, Paliurus spina-christi and a few m ore. T here was no tim e to look at the herbaceous plants, b u t in one place bracken was well developed. O n the shore, at the edge o f the pine wood, there are several sea-side shacks, the kind o f thing one finds in all countries. Each one had its own kitchen m idden inside the wood, heaps o f household refuse, which will be a joy to archaeologists centuries hence. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 33 September 5th It was bright sunshine and w arm as I rose a b o u t seven o ’clock and stood on the verandah looking o u t over the Black Sea. T he w ater was still and deep blue, with m ist in the distance, wiping out the line o f the horizon, and there was no cioud in the sky. A fter breakfast, it was becom ing w arm er as we set out, in cars, for the D endrarium , or B otanic G arden cum A rboretum , at the other end of the town. This D endrarium is one o f the m ain responsibilities o f the Experi­ mental Station o f the sub-tropical Black Sea region, which has its headquarters here. It was established in the eighteen-nineties, and it is laid out with an eye to scenic effects, some o f which are extraordinarily well contrived; it has an im ­ posing entrance w ith pillars, etc. set in m ass o f bedded-out Cannas and other flowers. The D endrarium , which together w ith gardens and nurseries, covers about 100 acres, provides trees and shrubs for planting in Sochi and its neigh­ bourhood, an d this function is regarded o f some im portance, for the D irector claims th a t the tran sfo rm atio n o f Sochi into a garden city is largely due to the services provided by the D endrarium over the last thirty or forty years. It also plays a p a rt in the cultural activities o f the district and visitors are taken round in conducted parties as well as entering u n atten d ed; during the last three years, the D endrarium has been visited by 920,000 people, 32 per cent o f w hom came in organised parties. T here are 18 qualified guides on the staff and they seem to be kept fully em ployed. In the D endrarium itself, there are 800 species o f trees and shrubs, with varieties, grow ing in the open air, while altogether in the nurseries, gardens, houses, etc., the total list adds up to 1,700. O f these, 45 per cent are Asian, 24 per cent A m erican, 23 per cent E uropean, 5 per cent A ustralian and 2 per cent African. The clim ate, along this narrow coastal fringe, is suitable for the cultivation o f sub-tropical plants, as the m ean annual tem perature is 57°F, and the annual rainfall 56 inches, and the R ussians have, naturally, great success with m any things which we in B ritain can n o t grow in the open at all. I was surprised, however, to find th a t they have a relatively p o o r representation o f A ustralian an d N ew Z ealand plants and I noticed, particularly, th a t they had no tree ferns, which is curious, because D icksonia, for exam ple, grows o u t o f doors, here an d there, w ith us an d does quite well. They have one specim en o f Eucalyptus, E. cinerea in the D endrarium , an d they have a sm all trial ground for this genus nearby, b u t th e small p ro p o rtio n o f trees and shrubs from the A ntipodes is puzzling. Palm s an d cypresses are the scenic feature o f the D endrarium and the general effect is the sam e as in the m ore sheltered places on the M editerranean litoral. A m ong the palm s are som e very fine tall specimens o f Washingtonia, a magnificent tree o f Phoenix canariense, Trachycarpus fo rtu n ei and Chem aerops humilis. C ycas revoluta an d Yucca gloriosa, o f course were there in quantity. The tall colum nar cypresses are rath er a feature o f the place and there are som e very fine Cupressus sem pervirens, and also som e w hich they said were lusitanica, although I have never seen C. lusitanica in this excessively spire-shaped form before. They all seem ed to be flourishing very well indeed. A m ong the pines, the chief interest to us was in those which we can’t grow ourselves, and, for the first tim e I saw a really good, though n o t large, specimen o f Pinus echinata. P . canariensis is ab o u t 40 feet high and they have tw o good specimens o f P. palustris, w hich we can scarcely get past the nursery stage. P. radiata an d P. m uricata are b o th w ell-furnished and vigorous, the latter being ab o u t 60 feet in height, b u t badly forked. O f the other conifers, only the cedars looked really happy, Cedrus deodara an d C. atlantica doing well; there is an interesting fastigiate form o f the latter. Ginkgo, as one m ight expect, is growing nicely, for it loves w arm th. 34 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION They have a large num ber o f oaks, m ost o f them not very good, but a fine specim en o f Q uercus iberica (a form o f sessile) is an exception. This tree is alm ost 14 feet in girth at breast height. A m ong other trees o f interest were a very fine specim en o f L agerstroem ia indica, the best specimen 1 have ever seen o f M aclura aurantiaca, the Osage O range, which is ab o u t 30 feet in height and bearing fruit, A cacia dealbata which is frequently planted in Sochi in gardens and Ligustrum lucidum, 25 feet high. T here was a good show o f plants o f econom ic or o f possibly econom ic im portance— Q uercus suber, Sapium subiferum (a source o f wax), Cinnamonum camphora, various C itrus plants, and a specimen o f Cojfea arabica. I was surprised to see the coffee plant looking so well o u t o f doors, even at Sochi, an d enquired w hether it was a variety into which they had succeeded in breeding hardiness. M y guide grinned and said th a t they had to take this p lan t indoors every winter. A m ong clim bing plants, there was a fine show o f Tecom a grandiflora, and an even better display o f P ueraria thunbergiana which flourishes exceedingly at Sochi. Less exotic, Prunus lusitanica , th e P ortugal laurel, does badly and regularly dies back on account o f drought. O f the bam boos, there were good specimens o f P hyllostach ys edulis an d Bam busa quadrangular is. A fter going round the D endrarium we looked at a nice little collection o f cacti and succulents, and w alked p ast the collection o f 212 species o f Eucalyptus, which the B otanical In stitu tio n o f the A cadem y o f Sciences planted on 5 acres in 1950. T he D irector told us som ething a b o u t the w ork o f his station, which was founded in 1944 an d has, in addition to the establishm ent at Sochi, an experi­ m ental area o f ab o u t 100,000 acres, m ainly to th e n o rth o f th at tow n. They deal broadly w ith forest m anagem ent, and p ark and garden m anagem ent, and they carry out, at the sam e time, research into p lan t physiology and soils. They are paying m uch attentio n to the cultivation o f co rk oak and are investigating m ethods o f protection against the acorn gall-fly ( C allyrhitis ), while they are w orking w ith latex-producing plants such as Eucom m ia and Euonymus japonicus. They are also w orking on diseases o f the chestnut, w hich is dying off from Ink Disease (P hytopth ora ). Endothia has n o t yet reached them , but they seem rather w orried a b o u t it. I told them o f o u r experience in the W est, b u t the disease w ith them seems to be m uch m ore severe. It is curious how the chestnut is suffering in widely separated regions o f the w orld. They have a large program m e o f w ork on the in troduction o f exotics an d native species into their forests in order to enrich th em ; am ong the trees w hich are being used in this way, in additio n to other m entioned, are w alnut, pecan, C oyra olivaeform is, hazel, cypresses, Pinus pinea, Pinus pith you sa, Cedrus atlantica, C. deodara and Sequoia sem pernrens. W e were each presented w ith a box m ade o f local yew w ood and I was given a walking stick, m ade o f yew, w ith an olivewood handle and banded with w alnut, hornbeam and the yellow M aclura. F ro m the D endrarium , we drove back th ro u g h the tow n, and uphill tow ards a view -point on a hill above Sochi to w hich they have recently built a road. W e climbed, I should say, m ore th an 2,000 feet out o f the sub-tropical coastal strip into the region o f broadleaved forest. As we started to climb there were pom egranates growing by the ro ad ­ side, the lovely red flowers interm ingling w ith unripe fruits on the branches, while there were one or tw o plantations o f D iospyros k a k i, grow n for the persim m on fruit. But, quite suddenly, there was a change an d we seemed to have passed into a different clim atic zone, as the forest began. A t the to p o f the hill we found ourselves on a ridge with the land sloping dow n quite steeply to the south an d to the north. This forest is dom inated by beech ( Fagus orientalis) and hornbeam (C arpinus caucasica) but it contains a very rich m ixture o f other broadleaved species. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 51 since 1945 p roprietors have show n m uch greater interest in replanting felled woodland, and the w ork is proceeding even faster than anticipated. T he 1956 rate o f planting by private owners was 27,000 acres a year. H ow ever, the re­ sources o f private individuals now seldom extend beyond the re-planting o f existing w oods; few o f them a ttem p t any large expansion o f the w oodland area over bare ground. Regional Trends in Species Because so m uch o f o u r w oodland has been planted, and also because the same species were so widely used, it is n o t possible to define regional forest types in Britain. The distrib u tio n o f tree species was investigated in the Forestry Commission Census o f 1947, which show ed th a t broadleaved trees predom inated in England but conifers led elsewhere. O ak was then the principal tree over most o f England, except for the C hiltern Hills N orth-w est o f L ondon, where beech is m ore im p o rta n t; Scots pine was the principal tree in Scotland, and particularly so in the N orth-east. Even in the w oods planted by the Forestry Commission, a considerable choice o f species has been possible in m any districts, resulting in regional trends rath er th an distinct types. A m ajor trend th a t has become evident in the distribution o f conifers is that N orw ay an d Sitka spruces tend to be favoured in the n o rth and west o f Britain, where conditions are generally cool and m oist; whereas the Scots and Corsican pines are preferred in the south and east where the clim ate is generally warmer and drier. T he general picture is show n in the m ap which com prises Figure 1. Development of Urban Demands for Timber A feature o f the Industrial Revolution, which changed B ritain’s econom y during the nineteenth century, was a great in creaseinthe dem and for tim ber and forest products o f all kinds. This dem and arose m ainly in the grow ing industrial towns and seaports, and it was found easiest to meet it by im ports. T here were several reasons for this: the m ain call was for softw oods, and at th a t time Britain's m ature coniferous woods were very lim ited in extent and could not supply the quantities needed; second, very large quantities o f softw ood were available from N o rth A m erica an d N o rth ern E urope, at prices which proved cheap in relation to the sum s received for British exports o f coal and m an u ­ factured g o o d s; third, tran sp o rt was also cheap since tim ber provided a return cargo for ships engaged in the export trade. H ence it cam e ab o u t th at the m ain industries concerned w ith tim ber and w ood pulp were concentrated aro u n d the seaports, rath er than in the forests. In 1914, ab o ut 95 per cent o f the co u ntry’s tim ber needs were being m et by im ports. Allied w ith this process was a grow ing co n centration o f the p o p ulation in big towns and cities rem ote from the forests, but well served by w ater transport. Consequently the tim ber grow n on private estates tended to be used locally for agricultural w ork, where little tran sp o rt was needed and it could best com pete with cheap im ports. The Present Work of the Forestry Commission Establishment of the Forestry Commission Prior to 1885 the G overnm ent to o k little interest in forestry; it was generally believed th a t the unaided w ork o f private owners, together with the plentiful im ports, could m eet all foreseeable needs. The only national forests consisted o f small rem nants o f the m ediaeval royal hunting grounds, such as the New Forest and the D ean Forest, w hich had a com bined area o f 118,000 acres; but 52 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Pin e s, elc. B r o a d ie c v e d Spruces T re e s C onifers SCALE Thousands o| Fig. I. T he D istrib u tio n o f H igh F o rest W oodlands by C ounties in G reat B ritain, show ing the relative im portance o f broadleaved trees, spruces, a n d o th er conifers— m ostly pines— in each county, in 1947. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 53 o f this only some 60,000 acres was under tree crops. F rom 1885 to 1919, various efforts were m ade to encourage the grow ing o f tim ber, and eventually the Forestry A ct o f 1919 established the Forestry C om m ission as the G overnm ent A uthority responsible for such w ork. T he im m ediate cause for this action was the need to rem edy the co u n try ’s econom ic an d strategic dependence on over­ seas sources o f tim ber. This Com m ission, as constituted under the 1919 A ct and subsequent legislation, consists o f ten m em bers appointed by the Queen for a set term of years. The C om m ission is responsible to the tw o G overnm ent M inisters concerned w ith agricultural affairs, namely the M inister o f A griculture, Fisheries, and Food, and the Secretary o f State for Scotland. T he M inisters act jo in tly in m atters o f general policy, but the M inister o f A griculture has a special concern for England and W ales, and the Secretary o f State a like concern for Scotland. The C om m ission is required to m ake an annual report to Parliam ent. Funds for its operations are provided in p art by the Treasury, an d in p a rt from sales o f tim ber and oth er receipts from its estates. T he principal duties entrusted to the C om m ission are the pro m o tio n o f forestry and the m aintenance o f an adequate reserve o f grow ing tim ber w ithin G reat Britain, and it has wide legal powers to pursue these objectives. Its staff are recruited, and operate, under the same conditions as m em bers o f the Civil Service. The present basis o f action was outlined in a form al rep o rt entitled PostWar Forest Policy, which was presented to P arliam ent in 1943, when the second W orld W ar was again m aking evident the need for hom e supplies o f wood. Briefly the Policy provides for a fifty-year program m e, during which time there will be built up a forest estate— partly in private ow nership and partly under n atio n al ow nership—covering 5 m illion acres (2 m illion hectares) equivalent to 10 p er cent o f the co u n try ’s land surface. W hen fully established, this will yield ab o u t 400 m illion cubic feet o f tim ber each year, in true m easure under bark. So far as can be estim ated, this o u tp u t will be equivalent, on a sustained yield basis, to a b o u t one-third o f the am ount o f the co u ntry’s con­ sumption in 1938. A larger co n trib u tio n to the country’s needs could, o f course, be provided during a sh o rt emergency, b u t only by over-cutting the grow ing stock. It should be noted th a t it is not proposed to m ake the country independent of overseas tim ber supplies, which will continue to provide a m ajor p a rt o f all timber and tim ber products used. But th e present extrem e dependence, which involves a heavy drain on foreign exchange an d is a strategic liability, will be greatly reduced. The prosecution o f th e present fifty-year plan is an extension o f the C om ­ mission’s w ork which began im m ediately on its form ation in 1919, and has already resulted in the creation o f a n atio n al forest estate covering, in 1956, 1.062.000 acres. F u rth e r details o f this achievem ent are discussed in a following section. Statistics of Forest Land The F orestry Com m ission now (1956) holds 2,177,000 acres o f land, and o f this 1,062,000 acres is under tree crops. O f the rem ainder 315,000 acres is held for planting up in the near fu tu re; while 800,000 acres consists o f land unsuitable for afforestation, m ainly the m ountain tops in Scotland and W ales, which has had to be taken over w ith the better g ro u n d ; such land is used for rough grazing and also, in the N atio n al F orest Parks, for recreation. Each year a further 50.000 to 60,000 acres are planted w ith trees, and this area would be increased if more land could be secured. 54 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION W oodlands u nder private ow nership cover approxim ately 2,750,000 acres b u t this figure includes m any very sm all an d scattered areas. This figure will probably dim inish som ew hat, as som e owners will wish to offer w oodland to the Forestry C om m ission rath er th a n to m anage it themselves. It is estim ated th a t by the end o f th e century the private ow ners will retain som e 2,000,000 acres o f efficiently m anaged an d productive forest, excluding very sm all woods and shelterbelts. The national objective during the next forty years is 5,000,000 acres o f efficient tim ber-producing forest. A ssum ing th a t 2,000,000 acres rem ain in private ow nership, th e C om m ission’s share will thus be 3,000,000 acres. It has already acquired 1,400,000 acres o f plantable land, b u t there rem ains som ething like 1,600,000 acres th a t m ust be obtained from m oors and hillsides for planting up. Forestry Commission Activities U nder its central headquarters in L ondon, the Forestry Com m ission organises its w ork on a territo rial basis, w ith a D irector o f Forestry for England, also in L ondon, one for S cotland in E dinburgh, and one for W ales a t A ber­ ystwyth. A D irector o f R esearch a n d E ducation, stationed at the L ondon headquarters, controls operations in those fields th ro u g h o u t G reat Britain. Each country is divided into sm aller charges, know n as Conservancies, com ­ prising a group o f ab o u t eight counties or p arts o f counties; over G reat Britain as a whole there are eleven C onservancies and tw o sm aller units, for the New and the D ean Forests respectively. E ach D irector or C onservator is a senior forest officer w ith a com plem ent o f office an d field staff. In each o f the three countries a N atio n al Forestry C om m ittee assists the D irector and th e C om m ission in the fram ing o f policy, while each Conservancy has a Regional A dvisory C om m ittee representative o f local interests, p a r­ ticularly as regards the private estates. A special Com m ittee advises on research. The activities o f the C om m ission are organised on three m ain lines: (1) (2) (3) F o rm atio n an d M anagem ent o f N atio n al Forests. E ncouragem ent o f forestry on private estates. Research and E ducation. F o r convenience, these activities are reviewed separately below, but in practice one forest officer com m only deals w ith both national forests and private estates in his own district. H e is thus fully fam iliar w ith local conditions, and can advise w oodland owners on the basis o f his own recent experience. Specialist officers are, o f course, m ore closely concerned w ith one particular activity. Direct Action in National Forests Since 1919, some 500 national forests have been set up by the Com m ission. The land for these is acquired from private ow nership either by purchase or by lease for a long term o f years. Such land com es from two m ain sources— form er w oodland which owners are unable or unwilling to m anage themselves, an d m ountains or m oorlands o f low value for farm ing. F u rth er land is steadily being acquired at the current rate o f 50,000 acres each year. This is less than h alf the desirable rate, but as all land is acquired by negotiation with willing sellers, and not by com pulsion, it can only be taken up as it comes on to the m arket. Owing to the large num ber o f private landow ners, suitable land is often available only in small blocks, which can only gradually be built up into a forest o f reasonable extent. NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 55 The Com m ission raises nearly all the trees it uses in its ow n forest nurseries. The current rate o f planting in the C om m ission’s own forests is som e 50,000 to 60,000 acres a year. This involves the raising and planting o f ab o u t 120 million young trees. T he w ork o f afforestation or replanting is done by direct labour. This lab o u r force, w hich num bers over 13,000 persons, is supervised by resident Foresters. Each g roup o f forests is controlled by a D istrict Forest Officer. To ensure a sufficient num ber o f labourers, particularly in the N o rth ern and W estern regions where p o p u latio n is sparse, the C om m ission has found it necessary to build houses on a large scale. These sometimes form sm all groups o f cottages or sm allholdings, and sometimes larger “ forest villages” . T he planning and m anagem ent o f these housing schemes, together w ith the m anagem ent o f property other th a n forests, is entrusted to specially trained E state Officers. A ltogether there are 4,500 houses for forest w orkers, an d ab o u t 100 m ore are built each year. To m ake possible the tra n sp o rt o f forest produce from the woods, it has been found essential to extend the existing netw ork o f roads and tracks, par­ ticularly in the hilly n o rth ern and w estern districts. These now extend to 3,500 miles, and a further 450 miles, or so, is added each year. By using m achinery such as bulldozers an d graders, it has been found possible to build gravel roads o f a sufficiently high stan d ard very cheaply. This w ork is supervised by p ro ­ fessional engineers. A t present little m ature tim ber is harvested from the C om m ission’s forests, since m ost crops are under forty years o f age. T he bulk o f the produce takes the form o f thinnings from young coniferous woods. T he m arking o f such thinnings is always undertaken by the C om m ission’s staff, b u t subsequently the trees selected for rem oval m ay be sold, as they stand, to tim ber m erchants, who fell, remove, an d m arket them . A lternatively, the felling and tran sp o rt may be carried out by the C om m ission’s w orkm en, an d the resulting m aterial be sold as poles at the roadside, or further prep ared and delivered to the p u r­ chaser’s factory o r yard. T he m ethod o f sale ado pted depends m ainly on local conditions an d th e prices offered; but it is considered advisable to do enough direct m arketing to keep in touch w ith prevailing costs and prices. Plans for planting and the ancillary w ork, thinning, ro ad m aking, and fire protection, are in force at all forests, an d these are gradually being developed into com prehensive W orking Plans covering all aspects o f m anagem ent. Main Forest Regions L and for afforestation has been acquired wherever it has become available, and consequently there are one or m ore forests in nearly every county th ro u g h ­ out G reat Britain. B ut the larger forests, or forest groups, are naturally placed in certain regions where am ple suitable land, too po o r for sustained agriculture, is to be found. In th e N o rth o f England, there is a large forest region aro u n d K idder, on the Scottish Border, an d an o th er called A llerston on the Y orkshire M oors n ear Scarborough. In E astern E ngland there is a large forest called Sherwood in N ottingham shire, and an o th er called T hetford Chase in N orfolk and Suffolk. The N ew Forest in H am pshire is the largest in the South, and the Dean F orest in G loucestershire the largest in the W est. In South W ales there is a big forest called Coed M organnw g in G lam organ; while N o rth W ales has a group o f extensive new w oodlands in its m ain valleys. In Scotland, the greatest co n centration o f new forests lies in the H ighlands along th e G reat G len th a t runs from Inverness to F o rt W illiam. F arth er East, there is a string o f new w oods between Inverness and Aberdeen, along the foot­ hills o f the G ram pian M ountains. W est o f Glasgow, the county o f Argyll has 56 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION a large concentration o f C om m ission forests; while in the South-w estern region called G allow ay there is a big forest group aro u n d G lentrool. C ertain o f these larger forest regions have been declared N ational Forest Parks, w ith the object o f encouraging the public to use the tracks th ro u g h the w oods to th e hills th a t lie beyond, and to enjoy some o f the m ost magnificent scenery in the country. C am ping sites have been opened and guide books published. T here are eight o f these parks and, together w ith the New Forest, they provide 500,000 acres o f land for public recreation. Assistance to W oodland Owners W oodlands in private ow nership form parts o f very num erous estates, whose individual holdings vary from over 10,000 acres to as little as 5 acres. All owners are being encouraged to m anage their w oods in the m ost efficient way, by the aid o f free technical advice from the Forestry Com m ission, and by schemes for planned m anagem ent and financial assistance. Estates having any considerable extent o f w oodland, usually from 100 acres upw ards th o u g h there is no strict lim it o f size, are asked to prepare simple w orking plans which are revised at five-yearly intervals. T he m anagem ent o f the w oodlands in accordance w ith the agreed plan is supervised by a C om m ission F orest Officer, who visits the estate at least once a year; b u t ow nership o f the w oods, and their ordinary m anagem ent, rests entirely with the owners. If the owner signs a legal covenant, binding him self to follow this “ Plan o f O perations” , the woods are regarded as “ D edicated” to tim ber production, and he receives a grant for planting or replanting each area, and a further g rant for m anaging his w oodlands. If the ow ner merely agrees to follow the “ Plan o f O perations” w ithout legally binding himself, he receives a sm aller planting grant but no grants for m anagem ent. These “ D edication” and “ A pproved W oodlands" schemes, introduced in 1947, have been ado p ted by an increasing num ber of people, and 1,360 w oodland owners, holding between them 600,000 acres, have already agreed to m anage their w oodlands under w orking plans. F o r the sm aller properties, simple P lanting G rants are m ade available, the only condition being th a t the w ork m ust be thoroughly done and the resulting plantations m aintained for at least five years. O ther grants, available to all estates, are available to meet p art o f the cost o f clearing scrub prior to planting, for planting poplars, and for the early thinnings o f young plantations, which while silviculturally desirable are n o t always rem unerative. The rates o f grant paid are reviewed from tim e to time to keep them in line w ith current costs. A t present the simple Planting G ra n t is £17 lOr. per acre, which represents ab o u t one-third o f the average cost. W oodland owners m ay also claim certain concessions in national taxation. In order to conserve the country's lim ited reserves o f standing tim ber, a system o f felling licences has been introduced. Small exem ptions are m ade to allow o f m inor fellings for such purposes as farm repairs, but in general no substantial q uantity o f tim ber m ay be cut w ithout a licence. The to tal quantity perm itted each year is regulated by a “ q u o ta ” m ethod. In general, licences are freely obtainable for felling m ature w oods, or for thinning, but not for the clear felling o f young plantations. A n im p o rtan t feature o f the system is that the owner m ay be, and in practice usually is, required to replant felled w oodland. Research The C om m ission's research activities are based on the Alice H olt Research Station, situated close to F arn h am in Surrey, som e 40 miles south-w est o f L on d o n ; there is also a branch office in E dinburgh th at deals with field w ork in NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 57 Scotland and north ern England. T he experim ents and field trials are dispersed over a large num ber o f forests an d nurseries, because the wide differences in topography, soil an d clim ate th a t occur in Britain m ake it essential to sam ple a large range o f conditions. T he m ain subject o f research is silviculture, but there are also sections concerned w ith genetics, pathology, entom ology, the development o f machinery, an d th e utilisation o f forest produce, while a further section covers m ensuration o f tree crops, studies o f grow th and yield, census or stocktaking o f w oodlands, econom ics an d w orking plans. All these sections are aided by a central library an d d o cum entation bureau, a photographic section, and a statistician. T he C om m ission also operates a small branch for Forest W ork Studies in the field. The general scope o f the C om m ission’s direct research an d investigation lies with the im m ediate practical problem s o f the forester. W here m ore fu n d a­ mental research is needed, it is the practice to enlist the help o f specialists attached to the universities, an d to m ake them ap p ro p riate financial grants. The financial provision for all form s o f research am ounts to ab o u t 3 per cent of the C om m ission’s total expenditure. T hirty graduate forest officers are employed full tim e on research work. The principal fields o f research u p till now have been the raising o f trees in nurseries, and their p lanting an d establishm ent in the forests. This is in line with the very large program m e o f afforestation by artificial m ethods th a t is being pursued in Britain. The im proved m ethods th a t have been developed as a result of such investigations have already am ply repaid the effort an d expense involved. F or exam ple, plants suitable for use in the forest are now regularly raised in two years, instead o f requiring three or four years in the nursery as previously; and this m eans a big saving in cost and also in nursery area. The introduction o f various m ethods o f soil p rep aration by ploughing has led to much m ore rapid rates o f grow th in young plantations on very varied types of ground; land considered doub tfu l for afforestation only ten years ago can now be planted up w ith confidence. As the new forests get taller, the em phasis o f research is shifting tow ards problems o f m anagem ent, a n d the utilisation o f their increasing o u tp u t o f thinnings. But planting trials are still in progress to discover, for example, whether afforestation can be carried out on still poorer soils or m ore exposed sites in the n o rth and west. Provenance studies, and the form ation o f seed orchards for the large scale p roduction o f seed o f know n high quality parentage, are other fields in which investigations are being actively carried on. The results o f research are m ade know n by m eans o f an A nnual R eport on Forest R esearch, by bulletins an d sh o rter papers issued a t irregular intervals, and by contributions to scientific journals. Education F our U niversities— O xford, Edinburgh, A berdeen, and B angor— offer courses in forestry, an d forest Officers m ust o btain a degree a t one o f them . The Com m ission undertakes the training o f m en for posts as Foresters in its own woods or on private estates. T here are four training schools— one in England, two in Scotland, and one in W ales, and the course o f practical and classroom instruction, which is given free o f charge to selected m en, lasts two years. The num ber o f g raduate F orest Officers, E state Officers, and Engineers employed is 425, and the num ber o f train ed supervisory Foresters is 1,265. The labourers engaged in th e forests num ber over 13,000, while 2,100 people are em ployed in all grades o f office adm inistration. 58 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION T he C om m ission also organises an apprenticeship scheme for boys who wish to becom e forest w orkers, an d sh o rt courses o f a few weeks’ du ratio n for adult forest w orkers an d w oodm en. O ther courses, lasting only one week, arc arranged for w oodland owners, estate agents, and others professionally engaged in forestry. M ost o f these, together w ith refresher courses for the C om m ission’s own staff, are held a t at residential centre called N o rtherw ood H ouse in the N ew Forest. Finance T he current (1956) level o f annual expenditure by the Com m ission is around £11,500,000. O f this som e £9,000,000 is derived from the national treasury, £2,300,000 from the sale o f tim ber an d other forest produce, and £200,000 from rents o f land, royalties for m inerals, and oth er m iscellaneous sources. D uring the present phase o f developing large areas o f young w oodlands, expenditure is naturally far in excess o f receipts, but this situation will be rem edied as m ore woods ap p ro ach m aturity and give higher yields o f tim ber. Expenditure on the establishm ent an d m aintenance o f Com m ission forests is ab o u t £10,400,000 annually. T he balance consists o f £750,000 expended as grants and other form s o f assistance to private w oodland owners, £250,000 spent on research, and £100,000 on the education o f foresters. The net state investm ent in hom e forestry is now a b o u t £9 m illion per year, w hereas the annual cost o f tim ber an d forest produce im ported from ab ro ad am ounts to some £362 m illion (1955 Figure). Other Agencies concerned with Forestry There are several other official bodies or national institutions th a t are concerned w ith forestry; all o f them w ork in co-operation, to varying degrees, w ith the F orestry Com m ission. T he tw o D epartm ents concerned with farm ing, th a t is the M inistry o f A griculture, Fisheries, and F ood in England and W ales, an d th e D epartm en t o f A griculture for Scotland, encourage the planting o f shelterbelts to p ro tect farm lands, an d give grants tow ards the cost. The M inistry o f H ousing and Local G overnm ent an d the D epartm ent o f H ealth for Scotland deal w ith the scenic aspect o f trees, m ore particularly in the towns, an d m ake legal orders for the preservation o f trees or w oods o f exceptional natu ral beauty. T he N atu re C onservancy m aintains w oodland nature reserves, and prom otes the study o f the biological sciences. R esearch into the properties and uses o f tim ber is undertaken by the F orest P roducts R esearch L aboratory at Princes R isborough in Buckingham shire, ab o u t 40 miles north-w est of L ondon, which com es under the D epartm ent o f Scientific and Industrial Research. T he Forestry U niversities not only tra in forest officers but also carry out research. T here are tw o R oyal F orestry Societies, one for Scotland and an o th er for E ngland and W ales, which organise m eetings and visits to w oodlands, and publish jo u rn a ls; their m em bership includes w oodland owners, land agents, tim ber m erchants, and professional foresters o f all grades. T here is also a m ore strictly professional Society o f Foresters o f G reat Britain, which issues the jo u rn al “ F orestry” . In several districts there are also C o-operative Forestry Societies which are essentially com m ercial in ch aracter; they provide their m em bers, who are usually the owners o f fairly small areas o f w oodland, with professional assistance in planting, m anagem ent, and m arketing tim ber. 1957 NUM BER TW ENTY-SIX 59 The Principal Trees Grown A m ajor change is in progress in the com position o f B ritain’s forests, involving a swing from the native broadleaved trees, principally oak and beech, towards coniferous trees, all b u t one o f w hich have been introduced from abroad. This tre n d is show n in a general way by the table th a t appears below ; for various reasons this can n o t be taken as an exact com parison; b u t it shows the prevailing trend. Species O ak Beech Ash Birch Sycamore ................ Elm Sweet C hestnut All other Broadleaved trees .... Scots pine Sitka spruce N orw ay spruce E uropean larch Japanese larch C orsican pine D ouglas fir Lodgepole pine W estern hemlock W estern red cedar H ybrid larch Serbian spruce Law son cypress G rand silver fir All other conifers T otal Conifers G rand T otal, All Trees P ercentage o f H igh P ercentage o f F orest occupied in F orestry Com mission 1947 p lan tin g in 1956 24 9 5 3 3 1 1 1 3 4 — 0.5 0.5 — — 1 47 9 20 9 8 8 3 2 2 •— 19 24 8 2 12 4 3 13 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 — — — — — — 1 53 91 100 100 This table com pares the percentage area o f high forest plantations under each kind o f tree in 1947 (the last date for which com plete figures are available), with the percentage o f each tree used currently (1956) by the Forestry C om ­ mission. A t present, the C om m ission’s w ork covers 70 per cent o f all planting done, and it is know n th a t planting on private estates follows sim ilar trends. Hence the left-hand colum n indicates th e p ast com position o f the w oodlands, and the right-hand colum n the likely future com position, if current practice continues. T he m ost rem arkable change is the reduction in the pro p o rtio n o f broadleaved trees, w ith oak falling m ost m arkedly. Several conifers show large increases in the p ro p o rtio n planted, particularly Sitka spruce, Japanese larch and Lodgepole pine. Reasons for these changes are discussed later. 60 JO URNAL OF THF FORESTRY COMMISSION Obviously there m ust be good reasons for such a rem arkable alteration in the character o f a co u n try ’s forests, an d these are, o f course, basically econom ic. T he current dem and for tim ber an d forest products, such as wood pulp, in Britain, is for 90 per cent softw ood and 10 per cent hardw ood. Further, while softw ood o f any grade is acceptable for one purpose or another, the m arkets for hardw oods require large logs o f high quality, whereas sm aller or inferior m aterial is difficult to dispose o f at a reasonable price. Then the rate of volume p roduction o f the conifers, on nearly any site, is com m only greater th an th at o f the broadleaved trees, and the extra price obtained for high quality broadleaved tim ber seldom com pensates for this shortcom ing in grow th rate. Finally, m uch o f the land available for afforestation, especially am ong the north ern and w estern hills, is incapable o f grow ing broadleaved trees to a m arketable size, whereas it will produce conifers o f reasonable dim ensions. C onsequently, both the Forestry Com m ission, which exists to meet the needs of industry, and the private owners who have to consider even m ore closely their likely financial returns, are both concentrating on the planting o f conifers. Broadleaved trees are only used in places where past experience suggests a future crop o f rap id grow th and high q uality; such situations are far m ore frequent in the M idlands, the South, and the E ast o f England, th a n elsewhere. Since Britain has only one native tim ber-producing conifer, the Scots pine, which is a relatively low volum e producer and unsuited to certain con­ ditions o f soil and exposure, recourse has been had to several kinds o f introduced coniferous trees. The num ber tried experim entally reaches 100, but as a result o f trial and error, only ab o u t 14 are now grow n on a com m ercial scale. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) This native tree retains its w ell-m erited place in our forests because it has a fairly wide tolerance o f soil and site. It also gives better results than any other tree on m any o f the less fertile m oors, characterised by a grow th o f pure heather, Calluna vulgaris, over subsoils o f sand or gravel, in the low rainfall areas on the eastern side o f the country. Its m ain draw back is its m oderate rate o f grow th, an d this often causes other faster-grow ing conifers to be pre­ ferred. But its tim ber is widely know n and well-liked, and thinnings o f all sizes are m arketable; tim ber o f this species is im ported in great quantities from N o rth e rn E urope u nder the trad e nam e o f “ redw ood” , and hence all users are fam iliar w ith it. Scots pine is planted all over Britain, b u t the principal pinew oods lie in N o rth -E ast Scotland and in E astern England. In 1947, woods o f Scots pine covered 360,000 acres; the Com m ission now plants ab o u t 10,000 acres o f it annually, an d it is widely used on private estates. Corsican Pine (Pinus nigra var. calabrica Schneid.) A lthough this M ed iterranean tree m ight appear to be well outside its clim atic range in Britain, it thrives am id the warm, dry conditions th a t are found along the eastern side. In low lands w ith a low rainfall and a warm sum m er it grows rapidly, producing substantially m ore tim ber per acre th an the native Scots pine. It has proved particularly useful for afforesting coastal sand dunes, since it w ithstands b o th d ro u g h t and salt winds. On the other hand, it has failed when planted under the high rainfall and cool m oist conditions o f the north-w estern hills. T here is some evidence th a t this species m ay also be suc­ cessful on the heavy soils o f E ngland which used to grow rath er indifferent oak. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta D ouglas) This tree has recently com e into prom inence following extensive trials by the R esearch B ranch; in 1947, there were only 3,260 acres o f it in the country, whereas today som e 8,000 acres are planted annually. T he reason for this is the NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX J957 61 surprising tolerance o f the coastal strains (though not the others) to severe exposure and high rainfall on infertile peaty soils in the n o rth and west, where no other tree will thrive. A lthough it is regarded prim arily as a pioneer, there is already some evidence th at it will produce tim ber com parable to Scots pine, with at least as fast a rate o f growth. Other pines ( Pinus species) The A ustrian pine, Pinus nigra var. austriaca Asch. and G raeb. always shows poor form in Britain, and is used only for shelterbelts,not for tim ber. M onterey pine, P. radiata , and m aritim e pine, P. pin aster, are hardy only in the south, but are used in Devon an d Cornw all. N o five-needled pine is grow n com ­ mercially, since the species best suited to grow th in B ritain all suffer from blister rust ( Cronartium ribicola ), aphis ( A delges strobi), or both these pests together. Efforts are being m ade to find a resistant strain o f Pinus strobus. Norway spruce ( Picea abies K arsten) The com m on E uropean spruce has been widely planted on private estates since the eighteenth century, and is still m uch used there and in Com m ission forests. It grows well on m oist grassy sites and on old w oodlands in m ost parts of the country. In the sou th and east it is unsatisfactory, however, on all b u t the dam pest o f ground where rainfall is less than 30 inches a year. It does not thrive on acid heaths w ith a vegetation o f pure heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) nor on very acid peats, and it cannot stand severe exposure, particularly to the salt winds found on the west coast. Elsewhere, it proves a rapid producer o f a useful timber, which is also im ported in quantity from N o rth ern E urope as “ whitewood” and hence is fam iliar to users everywhere. Thinnings have proved very suitable for paper pulp and chipboard, am ongst other uses. Y oung trees and the tops o f older ones are sold each w inter as decorative “ C hristm as trees” . In 1947, N orw ay spruce plantations covered 133,000 acres; current planting by the Commission is at the rate o f 5,500 acres a year, an d m uch is also used on private estates. It is now a species com m only used in m ixture w ith oak. Sitka spruce ( P icea sitchensis C arr.) This w estern N o rth A m erican spruce is used to an even greater extent th an the N orw ay spruce, because o f three virtues: it is m uch m ore resistant to exposure a t high elevations, or near the sea; it tolerates considerably m ore acid peats or heathy vegetation; and it produces tim ber at a rath er m ore rap id rate. Like the N orw ay spruce, it is unhappy during the w arm dry sum m ers in the south-east, but is entirely at hom e under the high rainfall and m oist, cool conditions o f the north-w est. A nother failing is a susceptibility to dam age by late spring frosts in valley b o tto m s; hence N orw ay spruce is used there instead. Rapid height grow th is com m on, m any trees only 30 years old exceed 100 feet. The tim ber closely resem bles th a t o f N orw ay spruce, and is used for m uch the same purposes. Sitka spruce plantations covered 167,000 acres in 1947; the Commission plants ab o u t 16,500 acres annually, b u t little is used on private estates. Other Spruces ( Picea species) The Serbian spruce ( P icea om orika Pancic) shows prom ise on difficult peaty ground, but planting is restricted by lim ited seed supply. Several other species have been tried, but none ado p ted generally. 62 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION European larch (L arix decidua M iller) T he com m on E uro p ean larch has been very widely planted on private estates since the eighteenth century, b u t the experience o f the Forestry C om ­ m ission has been th a t it is only a success on selected fertile and well-w atered sites, away from severe exposure. Extensive provenance experim ents have show n th a t strains from high m ountain regions are unsuited to the British clim ate; trees o f w rong provenance suffer from canker and other diseases causing die-back; plants raised from seed gathered at lower elevations in E urope, or in Scotland, prove m uch hardier. L arch tim ber is valued for its naturally durable heartw ood, an d thinnings are widely used for fencing and estate repairs. Large logs furnish planks for the w ooden fishing boats th a t are still built in Scotland. E uro p ean larch plantations covered 133,000 acres in 1947; the Com m ission currently plants 1,500 acres annually, and private owners probably use as much. Japanese larch (L arix leptolepis G ord.) Since the beginning o f the present century this larch has been planted on an increasing scale, because it appears better suited to a wider range o f British conditions th an th e E uro p ean species. Its rate o f grow th, especially in youth, is considerably greater, an increase in height o f 3 feet a year being quite usual. It stands m ore exposure and tolerates less fertile soils th a n does the European species. Japanese larch has proved very useful for planting on hillsides covered w ith bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum); it is also a good tree for suppressing unw anted regrow th o f cleared broadleaved coppice. A t first, on the basis of tests carried o u t too early on young, very fast grow n samples, its tim ber was adjudged poorer th an th a t o f E uro p ean larch ; m ore recent tests m ade on norm al sam ples suggest th a t it is nearly as strong, an d therefore likely to find the sam e m arkets. T here were only 55,000 acres o f Japanese larch in B ritain in 1947; b u t th e C om m ission now plants 8,000 acres annually, and it is m uch used on private estates. Hybrid larch (L arix eurolepis H enry) B ritish foresters tak e a justified pride in this rem arkable tree, a natural hybrid between E uropean and Japanese larches which was discovered at D unkeld in Scotland ab o u t 1904. T he first an d probably the second cross are even hardier an d m ore toleran t o f difficult soil conditions th a n the Japanese larch, and grow even faster. A t present planting is lim ited by the shortage o f seed, b u t seed orchards have been form ed to ensure am ple future supplies o f firstgeneration hybrid seed; the tw o p aren t species have been planted together to ensure a high probability o f cross-fertilization. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia B ritton) This W estern N o rth A m erican conifer has been planted on a m oderate scale for over 100 years, but experience has show n th a t it only does well on selected ground. It thrives best on fertile slopes, preferably on form er w ood­ land. A draw back is its susceptibility to w indthrow , on all but the firmest of ground. As against this, its rate o f tim ber p ro d u ction is rapid, and the resulting tim ber, which is im ported in quantity from B ritish Colum bia, has a high repu­ tatio n in the tim ber trade. Only D ouglas fir o f coastal provenance (sometimes called “ green D ouglas” ) grows well as a tim ber tree in B ritain; trees o f inland provenances (such as the “ blue D ouglas” ) prove unsatisfactory. D ouglas fir is particularly useful for planting am id thickets o f Rhododendron p o n ticu m ; since its dense shade suppresses regrow th. D ouglas fir is being increasingly used in m ixture w ith beech. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 63 Silver firs (A bies species) The com m on E uro p ean silver fir, A bies alba M iller, was grow n successfully in Britain until ab o u t 1900, after w hich date the insect A delges nusslini became so serious th a t further p lanting was n o t w orth while. It is rem arkable th a t this pest, which is a m inor one in E urope, should be so serious in Britain. Two silver firs from W estern N o rth A m erica, namely the grand fir, A bies grandis Lindley, and the noble fir, A . nobilis Lindley, are used on a sm all scale mainly for re-planting form er w oodland, an d for under-planting. A . nobilis will stand considerable exposure, an d does well on good soils a t high levels. Both produce tim ber sim ilar to N orw ay spruce wood, at rapid rates on suitable sites. Other Conifers The w estern hem lock, Tsuga h eteropby/la Sarg. from British C olum bia, is being planted on a grow ing scale because it is easy to establish on form er w ood­ land sites, is suitable for under-planting, has only m odest soil requirem ents and produces tim ber rapidly. It shows prom ise too on peat-covered land, and may be useful in m ixture w ith Sitka spruce, as in its native country. T he eastern hemlock, T. canadensis, is n o t considered w orth planting. W estern red cedar, Thuja plica ta D. D on, is grow n on a small scale on the more fertile g ro u n d ; its exceptionally light and very durable tim ber is useful for fencing and ladder poles. U nfortunately it suffers at the nursery stage from a serious fungus, K eithia thujina, an d no sure m ethod o f control has yet been devised. Lawson cypress, C ham aecyparis lawsoniana Pari., is used on a sm all scale only; its great draw back is the tendency o f the m ain stem to divide or fork. Both Thuja an d Law son cypress are being used increasingly in m ixture with oak. Oaks ( Quercus species) The two native oaks, the pedunculate ( Quercus robur L.) and the sessile ( Q. p e tra e a Lieb.), form the m ain elem ent in the older planted and natu ral woods of Britain; indeed it has been estim ated th a t one tree in every three is still an oak. Nevertheless really good big m ature tim ber is far from plentiful, and there is too m uch small or crooked m aterial o f low value. It is ap p aren t th a t oak can only prove profitable if grow n as high quality tim ber on really good sites. Consequently planting is now done only on a small scale. T he durable tim ber is used for fencing, furniture, and to som e extent in building and engineering. The red oak, Quercus borealis M ichx.f., from N o rth A m erica, which has less strong but still useful general purpose tim ber, is being planted on a sm all scale because o f its good grow th rate on soils o f m oderate fertility. In 1947, oakw oods covered 431,500 acres o f high forest; but current Commission planting only am ounts to 1,700 acres a year, and this rate is likely to fall; private ow ners no longer p lan t oak o n any extensive scale. O ak is now rarely planted pure. Beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) The native beech is m ost a b u n d an t on chalk and lim estone hills in the south and east, b u t has also been planted far to the north, even in N o rthern Scotland, where it thrives o n well chosen ground. It is still being widely planted because it is the only tim ber-producing tree th a t is fully at hom e on the shallow rendzina soils found on the chalk and lim estone. N ow adays conifers are 64 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION com m only used in m ixture w ith it. The tim ber enjoys a for fu rniture m aking, but also for m aking m any other objects. Beechwoods in 1947 covered 162,000 acres; planting am ounts to 2,000 acres a year, and m uch is estates. good dem and, mainly small, strong wooden current Com m ission also used on private Ash ( Fraxinus excelsior L.) A sh trees o f exceptional quality are found over lim ited areas o f fertile soil, m ainly on the lim estone form ations, and their tim ber com m ands a good price for m aking fu rniture, sports goods, tool handles, and the fram ew ork o f vehicles. The planting o f ash is now restricted to such places, as small and slow-grown tim ber is o f little value. A shw oods occupied 85,000 acres in 1947; b u t current planting is on a very small scale. Sycamore (A cer pseucloplatanus L.) This is the only introduced hardw ood o f m uch consequence in British w oodlands. It produces tim ber o f good size and quality generally only on fertile soils derived from lim estone, and its present p lanting is restricted accordingly. M uch o f the best sycam ore com es from the Y orkshire dales; it is used for furniture and for w ooden rollers in the textile trade. Birch (Betula species) Tw o native birches, the w hite birch (Betula pubescens E hrh.) and the silver birch (B. pendula R oth.) occur plentifully as self-sown seedlings in neglected felled w oodlands, and as scrub on hillsides. U n fortunately, birches in Britain seldom reach a size at which they w ould be useful for plyw ood o r furniture; their sm all and crooked stems are only suitable for firewood and turnery, and bring low prices. H ence birch is rarely planted. N atu ral grow th, however, form s useful cover for establishing m ore valuable species. Poplars Several sorts o f hybrid p o p lar (Populus spp.) are grow n on fertile wellw atered ground am id farm lands, m ainly in the S outh and E ast o f England. T heir tim ber is in dem and for m aking m atches and baskets, and planting is encouraged by special grants. Other Broadleaved Timber Trees W illows, S a lix species, are grow n locally along river-sides for craft uses; in particu lar, the bats used in the national gam e o f cricket are always cut from a special strain o f willow. A lder, Alnus glulinosa G aertn. also grows along stream sides, an d is used for the m anufacture o f w ooden soles for shoes called “ clogs” . The English field elm, Ulmus procera Salis. springs up naturally in hedgerows, and its tim ber is used by country carpenters, especially for coffins; the wych o r Scots elm, U. glabra H uds. is occasionally grow n in w oodlands. Coppice Trees In the S outh and M idlands o f E ngland there are extensive coppices of hazel, Corylus avellana L., which form erly provided m aterial for hand-m ade fencing, called hurdles. Owing to changes in farm ing practice, the dem and for hurdles is now small, and m ost hazel coppices are gradually being converted to high forest o f conifer and hardw ood. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 65 In the south-east o f England, m any coppices consist o f sweet chestnut, Castanea saliva M iller, which yields stouter and m ore durable poles suitable for making fencing o r training hops. The dem and for these products is still good, and chestnut coppices on the best sites are therefore well m aintained and profitable. The sweet chestnut is o f little im portance as a tim ber tree in Britain. So far the chestnut blight, Endothia parasitica, has not reached Britain. Silviculture The prevailing concern in B ritish silviculture is the establishm ent o f large areas of coniferous crops, p artly on fresh ground and partly on form er w ood­ land, by purely artificial m ethods; o f necessity these crops are even-aged, though m any soon becom e uneven-sized. O ther form s o f silviculture, such as those involving n atu ral regeneration and uneven-aged crops, are the subject of much interest and study, but they involve only a small pro p o rtio n o f the area dealt with each year. As exam ples o f n atu ral regeneration, oak has been suc­ cessfully treated in the New F orest and the Forest o f D ean, and beech is commonly regenerated naturally in the C hiltern Hills north-w est o f L ondon; Scots pine regenerates readily in the S outh o f England, b u t unfortunately m ore slowly and less certainly in N o rth ern Scotland. On some private estates and a few Commission forests, particularly in Scotland, the Swiss M ethode du Contrdle is being applied to groups o f w oodlands suitable for selection m anagem ent. These operations follow conventional lines developed on the C ontinent; whereas the artificial regeneration m ethods are perhaps o f greater interest because o f their large scale, their degree o f m echanisation, and the introduction o f new ideas and m ethods. Seed Supplies Seed o f only a few species, notably oak, beech, Scots pine and E uropean larch, is generally available in sufficient q uantity from hom e sources; because of the em phasis on exotic conifers, m uch o f the seed used m ust be im ported. Seed orchards are, however, being established in order to ensure hom e supplies of seed o f selected strains o f the m ain trees grow n. In practice, the Forestry Commission im ports nearly all the seed used for both its ow n and private estate planting; great care is tak en to ensure th a t only suitable provenances are obtained. Nurseries The C om m ission’s nurseries cover altogether 2,100 acres and a considerable further area is w orked by com m ercial nurserym en to supply private estates. Owing to the risk o f introducing fresh pests an d diseases, quarantine regulations forbid the im p o rt o f nearly all conifers, except as seed, from abroad. Hence nearly all planting stocks used are raised in B ritain; the annual o u tp u t from Commission nurseries averages 120 m illion tran sp lan ts; cu rrent stocks ru n at 250 million seedlings and 180 m illion transplants. M ost o f the w ork is con­ centrated in large nurseries, usually one or tw o in each C onservancy, and at these the F orester in charge devotes all his tim e to nursery work. The aim everywhere is to raise large, sturdy, transplants, cheaply, in as short a tim e as possible. F o r m any species, one year in the seedbed and one year in the tra n s­ plant bed suffices; others need tw o years in the seedbeds b u t plants older th an four years are seldom used. Very little forest planting is done w ith seedlings; extensive trials have shown such plants to be too unreliable in the forest. 66 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Heathland Nurseries and Seedbed Methods Since 1945, the tren d has been to raise seedlings in w hat are called “ h eath ­ land nurseries” , because they are deliberately established on p o o r sandy soil am id the heaths. A lthough such ground is p o o r in nutrients, it is quite free from the com m on weeds found on arable land, and it can be easily and cheaply cultivated w ith tracto r-d raw n im plem ents. It is usual to add an organic m anure to bring the soil into the right con d itio n ; the stan dard m aterial is spent hops, a by-product o f the beer-brew ing industry w hich is available cheaply in sufficient quantities in m ost p arts o f the country. Spent hops are com pletely weed-free, w hereas farm yard m anure always brings w ith it a quantity o f weed seeds. A heavy initial dressing o f spent hops is needed for new nurseries, ab o u t 20 tons to the acre. T he spent hops alone do n o t provide enough nutrients for optim um grow th. Therefore inorganic fertilisers containing nitrogen, potassium , and phosp h o ru s are added in form s and quantities w hich are prescribed by the R esearch Branch. The resulting seedlings are large, sturdy, and well ro oted; for exam ple, Scots pine seedlings one year old are often 6 inches high, and fit for transplanting. B oth b ro ad cast and drill sowing m ethods are used; the latter m ethod is sometim es m echanised. C oarse sand or grit is always used to cover seed; fine sand or earth is found to cake and to lessen the yield. L ath screens are often used to shield seedbeds from frost, o r occasionally in the south, from strong sun. Irrigation is seldom found necessary. Transplanting The need to tran sp lan t ab o u t 180 m illion seedlings annually, in the C om m is­ sion’s nurseries, has led to a concentration on m echanical m ethods. A m erican m achines on the cabbage-planter principle are used, however, only on a very sm all scale, since they will only operate econom ically on a large expanse of flat sandy-soil, which is seldom available in Britain. The basis o f transplanting therefore rem ains the w ooden b oard, fam iliar on the C ontinent, into which the seedlings are inserted by hand, usually by wom en o r boys. The prep aratio n of the soil, the opening up o f the trench, an d the subsequent earthing up o f the roots are done by tracto r-d raw n im plem ents. The m ost successful arrangem ent o f these is know n as the “ Ledm ore Lining-O ut (i.e. T ransplanting) Plough” , designed by F orester Rose at Ledm ore N ursery in Scotland. It perform s all three operations efficiently and cheaply, yet is small enough to be draw n by the “ F erguson” wheeled tra c to r com m only used in nurseries. The lifting o f tra n s­ plants when large enough for the forest is also m echanised, using a sledge-like im plem ent draw n by a tractor. Weed Control by Oil Sprays W here weeds are troublesom e, either in seedbeds or tran sp lan t lines, their contro l is m ade easier and cheaper by spraying sm all quantities o f selected oils w ith the aid o f com pressed air. A form o f tra cto r fuel has been found very effective for spraying seedbeds, after sowing b u t before tree seedlings ap pear; to som e extent it acts selectively, killing weed seedlings b u t doing little or no dam age to conifers. Ground Preparation on Afforestation Areas P robably the m ost rem arkable feature o f cu rrent British forest practice is the atten tio n p aid to th o ro u g h ground p rep aratio n by m echanised ploughing and subsoiling on all suitable new afforestation areas. F orm er w oodland still NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 67 holding stout stum ps, steep slopes, o r rocky ground, can n o t readily be ploughed, but elsewhere som e form o f cultivation is the rule. T he expense o f this work is considered to be well repaid by th e better a n d m ore even grow th o f the young plantations, the low er weeding costs, and the reduced risk o f dam age by fire during the first few years. C om plete ploughing is n o t found satisfactory or worth while; the ploughing o f strips a b o u t 5 feet a p a rt is considered best; depths of 9 inches to 1£ feet are used. This technique originated in trials o f the Belgian m ethod o f draining com bined w ith p lanting on turfs, in the 1930’s. F o r many years h and drainage an d tu r f planting was followed w ith good results on peaty land. F ro m 1935 onw ards various ploughs, draw n by tractors, were developed to produce b o th drains and turfs m echanically, at lower cost th an hand work. Ploughing as now carried out falls into three m ain classes: (a) O n peaty soils, to provide drains an d turfs. (b) On heaths w ith podsols to cultivate the soil, to break the “ hard p a n ” layer below ground, and to suppress heather. (c) On grassland, to provide shallow cultivation and to suppress vege­ tation. Different types o f plough and tracto r are em ployed for each kind o f ground. The usual p lanting distance for conifers is 5 feet; som ew hat close spacings are used for broadleaved trees. O n m ineral soils planting by the notch m ethod is the rule. On peat soils, planting is done in turfs or m ounds, and for this work the Belgian sem i-circular spade is favoured a t several forests. Elsewhere a straight-bladed notching spade, or a m attock, is the usual tool. H igh rates o f planting are achieved, w ith satisfactory results. It is usual for one m an to plant 500 to 1,000 trees per day. Ploughing enables sm all trees to be planted success­ fully; transplants from 6 to 12 inches are favoured for bare ground. L arger transplants from 12 to 24 inches are used in form er w oodland. Drainage is m echanised where possible, th e m ost useful tool on peaty ground being a single-furrow , tracto r-d raw n plough; but han d w ork is always needed to com plete the netw ork o f drains. Fencing is nearly always required aro u n d plantations in Britain. In m ost districts rabbits are still present, and wire netting fences are essential to keep them out. A t present their num bers have been reduced by the m yxom atosis disease, but it is feared th a t they will again increase. D eer, particularly red deer. Cervus elephas, cause dam age in the Scottish H ighlands, where it is often necessary to erect fences 6 feet high. R oe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are also troublesome locally. Replanting of Former Woodland This follows conventional lines except in one im p o rtan t particular. W here any light cover, for exam ple o f birch o r hazel, exists on the ground, it is usual to preserve it, thinning it out if required, and to p lant the fresh crop beneath it. This preservation o f overhead cover is found to give better early grow th th an that obtained by a com plete clearance o f the gro u n d prio r to replanting. A nother advantage is the sparser weed grow th th a t results, and consequently the cheapen­ ing of early m aintenance. Tending Young Plantations Little weeding is needed o n ploughed ground, as vegetation around the young trees is suppressed an d does n o t retu rn for two or three years. Elsewhere, one or two weedings each year are often needed to safeguard the young trees; 68 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION the bracken fern, Pteridium aquilinum, and th e bram ble shrubs, Rubus species, are particularly troublesom e weeds in m any areas. P lantations on form er w oodland are often invaded by unw anted birch trees, and by clim bers such as honeysuckle, Lonicera periclym enum , which m ust be cut out at a later stage. A com m on practice in Britain, though one th a t is seldom followed else­ where, is the “ brashing” , or pruning away o f side branches from young conifers up to a height o f 6 feet. A lim ited am o u n t o f pruning o f selected stems, to a height o f eighteen to tw enty feet, is carried out. Fire risk in young plantations is high, since even in high rainfall areas a dry spell in spring coincides w ith the presence o f dry and inflam m able vegetation. The lay-out o f roads, rides, and com partm ents a t all forests is planned w ith fire risk in m ind. W ater supplies are organised and fire towers are built at the larger forests. The m ain reliance in fire fighting is placed on specially equipped lorries, m anned by trained team s o f forest w orkers. These lorries carry a water supply o f ab o u t 400 gallons, together w ith m echanical pum ps deliberately designed to supply this slowly th ro u g h small hose pipes. They can reach most parts o f the forests, an d are used for the first attack, applying w ater m ore to aid beating by hand, th a n to extinguish the fire directly. This first prom pt attack often controls the fire, at least until the public fire brigades, with m ore powerful pum ps and bigger hoses, can be b rought into action. A good system o f com ­ m unication by telephone an d short-w ave radio (“ w alkie-talkie” ) is organised for fire-fighting control in the larger areas. T here is close co-operation with the local public fire services. N o exceptional m easures are usually tak en to protect tree crops from insect pests or fungal diseases. The spraying o f insecticides from the air has, however, been used w ith good effect on a few isolated epidemics o f the pine looper m oth (Bupalus piniarius). Thinning C rops o f conifers are usually ready for their first thinning between 15 and 20 years after planting. T he intensity o f thinning is a question to which m uch th o u g h t is directed, b u t practice varies according to species and the views held by various foresters. M o st thinnings, however, m ay be classed as “ low thin­ nings” , th o u g h “ crow n thinnings” are com ing increasingly into favour. M arkets for poles an d sm all trees rem oved as thinnings are adequate, but it is found difficult to carry o u t the earlier thinnings a t an econom ic cost. F o r m any years to com e thinnings will form th e m ajor source o f produce from Com m ission forests; they are estim ated to account for h alf the to tal yield o f an average plantation, since their aggregate volum e equals th at o f the final crop. Rate of Timber Production T he rate o f grow th o f coniferous tree crops in B ritain is often high by the standards o f N o rth ern E urope or N o rth A m erica. Careful m easurem ents have been m ade for nearly 40 years by the C om m ission’s Research B ranch which m aintains a large num ber o f sam ple plots, an d yield tables have been published. These records show th a t on good sites in th e high rainfall areas o f the north and west, certain introduced conifers such as S itka spruce and D ouglas fir may show a m ean annual increm ent o f 200 or even 300 hoppus feet per acre per annum over th e first fifty years. Such rapid grow th is n o t o f course found for all species n o r in all districts, b u t a relatively slow grow ing tree like the Scots pine com m only produces 100 hoppus feet per acre per annum . Little precise inform ation is so far available on the rates o f grow th o f broadleaved trees, but they appear to resemble those found on the C ontinent. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 69 It has often been suggested th a t the high rates o f grow th show n by certain conifers will be associated w ith tim ber o f low er quality th a n norm al. This im portant m atter is currently under investigation by the F orest Products Research L aboratory. T he research results obtained so far suggest th a t the fast grown m aterial is not seriously inferior in strength to m ore slowly grow n wood. A lthough changed econom ic conditions have raised the relative price o f imported tim ber, tran sp o rt from the outlying districts where m any new forests are situated rem ains an adverse factor for the British forester. Timber Consumption and Marketing The current yearly rate o f consum ption o f tim ber and other forest products (principally wood pulp an d paper) in G reat B ritain is o f the order o f 1,200 million true cubic feet calculated as ro u n d tim ber, by under-bark m easure; this is equivalent to 24 cubic feet per head for the 50 m illion people. At present, hom e w oodlands con trib u te only ab o u t 100 m illion true cubic feet to this total, or ab o u t 8.5 per cent. T he volum e o f standing tim ber in the country is estim ated at 4,400 m illion true cubic feet, which is a little less th an 4 years’ norm al consum ption. The q uantity o f tim ber harvested is deliberately kept below the annual increm ent, which after allow ing for natu ral losses, is estimated at 132 m illion tru e cubic feet. Because harvesting is being kept below increment, a reserve o f tim ber is slowly being built up. The m arketing o f the produce from British w oodlands has therefore to be fitted into its ap p ro p riate place beside the larger volume o f tim ber im ports. This is not an easy task, for tim ber users have becom e accustom ed to overseas sources of supply, and the im p o rters’ specifications and grades o f m aterial, and do not im mediately change to hom e sources, even when com parable m aterial becomes available a t com petitive prices. Little difficulty is found in selling large logs o f high quality oak, ash, beech, and sycamore. These have long been handled by old-established sawmills in the country tow ns, which have ap p ro p riate equipm ent to deal w ith them . The problems lie rath er w ith the m arketing o f small-sized coniferous thinnings and the poorer hardw ood m aterial. Over the past ten years the Forestry C om m ission has been actively developing m arkets for such produce, and recently several timber-using industries, new to this country, have been set up, though only on a small scale. Two m ajor old-established outlets for sm all trees are those for farm fencing and pit props for the mines. T h ro u g h o u t G reat Britain generally, a high p ro ­ portion o f tim ber used for agricultural purposes is draw n from hom e w ood­ lands. M ost o f the pit props are still im ported, but in Scotland virtually all those used are now com ing from Scottish forests. The m ore recently developed outlets include the following: (a) Sm all Sawm ill Timber. A n entirely new sawmill on the Swedish Ari pattern, with seasoning p lan t, has been opened at S trachur, in the Cowal D istrict of Scotland, to handle thinnings from the Argyll N ational F orest Park. A nother specially designed mill operates a t Q ueensferry in N o rth W ales. (b) Chipboard. A new factory has been opened at A nnan, in the South of Scotland, to utilise thinnings from forests on or near the border between England and Scotland. (c) Fibreboard. A h ard b o ard factory in L ondon takes large quantities o f thinnings from forests in eastern England. A nother factory has been opened at Q ueensferry in N o rth W ales to produce insulation board. 70 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (d) Paper Pulp. Two existing paper factories now take substantial quantities o f coniferous wood. One at Sittingbourne in K ent draw s u p o n East and South-E ast E ngland; an o th er a t Ellesmere P ort in Cheshire takes m aterial from N o rth ern E ngland and N o rth W ales. A new factory has been built in M onm outhshire to m ake paper from h a rd ­ w ood m aterial unsuited for saw ing; it has been sited near large sources o f supply in Southern E ngland an d South W ales. (e) Wood Wool. Factories to m ake this substance, used m ainly for packing, have been established in England, Scotland and W ales. All these establishm ents are operated by com m ercial firms, who have in all cases consulted the Forestry Com m ission regarding the availability of continual supplies o f raw m aterial, before establishing their plant. A feature of most arrangem ents is th at the owners o f private estates are able to supply m aterial to the new factories on term s com parable to those agreed w ith the Com m ission. Social Implications of Forestry 1 have left to the end a brief note on the value o f forestry in providing em ploym ent in districts where other activities are failing to provide a sufficient livelihood for the people. This has recently received atten tio n in B ritain because o f the grow ing depopu latio n o f certain rural districts, notably in the uplands of Central W ales an d the N orth-W estern H ighlands and Islands o f Scotland. The C om m ission has u n d ertak en to extend its activities in some o f these districts, and to carry out, if necessary, planting schemes th at do not prom ise any high econom ic return. It is estim ated th a t initially one forest w orker is needed to every 100 acres o f w oodland, w hereas ten tim es th at area is needed to sustain one shepherd under rough grazing. Obviously, all new planting in such regions has to be sited so as to cause the least possible disturbance to existing farm ing practices; but past experience has been th a t the advent o f plantations, which use only the poo rer gro u n d and provide badly needed shelter, does not dim inish the agricultural o u tp u t o f such regions. The b road app ro ach th a t the F orestry Com m ission is m aking to this problem is n o t always to try to acquire land in very large blocks or to plan t up whole farm s, b u t rath er to acquire the relatively less valuable parts o f farms, even though the extent o f individual blocks m ay be quite small. In other words we are trying to arrange th a t forestry is developed alongside, and in conjunction with, agriculture. T he hill lands are undoubtedly producing far less th an they could, b u t the im provem ent will be m ade n o t by a change o f use to forestry as an independent venture, b u t rath er by im proving and perhaps altering the m ethods o f farm ing at the sam e tim e th a t new forests are established. A com ­ bined operation, in fact, is needed, designed to create or restore a balance betw een forestry and agriculture. U ntil 40 years ago G reat B ritain in effect h ad no forest policy, and though a com paratively small num ber o f the larger private w oodland estates m anaged their w oods efficiently, an d some w ith considerable enterprise, the State to o k a very sm all p a rt in forestry. It is only since 1919 th a t the State has played an active role both in establishing its own forests and encouraging the proper m anagem ent o f private woods. In the sh o rt period since the 1914-18 w ar— short, th a t is, in term s o f forestry— G reat B ritain has gone far in m aking forestry take its p ro p er place in th e life an d econom y o f the country. In doing this she has draw n heavily on the experience and w isdom o f the countries o f Europe who have m uch longer history an d trad itio n o f forestry th a n she has. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 71 R EFE R EN C ES A N D SO U R C E S C O N S U L T E D Forestry Com m ission: A nnual R ep o rts; A nnual R eports on R esearch; Census R eports; R ep o rt on Post-W ar F orest Policy 1943; Statem ent and Papers for the British C om m onw ealth Forestry Conference, 1957. Wood, R. F. 1957. In E xotic Forest Trees in G reat Britain, p. 16. Forestry Com m ission Bulletin N o. 30, pp. 16 an d 18. Hummel, F. C. 1957. In F orestry C om m ission R eport on Forest Research, 1956 p. 61. F O R E S T R Y IN A Y R S H I R E By R. A. G O L D IN G ' D istrict Officer, South S cotlan d Ayr is a m aritim e county, the bro ad estuary o f the Clyde w ashing its western shores, while its landw ard boundary is a sem i-circular sweep from the Firth of Clyde near G ourock through the Renfrew Heights, the Eaglesham Hills and the Southern U plands to Loch Ryan, near the south-w est corner o f Scotland. The C ounty in feudal days was divided into the three districts, which are still popularly recognised, o f C unningham e in the north, Kyle in the centre and Carrick in the south. W ith an area o f over 700,000 acres, A yrshire ranks seventh in size in Scotland, and is S cotland’s largest shire south o f the H ighlands. The essentials o f the cou n ty ’s relief are fairly simple. A succession o f hills and plateaux lie along the landw ard m argin, rarely dropping below 1,000 feet, and in the C arrick region culm inating in the 2,764 feet M errick, which lies ju st across the county boundary in K irkcudbrightshire. Occupying the heart o f the county, and rising from a fiat, true coastal plain through undulating country to about 800 feet, is the A yrshire Plain. T he geological structure generally corresponds with the b road features o f relief and outline; the m arginal hills consist of volcanic rocks o f the oldest C arboniferous form ations (the Calciferous Sandstone), the sandstones and volcanic rocks o f the O ld Red Sandstone, and the hard m etam orphosed rocks o f the O rdovician and Silurian systems. These outcrops dip, or are faulted, dow n tow ards the plain w hich is developed on the less resistant sedim ents (m ainly shales and sandstones) o f the later Carboniferous form ations and the Perm ian. Soils are very varied over m uch o f the country, ranging from heavy sands to m oderate o r heavy loams, with the heaviest loams an d clay soils found only in restricted localities. But, o f m ore importance to the forester, is the fact th a t on the higher lands peat is always present to som e e x te n t; often organic m atter is so a b u n d a n t th a t peal mosses form, giving great thicknesses o f black organic m atter virtually free o f m ineral substances. Ayrshire is especially subject to oceanic influences as regards clim ate, and consequently experiences co n stan t rainfall, m ild winters and cool, cloudy summers, but there is considerable clim atic variation w ith elevation and ex­ posure. Rainfall ranges from less th an 35 inches along parts o f the coastal belt to over 80 inches on the highest hills: the m inim um rain period is during the spring (M arch-June). On the hilly p a rt o f C arrick and Kyle districts, prolonged frosty spells, often w ith snow, usually occur between Jan u ary and M arch, and in these areas, too, late spring and early au tu m n night frosts are often tro u b le­ some to tree grow th, particularly those areas on the lower slopes o r in the valleys. 72 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION There is no d o u b t th a t at one tim e A yrshire was an extremely well w ooded county, and place names testify to the form er existence o f considerable tracts o f w oodlands. Foster, in his book A yrshire states “ N am es in - wood are still com m on in every parish, while there is a sprinkling o f nam es in den (a deep w ooded valley) an d hirst (a thick wood). These last prove not only th at trees had grow n in these situations but also th a t w oods were in existence after the Saxon language began to prevail over the original tongue, probably about the thirteenth or fourteenth century” . These natural w oodlands sulTered depreda­ tions over the centuries, until by the m iddle o f the eighteenth century Ayrshire was generally a bare county, w ith the exception o f plantations which had been laid dow n on certain estates. However, together with the great agricultural im provem ents th a t occurred in the last decades o f the eighteenth century, and particularly in the first h alf o f the nineteenth century, m uch planting was undertaken, an d by 1850 the county was fairly well wooded. W hile the prim ary m otive o f th e earlier plantings would seem to have been the provision o f tim ber for posterity, the im p o rtatio n o f tim ber in the nineteenth century som ew hat altered the position, an d plantings were then done also to enhance parks and estates, an d to provide shelter for farm land and stock. T he Statistical A ccounts, viz. the S ta tistica l Account o f Scotland, 1791-99, and the N ew S ta tistica l Account o f Scotland, 1845, (hereafter referred to as F irst an d Second A ccounts) give m uch useful inform ation on w oodlands in A yrshire at those times. F o r the Parish o f C olm onell, the First A ccount records th a t “ it is believed in form er times, there was a continued wood from K nockdolian Hill to the K irk o f Barr, an extent o f 10 m iles” ; and dealing w ith K irkoswald the same A ccount states “ T here is little or no natural wood in the parish b u t the w ant o f this is happily supplied by the plantations m ade by the Earl of Cassillis an d Sir A dam Fergusson. T he form er has, w ithin a few years, planted upon his estate a n d especially in his policy, 560 acres. Sir A dam Fergusson has planted 240 acres, all o f which are in a m ost thriving condition” . The Second A ccount tells us th a t in th e Parish o f Dailly, “ A rboriculture has also greatly advanced o f late years. Planting has been carried to a considerable extent on the estates o f Bargany, K ilkerran, D alq u h arran and D rum burle. On th at of B argany alone no less than 666i acres have been planted in the last thirty years” and th at in the whole p arish “ it is com puted th at 2,500 acres are under wood, natu ral or planted. T he trees planted are generally oak, ash, plane and elm with such p ro p o rtio n o f Scotch larch and spruce firs as fills the ground for an early cro p ” . T he history o f plantings on private estates in the county can well be illustrated by taking an exam ple such as K ilkerran estate, which lies in the valley o f the W ater o f G irvan in South A yrshire. The first o f the K ilkerran planters was Sir Jo h n Fergusson, 1st baronet, and it is recorded th at he was given a “ tack ” for three 19 years “ o f that bit on which the firs behind the stable were planted in 1706 . . . I began in the spring 1711 to sow for nurseries . . . and spring 1715 began the hill planting and soon m ade great progress in it” . Planting was carried on by succeeding generations, and a plan prepared in 1761 o f K ilkerran policies and parks shows m any planted areas which correspond to those under tim ber today, while in 1794 the First A ccount records that plantings on K ilkerran estate in Dailly parish “ and within the contiguous borders o f K irkosw ald and M aybole cover ab o ut 400 Scots acres” , (i.e. over 508 English acres). B lairquhan estate, also in South Ayrshire, and situated near the little village o f Straiton, has today approxim ately 750 acres o f w oodland, but in 1787 the area o f w oodland was only 75 acres; the first increase in acreage was due to Sir D avid H unter Blair, one o f the im proving lairds o f the early nine­ NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 73 teenth century, and since then, for generation after generation, successive owners have tak en an active interest in the w oods, which have thus benefited by continuity o f m anagem ent. Plantings by private ow ners through the last few centuries have therefore led to w oodland being w idespread over m ost o f the county: today this w ood­ land comprises very nearly the whole o f the productive tim ber in the county. Much of this area is accounted for by hardw ood, or mixed hardw ood and conifer, policy w oodland, an d very often land has been taken which w ould otherwise have been utilised as farm land. B ut it is also true th a t m uch land under timber was such that, if left unw ooded, it could only have been utilised for rough pasture an d sheep grazing, while in som e cases w oodlands have been planted on the poorest o f hill land. Shelterbelts are very num erous in m ost parts of the county, except the n o rth ; these belts are som etim es ill-planned and are more or less h ap hazard over the landscape, but, on m any o f the form er large estates, they were system atically planned an d form a regular p a ttern ; som etim es on relatively high, w indsw ept areas fields m ay be entirely surrounded by shelterbelts. Little natural w ood now rem ains in the county; the rem nants consist o f hardwood species, nearly always o f very p o o r form an d quality and virtually useless, and generally in inaccessible places which is, o f course, the reason for their survival. Its situation is invariably in deep glens, such as G len A pp, and the valley of the S tinchar in the south, and in the gorges o f the rivers D oon an d Ayr. These small rem nants o f natural w oodland, together with plantations m ade by private owners, form ed the sole w oodland in the county until the mid nineteenthirties, when the Forestry C om m ission began to acquire land for planting. Since then great developm ent has taken place, b oth in Com m ission forests and privately owned w oodland; m ore will be said further on ab o u t the latter, but it is appropriate a t this stage to say som ething o f the C om m ission’s w ork in Ayrshire. It should be noted th a t hereafter this article only deals w ith forests and woodlands in the south an d central p arts (C arrick and Kyle districts) o f Ayrshire, as only these areas lie w ithin S outh Scotland C onservancy; the no rth part of the county, viz. th a t area n o rth o f the River Irvine (C unningham e district) falls w ithin W est Scotland Conservancy. In 1935, C hangue F orest o f 2,190 acres was acquired; C hangue is situated near the small village o f Barr, in the h eart o f the C arrick district. Planting commenced in 1936, an d continued through the w ar until planting was com ­ pleted in 1957. This was the only pre-w ar acquisition in A yrshire, b u t in 1945 over 48,000 acres were acquired in the parishes o f B arr and Straiton, and this block became C arrick Forest. M arching w ith C hangue on its west boundary, Carrick Forest stretches northw ards alm ost to the village o f Straiton, th en east to Loch D oon, while its southern boundary is along the A yrshire-K irkcudbrightshire boundary, across which lies G lentrool Forest. Planting com m enced on Carrick in 1947, an d is still continuing. C arrick and C hangue, together with G lentrool and other forests in K irkcudbrightshire, form the G lentrool National Forest P ark, extending to approxim ately 130,000 acres. In 1949, Kilgrammie Forest, o f 568 acres, was acquired, lying in the fertile valley o f the Water of G irvan; planting com m enced in 1950, and has recently been com pleted. In the past few years, small extensions to C hangue and K ilgram m ie Forests have been acquired, but the m ost recent large acquisition is that o f A recleoch Forest of 3,105 acres, in 1956. It lies ju st n o rth o f the A yrshire-W igtow nshire boundary, and planting was started here in 1958. While all the forests lie in the C arrick district, and indeed C arrick and Changue are adjacent, conditions are often m arkedly dissim ilar, dependent 74 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION upon geology, soil, elevation, rainfall, etc. G enerally, the best soils are found on C hangue and K ilgram m ie Forests, and lim ited sections o f C arrick. P oor land on C hangue is restricted to small localities, the bulk o f the ground consisting of shallow M olinia peats an d good m ineral soils. K ilgram m ie Forest was form erly felled w oodland, an d the soils are consequently rich and fertile, often ideally suited to the grow th o f hardw oods. C arrick F orest has a large p ro p o rtio n o f land over 1,000 feet, an d m uch land over the 2,000 feet contour, and while there is m uch good plantable land o n the better M olinia and Calluna peats, and m ineral soils, there are vast areas o f the poorest quality peats; the greater portion o f C arrick is scheduled to rem ain as sheep grazing. A t all the forests exposure has to be carefully considered, as none o f them lies far inland from the sea; while in the m ore sheltered situations trees have been planted and are thriving at 1,250 an d 1,300 feet, the relative exposure experienced at a particular elevation is often a lim iting factor. The clim ate generally is well suited to conifer grow th, particularly spruces, as rainfall is ab u n d an t; spells o f hard frost, sometimes with snow, often occur in the early m onths o f the year and may m ake the ground unw orkable. T he plantations m ade pre-w ar on C hangue, and im m ediately following the war on C hangue an d C arrick, were all on hand-prepared ground. This con­ form ed w ith the system o f tu rf planting which had been very extensively used since 1928 in all forests in south-w est Scotland, drains being cut at about twenty feet intervals, the turves cut from the drains spread at five feet apart, and the plants notched through the turves. W hile this was perfectly satisfactory for the better areas, it was not so suitable for p oorer peats where vegetation may contain Calluna and Scirpus as well as M olinia; m oreover, these hand operations were expensive. W ith the developm ent o f m achinery, ploughing became m ore used, an d since 1948 the bulk o f the plantations m ade have been on ploughed g ro u n d ; in the late forties and early fifties, due to shortage o f equipm ent, the com m on practice was to plough drains at distances o f 17 or 21 feet apart, and spread the turves by hand between the ploughed drains. But since then every attem pt has been m ade to plough as m uch as possible, thereby elim inating the need for hand labo u r and m aking possible a better planting site for every plant. The plough m ost used is the C uthbertson single furrow , com bined with the C uthbertson double m ouldboard plough on the better M olinia peats. Ploughing has also enabled the afforestation o f m uch land which would have otherwise been considered unplantable, the m ajority o f the C arrick areas planted in the last five years being o f this category. These areas are generally characterized by heather, often accom panied by Scirpus, over a tough, poor type peat. The peat m ay be deep on the boggy areas, but these areas are often broken up by knolls and hum m ocks, small an d large, o f m orainic m aterial, over which there m ay be only a very shallow depth o f peat. This latter type area has been best treated w ith ploughs o f the tine type, and in the past few years the C lark tine has been m ost successful, w orking on the m ost difficult boulderstrew n areas and producing as good a planting m edium as one could expect on land o f this type. The only type o f hand p rep aratio n th a t is now used to any extent is “ step­ ping” . This is only done on steep slopes where there is good natural drainage and good quality soil, com m only where rivers have eroded impressive valleys often hundreds o f feet deep, as the River Stinchar has done on parts o f C arrick. Stepping consists o f cutting a triangle along two sides, each o f 12-15 inches, and hinging the tu rf over on the third side; the tree, generally a larch, is then notched throu g h the turf. M ost o f th e area planted consists o f Sitka spruce, w hich is undoubtedly the best species for general use in south-w est Scotland. O n the m ore sheltered NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 75 areas, Norway spruce has been used wherever possible, but on C arrick in particular, sites for N orw ay are very lim ited. Japanese larch has been used fairly extensively, and has been found a very useful species w hether planted pure on the m ore “ n o rm al” type o f larch ground, o r planted in m ixture with Sitka spruce on the shallow peats overlying glacial deposits. Scots pine has proved extremely disappointing, an d is now seldom planted except perhaps in very small quantities on the steepest o f rocky slopes along the sides o f small burns. Lodgepole pine is now used to a great extent, particularly on C arrick, as the areas being planted now or to be planted in the future, nearly always bear heather, sometimes very luxuriant, w hich often tends to increase after ploughing and draining has been done; the pine is only planted pure on the very w orst areas, and is generally in a m ixture o f varying proportions with Sitka spruce comparable with the nature o f the ground. O n all the poorer areas the plants are treated with phosphate after planting. T he noble silver fir has been used m ore in recent years, an d shows great prom ise, particularly so on C arrick where there is often good m ineral soil at the tops o f hills at elevations from 1,000-1,250 feet; on this type o f site, Sitka spruce also does well except th a t it is frequently affected by spring droughts which tu rn the tops o f the lower hills quite brown. Lodgepole pine has also been planted in m ixture with Sitka spruce on these sites, and would otherw ise thrive except th at it usually suffers severe blasting and consequent leaf-cast from cold, freezing winds which often occur in the late winter. H ybrid larch is a tree which would be used in greater quantity if it were available, for on the steep valley slopes Japanese larch can seldom be planted above 800 feet, owing to exposure, although the soil m ay still be sufficiently good for a larch cro p ; hybrid larch w ould also mix well w ith Sitka spruce on the soils derived from glacial m aterial, where again it may be too exposed for Japanese larch. This then has been the p attern o f planting on the hill forests o f C arrick and Changue; K ilgram m ie Forest, however, is very different. This area, form erly felled woodland, has soils ranging from m edium and heavy brown loam s to fairly heavy yellow ish-brow n clay loam s, and is well suited to the production o f first class tim ber. Accordingly, the better areas in the forest were earm arked for hardwoods, and a large area o f the forest will eventually bear a hardw ood crop. The first planting was in 1950, and the system then was to plant alter­ nating strips o f hardw oods and conifer nurses. Since 1952 the practice has been to plant groups o f hardw oods in a conifer m atrix; oak has been the hardw ood species most used, and on this system groups, each o f 12 oak, are planted approximately 30 feet a p a rt with Japanese larch in betw een; a ring o f N orw ay spruce is sometimes put ro u n d the oak group, and when the spruce reach C hrist­ mas tree size they can be rem oved. This m ethod o f planting has proved success­ ful so far, and generally the young oak are thriving. Beech, sycam ore and ash have been planted, although the latter are not very successful. O f recent years late spring frosts, occurring in the middle o f June, have been very dam aging to both conifers and h a rd w o o d s: the effect o f the frosts is intensified by the fact that much o f the forest has a southerly aspect. Changue, K ilgram m ie and A recleoch forests have each their own F orester; for convenience o f w orking, C arrick forest is divided into four sections, viz. Balloch, Starr, T airlaw an d Tarfessock, and in m any ways each o f the sections is treated as an individual forest unit. W ithin the last few years Tarfessock has been worked and m anaged as p art o f G lentrool forest, as it lies adjacent to Glentrool and some distance away from the other C arrick sections. The areas under plantations on the various units at the end o f 1957 are given below, together with to tal areas and approxim ate areas rem aining to plant. 76 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Forest A recleoch C arrick: Balloch Starr .... T airlaw ............................. T arfessock (now included w ith G lentrool) C hangue K ilgram m ie Total Area 3,105 Remaining Under Plantations to Plant Nil 2,800 8,964 11,662 11,979 13,853 2,195 1,158 3,192 2,161 1,200 1,050 400 1,700 2,389 570 1,740 564 N il N il As regards the future o f state forests in A yrshire, it can be seen that, with the exception o f A recleoch, the w ork o f planting has passed its peak and that anoth er decade will see planting com pleted except for any new acquisitions of land. D ue to the large post-w ar planting program m e, it is inevitable th at at som e units there will be an interval between the com pletion o f planting and the com m encem ent o f thinning; m aintenance w ork and ro ad construction will occupy a good deal o f this time, an d a t present a fairly large ro ad program m e is tackled each year, as m any o f the earlier plantations were laid dow n w ithout roads. C hangue is the only forest yielding produce, and the earlier plantations are now at the second thinning stage. In the years to com e thinnings from the forests in South A yrshire will yield a very large volum e o f tim ber. N o t only in C om m ission areas, b u t in private w oodlands too there has been m uch good w ork since the war. M any o f the estates lost m uch tim ber as a result of w artim e fellings, an d m ost o f them proceeded quickly with the w ork of rehabilitation, m uch planting being done. T he estate o f Cassillis and Culzean achieved 416.5 acres planted during the five years 1950-54 inclusive, a not inconsiderable program m e as all this was done on felled and devastated w ood­ la n d sites. W hile this was undoubtedly the biggest program m e achieved on any A yrshire estate during th a t tim e, m ost oth er estates were also planting m uch land. T he D edication Scheme was generally well received, and to date in that p art o f A yrshire included w ithin South Scotland C onservancy there are twelve dedicated estates w ith a to ta l area o f 4,992 acres. Estates under the A pproved W oodlands Scheme num ber six, w ith a to ta l area o f 1,865 acres. O ther privately owned w oodlands to tal 8,000 acres approxim ately, o u t o f which 5,200 acres are “ Small W oods” subjects; o f th e balance o f 2,800 acres, 1,600 acres are w ood­ lands which are in good order while 1,200 acres are classed as being inefficiently m anaged—approxim ately 8 per cent o f th e to ta l area o f privately ow ned tim ber. E arlier in this account, when dealing w ith the history o f forestry in A yrshire, it was seen th a t past generations o f ow ners had a keen interest in their w ood­ lands and forestry in general, an d it is ap p aren t th a t this interest is ju st as alive today, an d p robably even m ore so th an before, because o f increased knowledge and technical skill. M uch o f the tim ber on private estates in A yrshire today can com pare well w ith any in the country. O f the hardw oods, oak in particular grows well, reaching a fine size and m aking high quality tim ber, and there is m uch valuable oak on m any estates. Sycam ore w ould probably rate as the second m ost valuable hardw ood, an d n o t only does it produce good tim ber, but is extremely useful for shelter; a t present sycam ore from estates in the G irvan valley is being exported to G erm any where it is to be utilised for veneers. There is m uch beech an d ash in the county, b u t the form er is only o f prim e quality in NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 77 certain restricted Localities, while the latter is generally p o o r—if ash is to be grown in A yrshire then a sh o rt ro tatio n to produce small and m edium size timber is probably the only way. All the conifers grow well on private estates. B oth the spruces, N orw ay and Sitka, have been planted m ore in recent years, and m ake good crops. All the larches do w ell; there is little in the way o f pure E uropean larch stands, b u t much good E uropean larch exists in mixed w oods; there are som e very fine stands of Polish larch o n B lairquhan Estate. Scots pine generally does well, and many estates have m agnificent Scots pine o f large size and good quality— every effort is being m ade to collect seed from this good type o f tree, to ensure th at future crops o f Scots pine will be o f the sam e high quality. The lack o f success experienced w ith Scots pine in m any o f the C om m ission plantations can very often be attrib u ted to faulty provenance. C orsican pine is used extensively along the coastal belt, an d grows well. D ouglas fir an d silver firs grow to large size, although often ra th e r coarse, while w estern hem lock, w estern red cedar and other conifers also do well. In short, m ost conifer species will be found thriving on nearly all private estates. In conclusion, it can be seen th a t A yrshire is a county where forestry is playing an ever-increasing role; the private w oodlands ow ner is tending and ameliorating his w oodlands, while the Forestry C om m ission is establishing forests on the m oorland areas where trees have n o t grow n for m any centuries. The visitor cannot but be im pressed by the A yrshire landscape, w ith its aspect of neatness and efficiency created by the w ell-kept hedges, the sharp outline o f the shelterbelts, the tidy farms each w ith its group o f trees, and the d a rk greens of the forests contrasting w ith th e brow ns an d purples o f the surrounding hills. Ayrshire is a great Scottish dairying county, an d it may be that, in future years, it will be equally well know n for its trees and tim ber. R EFE R EN C ES Statistical A ccount o f Scotland, 1791-99 New Statistical A ccount o f Scotland, 1845 John Foster, M .A ., Ayrshire John H. G. Lebon, B.Sc., The L an d o f Britain — P a rt I, A yrshire Sir Jam es Fergusson, Bt.— In fo rm atio n supplied from docum ents, etc. relating to K ilkerran estate. NOTES ON W HITTINGEHAM E R ecently the Com mission acquired a tw en ty-acre se ed orchard, and an interesting sm all arboretum , on the fa m o u s esta te o f W hittingehame, a f e w m iles south-east o f H addington in E ast Lothian. The follow in g extra cts fro m T he Seven Ages o f an E ast L othian P arish— Being the Story o f W hittingeham e, written by M arsh al B. Lang in 1929, have been contributed b y D istrict Officer R. Faulkner, o f the Research Branch. Whittingehame Castle W hittingeham e Castle is a building o f the late fifteenth or early sixteenth century. The C astle stands o n the bank o f a w ooded ravine th ro u g h which flows the W hittingeham e W ater, or the River P apana, as it is sometimes, but not agreeably called. O n the south-east side the ravine form s a strong natu ral defence, while from the n o rth it is easily approached. There are three storeys in the Castle beneath the wall head, which is surm ounted by a battlem ented 78 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION w alk right ro u n d the roof. The staircase is rectangular on the lower flight, and circular above, rem inding one o f the staircase in the Palace o f H olyroodhouse, Edinburgh. O n the lintel o f the m ain doorw ay facing the n o rth there is still to be seen a stone shield p arted by a broad band, on the right (dexter) o f which is the cinquefoil (the five-leaved clover) beneath tw o stars; on the left (sinister), a b o a r’s head beneath two stars. These are the arm s o f the D ouglas family, the cinquefoil show ing m aternal descent from Borthwick. A Famous Old Yew Tree It has long been the local trad itio n that the m urder o f D arnley was plotted under the yew tree on the east side o f the Castle or Tow er o f W hittingeham e. This tree, probably at least seven or eight hundred years old, is one o f the most rem arkable o f its kind in any country. A ccording to m easurem ents taken in 1925, it is 147 yards in circum ference, its branches spreading out in a lateral direction, the lower branches being turned dow nw ard and resting on the soil, thereby com pletely obscuring the central tru n k which m easures 11 feet in girth. T hat the tree has been thriving in recent years is m ade clear by the fact th at when its circle o f branches was m easured in 1891 it was found to m ake a circum ference of only 104 yards. The sepulchral-looking enclosure w ithin the tree, capable of holding fifty to sixty people, is em inently suggestive o f sinister deeds, but as a m atter o f relief we know that it has not seldom been slept under by the younger and plot-innocent inhabitants o f the m odern m ansion. The tree is now entered by a single narrow aperture, lately m ade easier o f approach by an iron support to the branches. A ddressing the East Lothian A ntiquarian and Field N atu ralists’ Society w ithin this enclosure in Septem ber 1925, the Earl o f Balfour said th at “ since the m urder o f D arnley, Queen M ary’s husband, was plotted in the co u rt­ yard o f W hittingeham e Tower, the story has arisen, which might or m ight not be true, that this yew tree in the courtyard, or close to the courtyard, was the real scene o f this political m urder. The story m ust be taken for w hat it is w orth, but, a t all events, they m ight say it had m ore historical plausibility ab o u t it than many legends.” Arboriculture of the Parish W e are indebted to M r. W illiam Fyfe, Forester at W hittingeham e, for the following notes upon the A rboriculture o f the estate. The area o f w oodlands on W hittingeham e Estate, including G arvald and Hailes outside the Parish, is, roughly speaking, ab o u t 625 acres. The species o f trees grown consist o f mixed plantations, principally hardw oods. O ak, beech, elm, ash, birch, chestnut, and alder do exceptionally well, as the soil, consisting o f deep red clay loam over sandstone, is very suitable for hardw oods. Two tulip trees, m ore com m on in the south o f England, have been grow n with considerable success. Conifers, such as the larch, Scotch pine, and silver fir, m ake very rapid grow th and give a quick return, but begin to deteriorate after forty years. Several handsom e araucarias ado rn the upper walk o f the extensive flower garden. M any species o f ornam ental conifers abo u nd in the Policy grounds and gardens, and are m uch adm ired by those interested in arboriculture and sylvi­ culture. A m ong such occur the C edar o f Lebanon, Cedrus atlantica, Cedrus deodara, W ellingtonia ( Sequoia Giganlea), Sequoia Sem pervirensis, Thuja Lobhii, Thuja A lbertiana, D ouglas Fir, Picea Excelsa, Picea Orientalis, P icea Polita, Picea Pungens Glauca, P icea N obi/is, P icea Grandis, and Picea Lasiocarpa. The age o f these trees ranges from forty years upw ards. One o f the m ost rem arkable trees, grow ing on the n o rth side o f th e gardens, and ab o u t 360 feet above sea-level, is the Eucalyptus Gunnii (W hittingeham ensis variety), believed NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 79 to be the largest o f its kind in the country. It is grow n from seed collected in 1852 by the late M arquis o f Salisbury, uncle o f the present proprietor. The young tree was frosted over in 1860, but a year later a sapling sprang from the root, which became th e existing tree. T he height o f the tree is 75 feet, and its circumference, at 4 feet from the ground, is 12 feet. This tree is especially resistant to cold, an d is a prolific seed-bearer. M any young trees from it abound and flourish in the policies. A no th er variety o f the Eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus vernicosa) has been successfully reared. It has a green leaf, and is not so pleasing in appearance. Reference has been m ade to the fam ous W hittingeham e yew tree, believed to be an English yew, and considered by som e to be as old as one th ousand years. It shows no sign o f deterioration, an d is still slowly extending the reach of its branches. It is probably the finest specim en o f the yew in the kingdom . An average o f 20 acres each year is plan ted o n the estate, m ostly with larch, Scotch pine, an d Thuja lobii, all grow n in th e hom e nurseries from seed. A few small plantations o f hardw oods are also being planted annually. A visit to the gardens and grounds o f W hittingeham e policies will well reward those who are interested in flowering shrubs, am ong which m ay be mentioned the Desfontaine Spinosa (Scarlet and yellow), Garrya Eliptica, several kinds o f V iburnum , Japanese Cherries, Flow ering C rabs, varieties of Acers. and m ost rem arkable o f all, the Eucryphia Pinnatifolia. It is, however, the natural beauty o f the grounds th a t will always m ake the strongest appeal to the visitor. (No’.e: The scientific names cited above are not always those accepted today. Ed.). Families connected with Whittingehame 1040 1340 1661 1695 1817 - 1340 1661 1695 1817 G ospatricks— Earls o f M erse or M arch, and D unbar. D ouglas. Setons originally from Saltoun, W inton and W inchburgh. Hays o f D rum bue in Peebles. Balfour. Lord Balfour Prim e M inister 1902-5. D erivation B al-orr (R . O rr in M arkinch, Fife) origin traced back to K ing D uncan (1034-40) and in female line to K ing R o b ert II (or III?). CRARAE FO REST GARDEN By E. A. C R O FT S Assistant Forester, Research Branch It is not intended th a t this sh o rt article should be m ore th an a brief des­ cription o f C rarae F orest G arden. Two recent assessments are included to give an interesting indication o f grow th in som e species o f conifers. The garden is situated on th e west shore o f L och Fyne in Argyll, ab o u t one mile n orth o f the village o f M inard, and ten miles south o f Inveraray. It is close to the m ain road, and the once-daily ’bus from G lasgow to C am pbeltow n passes close by. 80 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION T he district has an average yearly rainfall o f ab o u t seventy-six inches. The G arden com prises ab o u t thirty-tw o acres an d is m ainly concentrated on both sides o f the horizontal leg, running west to east, o f an L-shaped glen and sheltered by the hill to the west o f the vertical leg o f the L. There are som e species plots on the eastern side o f the vertical, n o rth-south leg. The garden has a generally eastern aspect and is w ithin an elevation range o f 130 feet to 240 feet above sea level. U nderlying geological form ation com prises m etam orphosed igneous rocks, m arked on geological m aps as “ epidiorite, horneblende-schists, etc.” The clim ate is generally mild w ith little variation between w inter and sum m er tem peratures, the January m ean being 39 degrees and the July mean 59 degrees. The garden, planted by Sir G eorge C am pbell, was started in 1933 and was presented to the Forestry C om m ission in 1955. U p to the present, 108 species plots have been planted, o f which 100 rem ain. They are generally sm all and som ew hat crow ded together, but they give an interesting indication as to how a wide variety o f coniferous— and some broadleaved, species grow in this p art of Scotland. An assessm ent in M arch, 1956 gave the following inform ation. crops are o f healthy appearance and o f good form , etc. These 1956 A SSESSM ENT Age (Years) M ean T op H eight (Feet) M ean B.H. G irth (True) (Inches) A bies delavayi/forrestii 20 28 19 „ procera „ iow iana „ grandis „ m agnifica „ am abilis Pinus c o n to rta „ banksiana L arix decidua (a) W est Alps (b) Swiss Alps (c) T yrol L arix leptolepis Picea abies ,, sitchensis Sequoia sem pervirens „ w ellingtonia C upressus m acrocarpa „ funebris C ryptom eria japonica C edrus deodara C ham aecyparis law soniana T suga heterophylla N oth o fag u s obliqua E ucalyptus urnigera »» >> 21 21 22 23 23 22 23 26 39 39 23 38 35 31 13* 18 18+ 15' 15 15 16* 20 20 20 25 21 21 21 21 21 23 21 21 21 23 20 20 20 23 26 28 41 28 39 32 31 46 31 41 27 28 47 26 36 43 14 15 16 22* 13 15 18* 20 20* 20* 24 13* 20 18 13* Species R em arks T rees identified as delavayi up to 28" b.h. girth and o f very good form very good form ► 13 > 17 / C a n k er a n d dieback but also som e good form ed healthy trees in all plots. very sm all branches attack ed by H oney F ungus suffering from w indblast very good form very good form NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 81 1957 A SSESSM EN T The following species were recently assessed, Jan u ary 1957, and colum ns five (5) to eight (8) show an a ttem p t to describe briefly the appearance o f the crop and to perm it com parison. 1, 2 or 3 in colum n 5 describes either good, fair o r bad stem form . 1,2 or 3 „ ,, narrow , m edium or b ro ad crowns. „ 6 1, 2 or 3 „ ,, h o rizontal, m oderate or upsw ept „ 7 >> branches. 1, 2 or 3 ,, ,, good, fair or bad health o f crop. „ 8 }i (N ote: Stocking o f p lo t m ay have been affected by grazing before a deer fence was erected.) Species (1) Abies: cilicica lasiocarpa v a rarizonica lasiocarpa balsamea fraseri nephrolepis veitchii homolepis (?) cephalonica concolor firma holophylla pinsapo spectabilis sachalinensis Picea: sitchensis glauca orientalis 1) bicolor koyamai schrcnkiana spinuiosa m ariana glehnii hurstii obovata Pinus: pinaster cem bra nigra var. caiabrica strobus wailichiana m assoniana M ean M ean Age H eight G irth Stem Crow n B ranch H ealth (In.) F o rm D iam . A ngling (Yrs.) (Ft.) R em arks (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 9 7.9 — 1 2 2 1 12 14 18 18 18 18 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 4.7 13.0 13.5 20.0 7.8 21.5 10.4 7.1 18.0 10.4 13.6 13.0 5.7 21.0 — — — 1 I 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 2 3 1 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 10 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 20 20 20 20 14.2 10.5 7.4 3.9 5.3 14.0 4.1 8.3 21.0 17.0 20.0 9.8 17.0 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 I 1 3 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 2 I 1 1 2 1 5 12 3.6 6.6 3 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 very p oorly stocked disease present 18 18 18 20 7.1 11.6 12.0 16.0 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 poorly stocked 13 — — — — 13 — — — — 16 — — — —. — — — — 13 — _ _ — — — — _ — —: gaps in c rop som e defoliation som e defoliation som e defoliation dieback subject to w indblow gaps in crop very p oorly stocked gaps in c ro p : u n d e r Japanese larch o n dense Calluna o n dense Calluna gaps in crop gaps in crop gaps in crop o n dense Calluna gaps in crop poorly stocked diseased and 82 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Species M ean M ean Age H eight G irth Stem C row n B ranch H ealth (Yrs.) (Ft.) (In.) F o rm D iam . A ngling (2) (3) Pinus— cont. peuce ra d ia ta rigida sinensis 20 20 20 20 17.0 21.0 9.9 14.5 tabulaeform is 20 15.0 thunbergii lam bertiana 20 22 11.2 11.0 Tsuga: caroliniana diversifolia sieboldii 12 18 18 2.4 5.2 8.8 Cupressus: torulosa 22 8 (1) Sciadopitys: verticillata (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 14.1 28 — — 1 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 — 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 --— 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 I 1 20.0 16 1 2 2 1 3.4 — 2 3 2 1 _ -- R em arks very good crop poorly stocked poorly stocked poorly stocked diseased poorly stocked diseased poorly stocked poorly stocked diseased and and and dieback There are m any oth er species in the forest garden, either grow ing slowly b u t happily o r suffering from attack. T here are also m any fine individual specim en trees an d a few p o o r ones. All are o f great interest and we m ust be indebted to the founder o f the Forest G arden for the form ation o f such an attractive and useful “ show gro u n d ” . T H E T R E E AND G A RD EN B O O K S AT GRAVETYE M ANOR By T H E E A R L O F M O R T O N , M .A ., F.L.S. This article is reproduced fro m Volume L X X II, P a rt 4, o f the Jo u rn al o f the Royal H orticu ltu ral Society, b y kin d p erm is­ sion o f that so c iety’s S ecretary, and the author. A s m any readers will know, G ravetye Forest, situ a ted near E ast Grinste a d in Sussex, was bequeathed to the Com mission by William Robinson, the g reat au thority on gardening, in 1934. There has been for m any years in the Lindley L ibrary an elegant volum e in lim p vellum printed on hand-m ade p ap er a n d lettered w ithout in gold G ravetye M anor and subtitled w ithin or T w enty Years W ork around an o ld M anor House. In his preface to this book, published in 1911, its au th o r w i l l i a m r o b i n s o n wrote “ the books I kept included building and m any w orks n o t o f general interest, and w hat is given here concerns garden design and planting and lan d ­ scape only” . T he value o f this w ork has now been m uch enhanced by the generous gift o f the Forestry C om m ission to the Library o f the two M S. volumes o f “ T he books I k ept” , each entitled “ Tree an d G arden Book, G ravetye M a n o r” . NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 83 Recently I read o f the great d u k e o f W e l l i n g t o n saying o f his published despatches, “ They are valuable as a professional book, m ore so th a n C aesar’s Commentaries because C aesar w rote afterw ards, for effect. These are a collec­ tion of the instrum ents w ritten a t the tim e” . ( Conversations with the D uke o f Wellington, edited by the 7th D uke o f W ellington. Published by the St. N icolas Press, Cam bridge, 1956). Such a relationship seems to exist between the m s. books and r o b i n s o n ’s highly finished volume o f 1911. The title page o f the first “ Tree and G arden B ook” announces th at it was “ Commenced by W m. Robinson, A ugust 1885” . O n the last page is pasted a newspaper cutting an n o tated in his hand. “ A dvert” (the contem porary abbrevia­ tion surprises) “ in Times which led me to see an d buy G ravetye in 1885” . The book appears to have been originally intended as a kind o f “ fair copy” record of work in progress. The first fourteen pages are inscribed in an ornam ental script. Thereafter this is succeeded by different hand-w ritings equally legible, if less decorative. O ne presum es other am anuenses have been em ployed. F re ­ quently r o b i n s o n ’s ow n robust, unpleasing and often illegible handw riting comes hurtling across the page. G radually the character o f the volum es changes. Records o f w ork done are interrupted by discourses on various aspects o f gardening and forestry and it has to be ad m itted th a t there is less ab o u t gardening th a n readers o f this J o u r n a l w ould wish. r o b i n s o n was deeply interested in everything th a t concerned his estate and in improving his house as well as his property. H e also for m any years farm ed extensively. A n interesting poin t in connection w ith his career emerges here. So eminently successful in m uch th a t he touched he also had som e startling failures an d disappointm ents. H e ab an d o n ed farm ing owing to prolonged financial loss. He records building w ork which turns o u t unsatisfactorily even though u ndertaken at great expense and u nder the supervision o f skilled architects. T he plum bing system in th e house, though equally expensively installed under the care o f an “ architect o f the highest repute” , got out o f order and had to be renewed at great cost. N ot th at cost appears to have been any great object. In 1886 he con­ structed a sunk fence to “ secure freedom o f view from the South o f the house towards the lower lake and beyond” a t a cost o f a b o u t £325. T he new upper drive to the house was “ finished M ay 11, 1889 after very heavy labour for horses and m en for 8 m onths, felling trees, filling hollows, rem oving m any thousands loads o f earth to get a good line and easy grade, closing old and useless roads so as to m ake the ap p ro ach simple as well as beautiful and easy” . In 1890 “an ugly stiff and straight cottage which was once the farm -house o f the principal holding in Mill Place dem olished as ugly from every p o in t o f view . . . O rchard taken away near the sam e an d all throw n in to m ake one airy field. Effect on the rocks an d the Scotch firs on them m uch better.” Extensive and continuous estate w orks are recorded in these books and much forestry w ork was also carried on. T here are som e very interesting experiments in seeding plantations, b o th o f o ak and various conifers. In the autumn o f 1893 and spring o f 1894 attem pts were m ade to form an oak p lan ta­ tion from acorns. A later note, however, states, “ all m ostly failed owing to biting dow n o f seedlings by rab b its” . In 1902: Cedars o f Lebanon, “ Planted very small trees 4"-6" high and between them here and there on 20th M ay the seeds direct o f both the C edar o f L ebanon an d A tlantica.” M any large-scale m assed ornam ental plantings were undertaken. In 1887: “ Many handsom e hollies, gold and silver and fine green kinds planted in Decern- 84 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION ber this year. They were got to shut out view o f new kitchen garden from pleasure ground. To save 20 years or m ore very finely grow n specimens were sought. They were b rought all the way from K naphill by road in our ow n and the nurserym an’s wagons which met and exchanged horses at Ockley. . . These plants h ad been frequently m oved and cam e w ith good balls, 2-4 feet across, the plants 6-12 feet high.” A note in the 1911 volum e states th at m any o f the hollies did badly and m any died: transplanting specimen hollies is usually a m istake. Some com pletely new inform ation comes to light in correspondence in July 1898 between r o b i n s o n and m r . f . w a r n e r b u r t , then o f Nigg, Rossshire, whose grandfather, a m r . t u r n e r , h ad owned G ravetye from 1840-1860, when he had know n it. H e sent some interesting inform ation about the house, and plans o f it, draw n from m em ory as he rem em bered it, also two photographs o f the house which r o b i n s o n seems to have assum ed were taken in 1848, pre­ sum ably because m r . b u r t h a d in 1898 w ritten o f G ravetye as he had rem em bered it fifty years before. I can find no evidence for this date, but m r . b u r t states th a t a m an nam ed m e l v i l l e , form erly o f East G rinstead, took the photographs and th at he h ad bought them from him ab o u t 1865, th at is to say about twenty years before r o b i n s o n purchased the property. An interesting fact recorded by m r . b u r t is th a t G ravetye, before his grandfather bought it for £2,000, had been for m any years unoccupied except by harvest labourers, etc. Until some date betw een 1840 and 1860 the house appears to have rem ained unaltered, since it was built in the T u d o r period. r o b i n s o n m ade m any gardens for other people and special interest attaches to any inform ation ab o u t his ow n garden. He declared th at his first considera­ tion was the flowers he wished to grow. The favourite o f these were tea roses, o u td o o r carnations, “ Tufted pansies” and “ S tarw orts” as he called them. O f tea roses, in 1888 r o b i n s o n was able to claim after two years from planting th a t seventy sorts, in groups from six to twenty, had proved their hardiness through tw o severe winters, and in a po o r sum m er and a fine one their beauty and long flowering period. H e from time to tim e m entions tea roses in these records but does not say as tim e went on if, or to what degree, he kept his collection up to date. His first attem pt at hardy carnations at G ravetye was n o t a success. In 1886 he writes, “ F orm ed a large collection o f hardy border kinds, m ostly ‘selfcoloured’, over 500 plants com ing from Pierrefitte in France. N o t m any o f all these plants survived the w inter: rabbits and frost had m o st!” H ere it may be m entioned th a t during the m any years covered by these books r o b i n s o n battled w ith “ these pests” , as he so rightly called them . However, having carefully fenced them , in the autum n o f 1887 he set out ab o u t 2,000 carnations from good layers. They proved themselves satisfactory in every way. N one was lost from the cold. “ T ufted Pansies” were, in fact, violas, so called, he says, to distinguish them from the alpine species which bear the sam e generic name. H e used them for underplanting his roses and for mass planting where im portant blocks o f colour were required. This som ehow did not qualify in his view as “ bedding o u t” . His culture o f “ Starw orts” seems to have been a great contribution to horticulture, r o b i n s o n grew them in em pty spaces between newly planted shrubs and found the “ result was charm ing” . These “ Starw orts or M ichaelm as Daisies were a lovely sight here in 1887 and 1888” , he writes in the latter year. In 1889 he w rote in the “ Tree and G arden B ook” an account o f the “ kinds which represent well the beauty o f the Starw orts as at present know n. There are many m ore nam es and m any m ore kinds m ay com e b u t they will hardly surpass the NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 85 above m entioned in beauty and vigour.” r o b i n s o n did not see the late m r . e r n e s t b a l l a r d ’s M ichaelm as daisies. He m akes no reference to the R. H. S. Aster Conference o f 1891. On O ctober 14, 1890, A u g u s t u s h a r e w rote in a letter: “ It was a pleasure to drive over to the picturesque old m an o r house o f G ravetye which belongs to Mr. W. R obinson who w rote ‘T he English Flow er G ard en ’, but except for the thickets o f M ichaelm as Daisies I was disappointed in his flowers for he only attempts those which belong to the naturally existing soil.” (A ugustus H are, The Story o f M y Life, Vol. VI, p. 227). This last clause is curious, for there is am ple evidence th a t frequently beds were excavated to considerable depths and filled with m ade-up soil. F or ex­ ample, in 1893, finding th at certain beds in the flower garden were unsatisfactory, “we ripped up nearly all o f them and digging out clay and rock from the bottom of them m ade each bed 2 feet deep below the level o f the grass, filling in with good loam, sand and m anure as the best p rep aration for tea roses and car­ nations” . The great bord er round the garden was similarly treated at the same time. In 1893 also, r o b i n s o n planted a large collection o f new finely coloured water-lilies raised b y m a r l i a c and v i l m o r i n . He greatly adm ired these plants and enquired o f m a r l i a c how he had originated them . A lengthy reply is given but does not appear to reveal his secret m ethods which, according to m r s . F r a n c e s p e r r y , “ to all intents an d purposes have passed away with him ” . Two years later “ four different landscape pain ters” , r o b i n s o n writes, “ painted our lily pool in the sum m er an d au tu m n in 1895, M ark Fisher, Alfred Parsons, H. A. Olivier and H. G. M o o n ” . One w onders w hat c l a u d e m o n e t , who was painting at this tim e, would have m ade o f the lily pools o f G ravetye. Planting o f one kind or an o th er was constantly taking place, b u t the seasons 1893-4 and 1895-6 seem to have been peak periods. It is im possible to enum erate all the subjects planted, but in 1893-4 in the MS. book they cover approxim ately four-and-a-half large foolscap pages. In this season they appear m ainly to have been trees and shrubs. Sometimes only single specimens were acquired, but groups and hedges were plan ted o f hollies, willows, alm onds, cedars and pines, including a group o f Pinus leucodermis “ sent me by the E m peror o f A ustria’s head gardener at V ienna, M r. K ro p atsch ” . One stupefying item is 4,000 kalm ias and alpine rhododendrons. The planting in the season 1895-6 was largely “ in gardens and pleasure grounds” . The list o f things planted covers nearly three large foolscap pages and contains such items as “ 5,000 chionodoxas in garden near house” , “ 1,500 dogstooth violets” , “ 1,200 iris, English and Spanish am ong gooseberries” , “ 6,000 tulips in tulip garden” , “ 1,000 Red Roses on own roots in new o rch a rd ” , “ 3,000 sweet-brier, fences and other places” , “ Hollies, R hododendrons other things planted in B am boo garden not included here” , “ 2,000 forest and fence plants” . “ This season in garden, pleasure grounds and forest planted 50,000 in all.” W. R., June 1896, is the note at the foot o f this list. “ Planted in Jan u ary 1897 nearly 100,000 narcissus . . . ” I quote r o b i n ­ own w ords: in the spring following ab o u t 80,000 narcissus. s o n ’s r o b i n s o n was always keen to grow things in as natural a way as possible and in N ovem ber 1886 planted small groups o f the m occasin flower (CypripetHum reginae) in bog moss in an old pit. These were a gift from m r . e l l i o t t o f Philadelphia. A note in R o b i n s o n 's han d : “ never could trace the plants in 1888” . Six m onths earlier 400 autum n-flow ering cyclam en were planted about 86 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION the property, but r o b i n s o n again had to note in M arch 1888 that, “ They did not seem to take to the soil” . This year, too, ab o u t 7,000 snow drops were planted, some hundreds o f Endymion hispanicus and w inter aconite. A fter the last is a note in r o b i n s o n ’s hand (probably o f a m uch later date) “ never did any good, not liking soil” . The above bulbs appear to have been planted about O ctober 22. Could this late date account for the failure o f the aconites? A t this tim e also r o b i n s o n was attem pting to naturalize plants by seeding. Blue lupin was sow n by the banks o f stream lets and in copses, the “ W elsh poppy abou t the farm stables and bailiff’s cottage also a pinch at the lake d am ,” the white colum bine “ at stoneheap o f the dam o f the lower lake” , and water-forgetm e-not was scattered ab o u t “ the fringes o f lakes and stream s” . In 1894 r o b i n ­ s o n attem pted to establish in the hedgerows, from seed, stout herbaceous plants such as anchusa, everlasting peas, ferula, lupins, heracleum s, delphinium s, col­ um bines, aconites, and others. I can n o t find any record o f the success or o ther­ wise o f these experim ents. In the sum m er o f 1891 r o b i n s o n invited H. G. m o o n and w. e. N o r t o n to “ stay for the season and study the beauty o f the place from the landscapepain ter’s point o f view entirely, which they accordingly did. They w orked at the pictures all the w inter . . The pictures were exhibited in London in N ovem ­ ber 1892. T he exhibition was entitled “ A Story o f the Y ear round an old C ountry H ouse” , r o b i n s o n wrote an in troduction to the catalogue which is pasted into the first MS. book. The Times described the exhibition as a “ ch ar­ m ing little collection” an d the artists “ clear-eyed observers o f n ature” each o f whom “ paints w ith the brush o f a thoroughly trained a rtist” . A cutting am ong others from periodicals n o t identified, but pasted into the book, refers to r o b i n ­ s o n ’s in troduction as suggesting th a t the artists were handicapped by an un­ fortu n ate season. “ We should have said they were handicapped by looking at n atu re through C o ro t’s eyes.” This sentence is underlined and alongside is w ritten “ R ubbish W. R .” . r o b i n s o n gives a list o f his collection o f pictures as at 1895. This consisted alm ost entirely o f landscapes and flower paintings and contained m any views o f G ravetye by his great friend the floral painter, h . g . m o o n . C ontem porary academ icians were also represented. O n the other hand there were three pictures by c a z i n and eight flower pieces by f a n t i n - l a t o u r , and one or two other w orks all regarded as distinctly “ m odern” at th a t time. He certainly had two c o r o t s and a v a n h u y s u m , “ V arious Flow ers” , hung on the stairs. In these notes I have selected w hat has seemed to me m ost likely to be of interest to gardeners. But there is m uch else o f great interest. The im portance o f these books is th a t they illustrate r o b i n s o n ’s m ind in action and they are therefore a m ost valuable accession to the Lindley Library. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 87 1957 TALLEST AND LARGEST SPECIM ENS OF C O M M O N T R E E S R E C O R D E D S I N C E 1947 The follow ing list has been compiled by A . F. M itchell, District Officer, Research Branch. I f any o f our readers can fin d other trees to equal or beat these records, they should advise M r. M itchell at Alice Holt. Abies alba Ht.jCirth at breast height 1 8 0 'X 20' 6" 1 4 7 'x 23' 1 3 1 'x 9 ' Abies concolor 1 2 8 'x 11' 1 6 8 'x 12' Abies grandis 116' x 17' 1 4 5 'x 14' Abies lowiana 1 2 0 'x 16' 116' x 10' Abies magnifica 9 8 'x 12' 1 2 0 'x 7 ' Abies nordm anniana 118' x 13' 9 8 ' x 6' Abies pinsapo 87' x 13' 1 4 8 'x U ' Abies procera 1 2 2 'x 14' 81' Abies veitchii 6 0 ' x 7' f 8 4 ' x 12' Araucaria araucana \ 8 4 'x 9 ' 119' x 19' Cedrus atlantica Cedrus glauca 1 2 6 'x 13' 89' x 14' 118' x 13' Cedrus deodara 9 5 'x 17' Cedrus libani ca 140' x 13' 66' x 34' Chamaecyparis law soniana.... 1 0 2 'x l l ' x 13' Chamaecyparis law soniana ................. 81' erecta viridis 6 9 'x 6' in te r te x ta .............................. f 9 3 'x 6' Chamaecyparis n ootkatensis \ 9 3 ' x 8' 7 3 'x 9 ' Chamaecyparis obtusa 6 3 'x 4 ' f 1 1 1 'x lO ' J l l l ' x 8' Cryptomeria jap o n ica "1 111' x 6 ' 1 1 1 1 'x 10' 9 8 'x 13' X Cupressocyparis leylandii 6 7 'x 6' Cupressus m acrocarpa 126' x 6' x 20' Ginkgo biloba 9 0 'x 7 ' 70' x 12' Larix decidua 1 4 5 'x 8' 102' x 18' Larix eurolepis 9 7 'x 3' 7 8 ' x 7' Larix leptolepis 1 0 5 ' x 8' 9 8 ' x 8' Larix occidentalis 7 0 'x 3 ' 6 4 'x 4 ' Libocedrus decurrens 1 0 5 'x l l ' Picea abies 1 5 6 ' x 14' 1 4 7 ' x 10' 0" 5 |" 3" 2" 10" 4" 3" 3" 10" 8" 2" 0" 9" 0" 8" 1" 2' 2" 1" 2" 0" 7" 0" 9" 9" 9" 2" 7" 9" 2" 1" 5" 0" 7' 9" 3" 1" 4" 9" 4' 7" 8' 10" 3" 7" 2" 2" 6" 11|" 5" 4" 2' 7" Date 1955 1956 1956 1956 1956 1955 1955 1956 1955 1955 1953 1954 1951 1950 1952 1955 (1944?) 1955 1955 1954 1954 1952 1954 1953 1955 1955 1954 1954 1949 1951 1956 1956 1954 1954 1956 1955 1955 1954 1953 1955 1955 1952 1949 1956 1956 1955 1953 1955 1954 1954 1955 1956 1956 1951 1952 1952 Situation K ilbryde, Inveraray, Argyll. A rdkinglas, Argyll. B enm ore, Argyll. B enm ore, Argyll. L eighton H all, W elshpool. Inveraray, Argyll. D urris H o., K incardine. L in to n P ark, K ent. B lair A tholl, P erth. B lair A tholl, Perth. V ivod L langollen. T aym outh C as., P erth. P anshanger, H erts. Scotney Cas., K ent. D u n craig Cas., W . Ross. T ay m o u th C as., P erth. N ym ans, Sussex. D unkeld, Perth. B icton, D evon. M onreith, W igtown. E astn o r Cas., H ereford. Pam pisford, C am bs. E astn o r C as., H ereford. R edleaf, K ent. Bicton, D evon. Foxley, H ereford. C e d ar P ark , C heshunt. Inveraray, Argyll. S tourhead, W ilts. Scotney C as., K ent. H aslem ere, Surrey. L in to n P ark, K ent. D u p p lin C as., P erth. M oncriefle, P erth. W estonbirt, Glos. B icton, D evon. Foxley, H ereford. L eato n K nolls, Salop. R edleaf, K ent. N o rth e rw o o d H o., H ants. Inveraray, Argyll. Pam pisford, C am bs. M ontacute, Som erset. L in to n P a rk , K ent. K ew , R . B. G . .Surrey. P ark h atch , D unsfold, Surrey, M onzie, P erth. Blair A tholl, Perth. B lair A tholl, Perth. B lair A tholl, Perth. D unkeld, Perth. K ew , R. B. G ., Surrey. K ew , R . B. G ., Surrey. S tourhead, W ilts. Studley R oyal, Y orks (dying Studley R oyal, Y orks. [back) JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 88 Picea Picea Picea Picea jezoensis om orika orientalis sitchensis Picca sm ithiana Pinus co n to rta Pinus griffithii Pinus jeffreyi Pinus nigra calabrica Pinus pinaster Pinus ponderosa Pinus radiata Pinus strobus Pinus sylvestris Pseudotsuga taxifolia Sequoia gigantea Sequoia sem pervirens T axodium distichum Taxus baccata T huja plicata T hujopsis d o lab rata T suga canadensis T suga heterophylla T suga m ertensiana .... A cer cam pestre A cer platanoides Ht./Girth at breast height Date 9 0 'x 9 ' 10" 8 0 ' x 5' 4" c l 20' x 9 ' 5" / 1 6 0 'x 15' 2" \ 160' x 12' 6" 1 1 9 'x 25' 0" 115' x 10' 5" f 1 0 4 'x 11' 6" \ 8 8 ' x l l ' 6" 1 0 2 'x 12' 4" 1 0 5 ' x 6' 7" 1 0 0 'x 10' 9" 9 9 'x 7' 2" 9 7 ' x 10' 9" 1 3 5 ' x 10' 4" 1 2 1 'x 13' 8" 1 0 0 'x 7' 7" 8 0 ' x 10' 8" 1 2 5 'x 10' 7" 101' x 11' 10" 138' x 11' 11" 108' x 17' 9" 1956 1954 1951 1954 1956 1956 1950 1955 1955 1949 195 1950 1955 1956 1950 1956 1955 1955 1950 1955 1955 1955 1 2 6 'x 102' 1 2 0 'x 7 0 'x 181' x 1 1 0 'x 165' x 7' 16' 10' 18' 13' 20' 24' 1 5 1 'x 22' 1 0 5 'x 28' 1 4 0 'x 18' 1 0 0 'x 20' 115-120' 9 5 'x 16' 92' x 34' 1 2 9 'x 17' 5 7 'x 3' 1 1 4 'x 8' 9 0 'x 16' 1 4 6 'x 10' 1 2 0 'x 13' 8 8 'x 6' 8 3 'x 9' 11" 5" 0" 0' 4' 0' 0" 8" 6" 2" 9" 8" 7' 6' 24" 2" 4" 6" 8' 11" 7" 86' 7 0 'x 12' 8" 8 1 'x 9 ' 2" 117' x 31' 10" B enm ore, Argyll. M urthly C as., Perth. S tourhead, W ilts. M urthly Cas., Perth. Inveraray, Argyll. Filleigh Est., D evon. Redleaf, K ent. T aym outh C as., Perth. G o rd o n C as., M oray. M onk H o p to n , B ridgnorth. Pam pisford, Cam bs. W arw ick Cas. W estonbirt, G los. D ropm ore, Bucks. Stanage Park, R adnor. D ropm ore, Bucks. B olderw ood, H ants. E xbury, H ants. Scolney C as., K ent. Stratfield Saye, H ants. Cuffnells, L yndhurst, H ants. N o rtherw ood H ouse, L yndhurst, H ants. 1953 Puck Pits, H ants. Stratfield Saye, H ants. 1955 1952 N ecto n Park, N orfolk. Spye Park, W ilts. 1953 Powis C as., M ontgom eryshire. 1956 1956 D unkeld, Perth. 1955 F onthill A bbey, W ilts, (dying back). G lenlee, K irkcudbright. 1955 C richel H o., W im borne, D orset. 1950 1951 S tourhead, W ilts. T aym outh Cas., Perth. 1955 (1955?) L ongford Cas., W ilts. B urw ood Park, Surrey. 1947 C ow dray Park, Sussex. 1955 U lcom be, K ent. 1948 B icton, D evon. 1955 Benenden School, K ent. 1957 H ardw icke, Suffolk. 1954 Studley R oyal, Y orks. 1952 B enm ore, Argyll. 1956 K inloch H o., A ngus. 1955 M urthly Cas., Perth. 1955 M urthly Cas., Perth. 1955 1953 1950 1950 1955 A cer pseudoplatanus Aesculus hippocastanum A lnus glutinosa Betula pendula C arpinus betulus C astanea sativa F agus sylvatica F agus sylvatica v. p u rp u re a ... Situation 1 117' x 19' 1 0 7 'x 16' 96' x 20' 70' x 11' 1 0 2 'x 7' 5 8 'x l l ' 105' x 7' 6 5 'x 30' 2" 0" 10" 10" 5" 7" 3" 9" 1953 1954 1950 1953 1956 1956 1954 1949 1 1 4 'x 12' x 39' 1 4 2 'x 8' 95' x 2 5 ' 1 0 0 'x 21' 11" 6" 9" 3" 9' 1954 1953 1954 1956 1956 C obham H all, K ent. P am pisford, C am bs. P am pisford, C am bs. N ew burgh, C oxw old, Y orks. (coppice stem ). C obham H all, K ent. S tanstead Bury, H erts. H atfield F orest, Essex. Fairlaw ne, T onbridge, K ent. W oburn, Beds. W orlingham H all, Suffolk. D urdans, Epsom . E aston Lodge, D unm ow , Essex. (Pollard). C ow dray P ark, Sussex. C anford, D orset. Y ester H ouse, E. L othian. C o n o n H ouse, D ingw all, Ross. L inton Park, K ent. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX Fraxinus excelsior Juglans nigra Juglans regia Liquidambar styraciflua Liriodendron tulipifera Nolhofagus o b liq u a.... Nolhofagus procera Platanus acerifolia Platanus orientalis .... Populus canescens Populus eugenii Populus nigra Populus nigra v. italica Prunus avium Quercus borealis Qucrcus cerris Quercus ile x ................. Quercus lucom beana Quercus pedunculata (Pollard) Quercus petraea Robinia pseudacacia Salix alba Tilia cordata Tilia vulgaris. .. Ulmus carpinifolia .... Ulmus glabra Ulmus procera Zelkova carpinifolia Ht./Girth at breast height Date 1 4 8 'x 9 0 'x 1 0 5 'x 9 0 'x 7 7 'x 10' 19' 14' 16' 10' 6" 6" 0" 3" 8' 1956 1952 1952 1951 1955 60' x 21' 9 0 'x 8' 110' x 2 2 ' 7 9 'x 5' 7 5 'x 7' 6" 5" 2' 4" 4" 1955 1951 1953 1951 1955 7 4 'x 5' 11" 1955 1 2 3 'x 18' 1 2 3 'x 18' 1 2 5 'x 13' 114' x 26' 1 0 8 'x 17' 66' x 22' 1 1 0 'x 11' 1 0 0 'x 17' 1 2 6 'x 10' 1 4 0 'x 20' x 26' 1 0 8 'x 7' x 14' 1 0 2 'x 8' 70' x 10' 3" 3' 9" 4£" 5" 10" 5" 4' 1" 2' 9' 5" 8' 4' 8' 1952 1952 1954 1950 1956 1956 1950 1951 1956 1953 1949 1954 1949 1956 1952 1 0 2 'x 12' 7 4 'x 13' 1 0 5 'x 15' x 22' 7 0 'x 2 1 ' 1 1 5 'x 9' 72' x 21' 1 2 8 'x 14' 6 4 'x 25' x43' 105' x 24' 3' 2' 0' 0" 0" 11' 9' 10' 4" 0" 0' 1950 1953 1954 1956 1952 1953 1956 1954 1953 1940 1952 9 0 'x 9' 8 1 'x 14' 81' x 11' 1 0 5 'x 15' 1 5 2 'x l l ' 90' x 37' 1 4 1 'x 2 1 ' 90' x 24' 138' x 15' x25' 141' x 17' x 25' 1 2 3 'x 9' 94' x 21' 5' 9' 3' 7" 2" 1955 1956 1955 1950 1956 1953 1956 1953 1952 1949 1951 1952 1951 1956 10' 8' 0' 5' 0' 3' 6' 3" 3£' 1957 89 Situation D uncom be Park, Yorks. Holywell H all, Stam ford, Lincs. H atfield F orest, Essex. Syon H o., M iddlesex. Salterton, M iddle W oodford, Wilts. P ilton C hurchyard, N o rth an ts. Syon H o., M iddlesex. K illerton, D evon. Kew, R. B. G. Surrey. G raysw ood Hill, H aslem ere, Surrey. M uncaster Cas., C um berland (planted 1923). R ichm ond, Surrey. M ontpellier R ow , T w ickenham . A lbury P ark, Surrey. Bishops Palace, Ely. Petersham Lodge, Surrey. H aw stead O ld Place, Suffolk. Saling G rove, Essex. C astle H edingham , Essex. Kew, R. B. G ., Surrey. Fairlaw ne, K ent. Shalford, Surrey. G olders H ill P ark, L ondon. U p p e r E dgbold, Salop. W oburn, Beds. Lexden M anor, C olchester, Essex. Revesby A bbey, Lincs. Fairlaw ne, K ent. A rnos P ark, L ondon, N. M am head P ark, Exeter. Chiswick H o., L o n d o n (at O') N ecton P ark , N orfolk. W orlingham H all, Suffolk. M archm ount, E. L o th ian N edging H all, Suffolk. M an to n , C heshire* T he C ham pion, Powis, M o n t­ gom ery.* K ew , R. B. G ., Surrey. D in to n C as., Bucks. G rovelands P ark, L ondon, N . T hurlow P ark, Suffolk. D uncom be P ark, Y orks. C obham H all, K ent. E asto n L odge, D unm ow , Essex. G re at W altham , Essex. E arl Soham , Cam bs. M onks Eleigh, Suffolk. Syon H o., M iddlesex. K elston, Som erset. Syon H o., M iddlesex. W orlingham H all, Suffolk. * Pre 1947 m easurem ents but know n still to be standing a n d largest. 90 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION NEW BOROUGH FO R E ST *, A NG LESEY By G. D . H O L M E S D istrict Officer, Research Branch acres A reas (1956): Plantations L an d to be Planted ................ A gricultural L and and Forest W orkers’ H oldings U nplantable and O ther N urseries Total: 1,227 660 4 636 20 2.547 Supervision and Labour. 2 Foresters, 1 G anger, 40 Forest W orkers. Planting Program m e. 50 acres p er annum . T he forest consists o f six acquisitions, the first and largest one o f 2,104 acres was com pleted in 1940. W ith the exception o f a small outlying block, the whole area consists o f blown sand m erging into m arsh a t the eastern end o f the forest. A ridge o f rock runs right through the dunes an d out into the sea where it form s the pro m o n to ry o f L landdw yn Island. T he sand is o f a calcareous n ature and this is show n in the vegetation by th e presence o f such calcicoles as Sedum acre, and by the scarcity o f Calluna. O n the m oving dunes, little else but m arram grass {Psam m a arenaria) is present, w ith d w arf willow ( S a lix repens ) in the winter lakes. M any flowering plants occur on the areas o f less m obile sand. T he clim ate is m uch m ilder th a n th a t o f the m ainland, although spring frosts can occur. T he average annual rainfall is 39 inches. T he area is fully exposed to the prevailing south-w est wind from the sea, and the w estern p a rt o th e forest n o rth o f the rock ridge consists o f fully m obile dunes quite unprotected by a litto ral dune. South o f the rock ridge, th e dunes are lower and less mobile and there is a low n atu ral littoral dune. T he unplantable area is salt m arsh and seashore. Planting started in 1947 at the north-east end, where conditions were easiest. Owing to A ir M inistry requisition o f a large section o f the m obile dunes on the north-w est edge, no litto ral protection could be undertaken until recently. One o f the m ain problem s is fixation o f the sand p rio r to planting; thatching the sand surface w ith conifer branches has been done in parts o f the area. T here is no local source o f b ran ch m aterial an d th e high cost o f its im p o rtatio n from G w ydyr has necessitated confining the thatch as far as possible to the westfacing slopes o f m obile dunes (ab o u t 12 lorry loads o f branch m aterial are required to th atch one acre). This is now com bined with spreading o f roadside trim m ings containing seeding grass an d weeds, and with m arram (Psam m a arenaria ) planting. In 1954-55, it was decided to interplant all the younger plantations an d new plantations w ith inferior or surplus pines which can be cut later to provide th atching m aterial on th e spot. N o suitable shrubs have so far been found for stabilising the sand or for grow ing to provide thatching m aterial. D uring th e last few years, a tw enty foot high littoral dune has been arti­ ficially created by m eans o f a palisade along th e west shore to protect and ease fixation o f the dunes furth er inland. * N ow p a rt o f M on F orest. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 91 Corsican pine has proved the m ost successful species for planting the dry sandy area. Scots pine will n o t stand up to the sea winds and has been used for interplanting to produce thatching m aterial. L odgepole pine is vigorous on the moister sites an d is planted generally in the w inter lakes where these can be drained. U nfortunately, m uch o f the lodgepole pine planted so far is o f an unsuitable inland race. Sitka spruce is successful in m arshy areas and white spruce, Picea glauca, has proved very prom ising. Sowings o f m aritim e pine, Pinus pinaster, and M onterey pine, Pinus radiata, have proved unsuccessful in small trial areas. There are tw o nurseries in the forest an d although their productivity is not very high, they have proved very useful as the clim ate and soil perm it w ork to continue when all other nurseries in N o rth W ales are held up by wet w eather, frost or snow. T he forest is o f considerable biological interest and an area south of the forest has recently been declared a N atio n al N atu re Reserve. Compartment 10. E arly Plantations Here are some o f the earliest plantings in the forest. These consist mainly o f Corsican pine planted 1948 and 1949 w ith Sitka spruce planted on plough ridges in low-lying wet ground. Failures were replaced in 1949 by lodgepole pine. A small area o f Pinus pinaster and grey alder (Alnus incana), is found here, the latter having been planted for p ro d u ctio n o f thatching m aterial. A con­ siderable area o f u nplantable salt m arsh extends along the edge o f the M alltraeth Estuary. The Littoral Dune. The form ation o f this dune was com m enced in 1951 to protect the interior from sand-laden winds. In the lee o f this protection, the interior sandy wastes can be successfully fixed. T he dune has been built up by the palisade or w attle fence m ethod up to its present height o f 20 feet. The rapidity o f grow th o f the dune has been due to the ab u n d an t supply o f blow n sand carried by the prevailing on-shore w ind from the long sandy foreshore. During 1954 and 1955, the dune was planted w ith m arram grass w ith a view to fixing it against blow -outs and general wind dam age. It is th o u g h t the sand will continue to build up w ith the aid o f the m arram . The grass has been planted at increased density tow ards the crest o f the dune in order to preserve the desired shape of the dune by increasing deposition o f sand tow ards the crest. T he present palisade o f branch m aterial will be retained until the m arram has established itself. Very high tides com m only reach the base o f the littoral dune, b u t the gentle upward slope o f the base probably prevents any erosion dam age. In fact, the dune is tending gradually to steepen the slope o f the whole foreshore by the build-up o f sand. Sand Fixation. W here m arram -planting is unlikely to succeed, the sand is fixed by thatching w ith branches from conifer plantations and other suitable m aterial. This is usually fixed to the gro u n d by wiring where necessary, and m ay also be supplemented by applications o f roadside clippings which provide grass and weed seeds. Large exposures o f sand are fixed by planting m arram grass. The use o f young vigorous grow th is essential, and com m only old m arram areas are burned off to obtain young regrow th suitable for dividing and transplanting. Planting can be carried o u t during the ‘ra in ’ m onths, avoiding June, July and A ugust. The newly planted grass usually loses its colour, b u t recovery is good and planting losses are n o t high. Planting a t a spacing o f ab o u t 20 inches seems m ost suitable, and w ith this, it is estim ated th a t it will require 3 to 5 years for the grass 92 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION to fix the sand sufficiently to perm it afforestation. A t present, ab o u t 50 acres per annum are being planted with m arram grass in this way. A trial area sprayed w ith bitum en em ulsion as a m ethod o f sand fixation has been laid out. The area was sprayed at a variety o f application rates in M arch, 1955, after planting and direct sowing with a selection o f species in­ cluding C orsican pine, Pinus radiata , Pinus mugo. C ertain plots were also sown w ith m arram grass seed prior to spraying, with a view to providing more lasting fixation. The bitum en crust provided good tem porary fixation and seed germ ination and early grow th was good. However, all plants became brown and scorched at the end o f the grow ing season and it seems th at the com plete absence o f above-ground protection against exposure on these plots was the m ain factor responsible. This is supported by the fact th at the only really healthy plants grow ing in bitum en-covered plots occur in the sheltered lee o f plots thatched with branchw ood. ADVICE ON C H O IC E A N D T R E A T M E N T OF F O R E S T TREE S E E D In response to requests by woodland owners and fo re s t tree nurserym en , the F orestry Com m issioners have issued the follow in g n otes , prepared b y their Research Branch staff, on the choice o f origin and nursery treatm ent o f seed o f various conifer species. 1. Choice of Origin of Imported Seed. T he question o f provenance o f seed is dealt with fully in Forestry C om ­ m ission Bulletin N o. 30, E x o tic Forest Trees in G reat Britain, and the notes given below are necessarily brief. In case o f d o u b t reference should be m ade to the Bulletin or to C hief Research Officer, Forestry C om m ission, Alice H olt Lodge, F arnham , Surrey. Conifers Species G ran d silver fir A bies grandis N oble silver fir A bies nobilis Law son cypress Notes The usual seed sources are V ancouver Island, British C olum bia, and the northern foothills o f the C ascade M ountains in the state of W ashington. These appear to be suitable. Sources east o f the Cascade M ountains should be avoided. M ost o f the seed im ported to date has com e from the C ascade M ountains o f W ashington, but provenance questions have been little studied. A bu n d an t seed is available from hom e sources. Cham aecy paris lawsoniana E uropean larch L arix decidua It is o f the first im portance to avoid seed from E uropean high alpine environm ents. As a second choice to seed from good Scottish sources, Sudeten and Polish larch m ay be im ported. It is, however, necessary to be sure NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX Species 1957 93 Notes European Larch— cont. Larix decidua th a t the true indigenous Sudeten m aterial is obtained an d not seed from plantations o f A lpine origin in th at region. Polish larch is often referred to as “ . . . var. polonica” or even “L arix polonica” \ the true Polish larch is found only in the Lysa G o ra region. Japanese larch The range o f the tree in Japan is restricted, and provenance differences do not appear im ­ p o rtan t. Seed from the natural forest about N agano m ay perhaps be preferred to collec­ tions from H okkaido, where the tree occurs in plantations. Larix leptolepis Norway spruce Picea abies (excelsa) W hile no disasters from ill-chosen seed sources need be expected, the indications from ex­ perim ental plantations are th at the best results will be obtained from seed o f so uth­ eastern E uropean origin, followed by G erm an an d Alpine origins. Scandinavian origins (m ore particularly the northernm ost) are u n ­ suitable for use in Britain. Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis The generally accepted source o f seed is the Q ueen C h arlotte Islands in British C olum bia. F aster grow ing spruce may be obtained from m ore southerly sources, coastal W ashington or even O regon, but this is accom panied by m aterially increased hazard o f spring frost dam age in the nursery and in young p la n ta­ tions. Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta (also "var. murrayana" and “ var. latifolia" — varietal nam es occasionally applied to the tree in the more continental parts of its range). This com m on nam e is applied to the whole species for convenience. The tree has a great range and plantations from different seed sources m ay be very distinct in behaviour. Seed sources from the coastal regions o f W ashington, O regon, and British Colum bia, seem the best suited to the B ritish climate. T he W ashington coast is a well tried seed source, providing vigorous, though som e­ w hat coarse pine, highly tolerant o f exposure. In general, lodgepole pine from the “ in terior” , and m ore particularly th at from extremely continental clim ates in A lberta, M ontana and Idaho, appears unsuited for cultivation in G reat Britain. Corsican pine Pinus nigra var. calabrica Seed is usually obtained from C orsica itself. Douglas fir Pseudoisuga taxifolia T hree regional divisions o f the natural range o f this species are usually recognised, namely the G reen or C oastal D ouglas fir; the G rey or Interm ediate; and the Blue or C olorado D ouglas fir. F o r British conditions only the 94 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Notes Species D ouglas fir— cont. Pseudotsuga taxifolia first m entioned is o f any value, the other two being subject to a serious needle disease. C oastal or G reen D ouglas itself covers a wide range west o f the Cascade M ountains of O regon an d W ashington and also in British C olum bia, and there is as yet no certainty as to the best seed source inside this range. How­ ever, it is considered th at the W ashington coast and the northern foothills o f the Cascade M ountains in W ashington are safe and reliable sources. W estern red cedar Thuja plicata Seed is available from hom e sources but failing that, coastal W ashington and the Queen C h arlotte Islands have 'both proved satis­ factory sources. W estern hem lock Tsuga heterophvlla Experience does not suggest th at seed origin is a highly critical factor with this species; satisfactory results have been achieved with seed from the Queen C harlotte Islands and coastal W ashington. Broadleaved Species Since the native broadleaved species are usually raised from hom e collected seeds, regular sources o f supply in E urope have not been organised. Beech, however, has been frequently introduced from E urope, and provided it can be obtained from one or other o f the (m any) fine stands in the countries concerned, it m ay be im ported w ith confidence from F rance, Belgium, H olland, D enm ark o r G erm any. The quality o f the stand is p robably m ore im p o rtan t th an the region. 2. Stratification of Seed. (a) General F o r certain species stratification o f seed in m oist sand in an open pit for a period previous to sowing, stim ulates germ ination and increases the production o f usable seedlings. Im p o rta n t species, the seeds o f which are norm ally stratified prio r to sowing, are given below w ith a note on recom m ended stratification periods. Species Period of Stratification Lodgepole pine 6 weeks D ouglas fir C om m on Silver fir G ran d fir N ob le fir N othofagus species 6 - 8 weeks Notes The degree o f dorm ancy is variable and th e benefits from stratification will vary from one seed lo t to another. A u tu m n or w inter sowing is often used as an alternative to stratification. 4 - 6 weeks Seed should be stratified a t a date which will perm it sowing in the early spring a t the end o f the stratification period. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 95 The open p it m ethod o f stratification is also recom m ended for storage o f seeds which com m only rem ain d o rm an t for one year, notably ash, lime and Pinus peuce. Seeds o f m any species, including E uropean larch, Japanese larch, Scots pine, Corsican pine, N orw ay spruce, Sitka spruce, Law son cypress, Thuja, and Tsuga, norm ally do not show any appreciable response to seed stratification. (b) Method of Stratification The m ethod em ployed is to prepare a pit 2ft. in depth and to line the sides and ends w ith Jin. m o use-proof netting, suitably supported with stakes, and constructed to take a cover o f the sam e m esh netting on a fram e to keep o u t vermin. The b ottom 6in. o f the p it should be filled with gravel to ensure efficient drainage. A little sand should be sprinkled over the to p o f the gravel, and on this a piece o f the sm all-m esh w ire-netting is placed. T he netting serves to separate the seed m ixture from the gravel below, w ithout interfering w ith the drainage. It will be found convenient, when several sm allish lots o f seed are to be dealt with, to construct a long narrow pit, say ab o u t 2ft. wide and to use boards of the same w idth to p artitio n the pit off into com partm ents. T he seed is weighed out and mixed w ith an equal or rath er larger bulk o f clean sand, sufficient sand being used to ensure th a t the seeds are well separated from each other. The m ixture o f seed and sand is p oured into the given com partm ent which can be filled to w ithin 12 in. o f the surface. A piece o f w ire-netting is placed on the top of the m ixture an d clean sand shovelled on until flush w ith the surface. In the case o f very sm all lots o f seed, the seed m ay be mixed w ith sand and placed in w ell-drained flower pots w hich are then subm erged to a d ep th o f 18 in. in the pit and covered over w ith sand. A fter th e seed has been placed in the stratification pit furth er atten tio n is unnecessary until it is rem oved for sowing in the spring. The following points are considered to be im p o rtan t:— (1) The pit should be constructed on a w ell-drained site and not subject to w aterlogging at the d ep th a t which the seed is stored. (2) The seed should be m ixed thoroughly w ith the sand and n o t laid dow n in layers. (3) The pit, or p artitio n o f the pit, should be com pletely filled to ground level w ith pure sand th ro u g h o u t the period o f stratification. (c) Sowing of stratified seed Sowing should take place when the seed is plum p and on the p o in t o f germinating; usually during M arch or A pril. It is im p o rtan t th a t the seed should be sown im m ediately after rem oval from the stratification p it and n o t be allowed to dry out. T he stratification m edium can be sow n together with the seed after thorough mixing. A lternatively, the seed an d sand m ay be separated by sieving prior to sowing. The rate o f sowing can be calculated readily, know ing the original weight o f seed stratified. A K E Y T O 21 S O R T S O F C O N I F E R S E E D C om piled b y the 1951-53 C lass o f Students a t the P arken d F orester Training School. 1 Seed su rrounded by non-detachable wing. Fairly ................ uniform red brow n colour. Seed com pletely free o f w ing........................ W ing bases fused all round edge o f seed. One side o f seed covered by rem ains o f wing. 2 6 11 12 96 JO U RN A L OF THH FORESTRY COMMISSION 2 Roughly circular in outline. Longer th an broad. 3 Seed narrow and thin occupying less th an £ o f area o f the whole. Very light brow n flecked bright red, glossy: Sequoia gigantea Seed rounded an d thicker occupying m ore th a n \ o f area. 4 4 Light red brow n. W ing occasionally slightly notched at tip o f seed only: D ark red brow n. W ing occasionally notched at both ends: 5 7 Cupressus macrocarpa Thuja C ryptom eria r-*- OO ON 6 Seed narrow and thin. W ing th in and papery. Usually notched at both ends: Seed thick and angular, not easily distinguished from wing: Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Less th a n 3 i mm. long. 3 tJ- - 5 m m . long. 5 - 7 mm. long, over 7 mm. long. U niform ly black: rough surface, rounded: U niform ly light brow n, glossy surface. C on­ spicuously angular, diam ond shaped: C olour variable, light to very d ark brow n, dull rough: R ounded in outline: C olour variable, light to d ark brow n, slightly polished: A ngular in outline, 1 or 2 ribs from bro ad to narrow end: 10 Pinus contorta Tsuga Picea omorika Picea silchensis Broadly triangular in outline: sides rounded. Buff, m ottled d ark brow n, d ark er on one side. Pitted and w arty: P ointed end m ore acute: sides angled. Light to dark brow n striated. Purplish tinge or bloom : Pinus sy Ires iris 9 Buff m ottled d ark brow n som etim es m uch darker o n one side: sm ooth: Light brow n ro u g h one side. D ark brow n shiny on th e o th er: p ointed both ends, ridged: Pinus nigra var. calabrica Pseudotsuga taxifolia 10 Glossy black one side dull brow n on the other. A lm ond shaped: D ull slate grey on both sides. Sharp pointed. R ough surface, resinous: 8 11 8-10 mm. long. Light brow n w ith d ark m ottling, sam e colour on b o th sides. O val: 6-7 m m . long. L ight brow n w ith various shades of m ottling. D ark on one side. P ointed: 8-10 m m . long. U niform golden brow n. C on­ spicuous resin p o c k e ts: 10 mm. long. U niform pale brow n. Sticky with resin: P icea abies Pinus pinaster Pinus radiata Pinus excelsa Pinus strobus A bies nobilis A bies grandis NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 12 3 mm. broad. Biscuit to buff m ottled bright brow n one side. Slightly d ark er colour shiny on the other due to wing adhering. P ortion o f wing w rapped ro u n d point o f seed. P ortion o f wing projects from broad end: 3-4 mm. broad. Ivory to biscuit m ottled light brow n on one side. Light brow n shiny the other. Portions o f wing as for L a rix decidua'. A R E V IE W OF NU RSERY 1952—1956 97 1957 Larix decidua Larix leptolepis RESEA RCH : Prepared by R. F A U L K N E R and J. R. A L D H O U S, District Officers, F O R T H E R E SE A R C H B R A N C H P R O G R A M M E C O N F E R E N C E . JU N E , 1957 Introduction A t the beginning o f the period o f this review (i.e. O ctober 1951) the p o st­ w ar expansion o f research w ork into nursery problem s had already taken place. O ne or tw o subjects h ad already been investigated as fully as was necessary; b u t m any others were well under way, and m ost o f the w ork included in this review had its beginnings in the period 1947-1951. The two investigations which were (alm ost) com plete by the end o f 1951 were steam sterilization an d com post m aking. Steam sterilization h ad been show n to be a very effective m eans o f im proving the quality o f Sitka spruce seedlings on ‘Sitka sick’ nurseries; however, the cost o f treatm ent ruled out the use o f steam in practice. In Scotland, the last year’s w ork fell within the period o f this review. C om post m aking was investigated testing m any m aterials singly and in com bination, but here the effect o f the w ork o f th e N ursery N u tritio n Com m ittee was felt and the subject lost m uch o f its relevance w hen the use o f com post in forest nurseries was given up in favour o f use o f raw hops. T he existence o f the N ursery N u tritio n C om m ittee and its large program m e o f nursery an d forest experim ents accounts for som e o f the differences between the weight o f experim ents carried out in th e n o rth and in the south. In the south, all intensive experim ents on nutrition an d use o f sterilants have been carried out by the N .N .C .— only field extensions an d investigations on species other than Sitka spruce have been carried out in the south. In the north, experim ents in parallel, though on by no m eans the sam e scale, have been carried out by F. C. staff. N one o f the results o f N .N .C . experim ents are m entioned in this review. 98 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION The table attached gives the num ber o f experim ents carried out under headings in the O xford D ecim al Classification. 1952-56 N U R S E R Y E X P E R IM E N T S C A R R IE D O U T IN T H E P E R IO D O .D .C . 232.315.2 232.315.3 232.322.1 232.322.2 232.322.4 232.322.5 232.323.3 232.323.5 232.323.6 232.323.7 232.324 232.324.4 232.325.1 232.325.24 232.325.3 232.325.6 232.327.12 232.327.2 232.327.3 232.327.4 232.324.9 \ 2 3 2 .4 1 2 .4 / Subject Seed G rad in g Seed pre-treatm en t .... L ong term fertility; green cropping S te riliz a tio n ............................................ Fertilizers a n d M anures .... Soil W orking a n d tilth D ate o f Sow ing ................. C overing M edia a n d D ep th R olling and C om pacting Beds Soil H eating ................. M ixtures in N ursery Season a n d d ate o f lining out Irrigation W eed C o n tro l M ulching U ndercu ttin g Shading ................. P ro tectio n against fungi P rotection against birds P rotection against insects Storage o f Seedlings H andling M iscellaneous Silv. (N orth) Silv. (South) _ 7 8 58 96 2 — 11 12 2 — 5 1 23 9 27 — 3 4 4 5 35/312 - 2 7 11 65 9 4 8 8 — — 1 — 10 74 6 8 1 1 1 2 10 2/230 In com piling this table, all experim ents have been counted once only, having been entered against th e m ost im p o rtan t heading. Obviously, too, n o t all the experim ents are o f one y ear’s d u ratio n —undercutting experim ents for example require tw o years in th e nursery an d three in the forest for their com pletion and thus have tak en far m ore w ork th a n for exam ple, date o f sowing experiments. The large num ber o f sterilization experim ents in the south were alm ost all carried o u t in C onservancy nurseries an d m uch o f the work o f preparation and m aintenance was done by C onservancy staff. Abies project Objects Abies is one o f th e m ost difficult species in the nursery, because the seed is often o f p o o r quality an d germ inates over a very long period, in m any cases th ro u g h o u t the whole o f the first year in th e seedbeds. Also grow th is slow so th a t only th e seedlings which germ inate first grow large enough to be trans­ planted a t the end o f the first season. T he objects o f experim ents on Abies have been firstly to endeavour to speed u p germ ination and ensure th at all seedlings th a t are going to com e u p do so as soon after sowing as possible and secondly to see w hether grow th can be hastened so th a t plants are large enough to be lined o u t at the end o f their first year. Results Stratification In the north, Abies grandis stratified for ten to fifty days showed no benefits in one nursery, b u t in a second nursery fifty days’stratification increased yields by 100 per cent. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 99 In the south, stratification b o th o f A . grandis and A . nobilis for two and three m onths has brought a b o u t m ore uniform germ ination and rather higher yields o f seedlings. Sterilization and Fertilizers In the no rth , experim ents on Abies grandis and Abiesprocerah& ve indicated that Abies grandis responds to form alin sterilization m ore th a n does Abies procera, but in both cases the response is not so high as th a t norm ally produced on Sitka spruce. The experim ents do n o t suggest th a t the norm al prescriptions for N .P .K . fertilizer should be any different to those for o ther conifers. In the south, Abies grandis was included in a series o f trials o f form alin and chloropicrin in C onservancy seedbeds an d responded very little in grow th to sterilization. Pate o f Sowing In the n o rth , when com paring the date o f sowing o f Abies grandis in O ctober, Novem ber, February, M arch and A pril, th e highest yields o f seedlings were obtained from the A pril sowings. E arly au tu m n sowings produced pre-w inter germ ination an d heavy losses th ro u g h frost dam age. In the south, w inter sowings have grow n to give m ore usable seedlings th an spring sowings. N o au tu m n sowings have been m ade. Covering media In the north, nursery soil covers were found to produce taller seedlings than grit covers, but fewer seedlings. D ep th o f cover from Jin .-fin . did not greatly affect the yield o f Abies grandis b u t a Jin. cover appeared to be the m ost suitable for Abies procera an d Abies lowiana. In the south, A bies procera also germ inated and grew best when given a Jin. covering o f grit. Irrigation In the south, seedlings o f b o th A . grandis and A . procera were m arkedly bigger on irrigated plots. T aking the Abies project as a whole it is likely th a t one m ore year’s w ork should be sufficient to o b tain in fo rm atio n on th e variation from year to year o f the response to d ate o f sow ing a n d stratification. N o further w ork should be necessary on fertilizers an d covering. Seed grading Seed o f P. pinaster an d /* , radiata was graded into large and small seed, and the tw o lots o f seed sown, a t the rate o f 1,000 viable seeds per square yard, for both species an d grades. T here were no differences in seedling num bers or heights o f P. radiata seedlings, but small seed o f P. pinaster produced slightly fewer seedlings which, th o u g h usable, were an inch shorter th a n seedlings grow n from large seed. Seed Pre-treatment General It is desirable to be able to ensure th a t germ ination o f any given seed is uniform and as rap id as possible. Experim ents on pre-treatm ent carried o u t in the nursery have generally been th e last stage o f seed-laboratory investigations, testing in the field the m ost favourable lab o rato ry treatm ents. 100 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Lim e N either acid p re-treatm ent n o r stratification in peat appreciably hastened germ ination o f lime seed. A full y ear’s stratification appears essential. Prunus avium Stratification in peat from tw o to four m onths, or sowing of seed in the autum n, have given good yields. S tratification for six m onths is too long and causes excessive pre-germ ination, while spring sowings o f dry seed yield very few seedlings. Sitka spruce M oist pre-chilling o f seed for 2-4 weeks at 36°F. had little effect on growth and yield o f seedlings. Douglas fir Stratification at norm al tem peratures and at 36CF. for eight and six weeks respectively have been show n both to increase yields and height growth of seedlings. Long-term Fertility Demonstrations Long-term fertility dem onstrations are m aintained at N ew ton, Fleet and Inchnacardoch on agricultural soils, an d at T eindland W areh am an d Bramshill on heathland soils. A t N ew ton and Fleet nurseries, which are just beginning the second ro tatio n , there have been negligible differences in the seedling crops caused by the various treatm ents, which consist o f com binations of greencrop, hopw aste, artificial m anures and soil sterilization. It is expected th at any large treatm ent differences will ap p ear from the th ird ro tatio n onwards. The early d a ta for the Inchnacardoch long-term fertility d em onstration was summarized in R esearch B ranch P aper N o. 15 which covered the 1938-1951 period. Since 1951 the treatm ents have been ‘m odernised’ and include sterilization and m odern greencropping m ixtures. N o outstanding results were obtained from the first ro tatio n u nder the new scheme. T he dem onstrations at T eindland and Bram shill com pare seedling growth on beds treated with hopw aste, artificial fertilizers and com binations o f the tw o, and unm anured ground. Both experim ents have run for seven years and by now the control plots have become w orked out and grow only very poor quality seedlings. A t Bram shill there has been no consistent difference between plants raised on organic and inorganic plots, and the two together have seldom produced plants significantly larger th an plants raised on either regime singly. A t T eindland on the other hand, the “ hopw aste alone” plots have been outstand­ ingly the best for Sitka spruce grow th during the past three years and the com ­ binatio n o f hopw aste and fertilizer second best, with artificial fertilizers poorest, but even so m uch better th an controls. H opw aste applications consistently reduce the yield o f seedlings. A dem onstration o f D r. R ayner's prescription for the long-term maintenance o f fertility has been carried out at W areham . P lant grow th has been consistently satisfactory on the plots treated w ith brack en /hop com post, but where hop com post alone has been used, some discoloration characteristic o f potassium deficiency has been observed. Greencrops versus Compost for Heathland Nurseries Three experim ents were carried out in the n o rth in which greencrops were com pared with hopw aste applications as initial organic additions for newly NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 101 opened heathland nurseries. T he results o f these experim ents have been sum ­ m arized in R esearch Branch Paper N o. 19, the m ain conclusion being th a t greencrops are as good as, or superior to, initial dressings of hopw aste or com post. Soil Sterilization Steam The last steam sterilization experim ent was carried out a t Fleet nursery in 1952, and consisted o f a practical test o f the H ood system o f steam sterilization The soil u nderneath the hoods, which covered an area o f 50ft. x 3ft. 6in., was treated with steam up to a period o f h alf an hour. The technique was show n to be quite satisfactory and confirm ed earlier w ork at N ew ton. Shell D D Fumigant Several experim ents were carried out between 1950 and 1952 with Shell D D F um igant and these were sum m arized in the A nnual R eport for the year ending 1955. The chem ical was tested at rates varying from 150 to 600 lb. per acre and injected at a depth o f four inches. Soil sealing treatm ents using w ater or foot tram ping were also tested. From these experim ents it was found that Shell D D was not such a satisfactory soil sterilizing agent as form alin. Chloropicrin A series o f experim ents on chloropicrin was started in 1953 and com pleted by 1955. D uring this period rates o f chloropicrin varying from tw enty to seventy gallons per acre were applied at depths o f from three to five inches, and over a range o f dates from autum n to ten days before sowing. F rom these experim ents it was possible to provide a suitable prescription for sterilizing nursery seedbeds, which is, applications o f between thirty and forty gallons o f chloropicrin per acre, applied at least thirty-five days before sowing (preferaby in autum n). C om parative trials o f im ported chloropicrin and chloropicrin m anufactured in a pilot p lan t in Britain were m ade. The effects o f both m aterials were sim ilar. C hloropicrin produces responses in seedling grow th which are sim ilar to, or better than, those norm ally obtained with form alin, but as would be expected with a volatile sterilant, results are usually better on sandy loam s and usually unsuccessful on the heavier clay type o f nurseries. The residual effects o f chloropicrin are sim ilar to those obtained from steam or form alin treatm ents. A ssistance has been given to C onservancies in user trials o f chloropicrin, the m ajority o f which have been quite successful in Scotland. Some successes are also recorded in som e o f the English nurseries. Scottish w ork on chloro­ picrin has been sum m arized and will be published in the 1957 R esearch A nnual R eport. Shell CBP-55 In 1955 three trials with Shell CBP-55 were carried out in Scotland. These were quite successful an d by using Shell CBP-55 either as a drench application emulsified w ith w ater or by direct injection into the soil, results better th an those obtained from form alin were obtained when the m aterial was used a t 90-120 gallons per acre. Shell CBP-55, if produced com m ercially, should be very m uch cheaper than chloropicrin, arid early estim ates o f the cost o f treating one acre were in the order o f £60-£90; chloropicrin costs on the other hand are in the order o f £200 per acre. 102 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION General In the course o f these sterilization experim ents trial plots sown with species other th an Sitka spruce, e.g. Abies grandis, Japanese larch, D ouglas fir, and Scots pine have show n th a t the first three species respond well to sterilization, but th at Scots pine only responds slightly. Formalin Interest was revived in the use o f form alin when Miss Benzian reported pronounced sterilization effects from spray applications o f form alin applied to the nursery soil surface, an d this pro m p ted a recent series o f experiments in which form alin was applied either as an undiluted surface spray, by drilling into the soil w ithout dilution, an d the stan d ard m ethod o f applying form alin as a diluted drench. Different concentrations were used and applications made both in autum n an d spring were tested. These trials have show n th at undiluted surface sprays are seldom successful, but th a t drilling neat form alin into the soil can often be as effective as diluted drench applications. It is intended to lay dow n large scale user trials in which the form alin is applied undiluted into drills. Sum m ary o f Sterilization Work D uring the period u nder review chloropicrin has been shown to be an effective sterilising m aterial which can be easily applied to conifer seedbeds. Techniques o f application have been w orked out and have been p u t into practice in tw o Conservancies in Scotland this year. Shell CBP-55 has also proved to be a suitable sterilizer and if it becomes available in quantity it should provide a m uch cheaper substitute for chloro­ picrin. D rilled form alin has shown great prom ise and if a technique for injecting it satisfactorily into the soil can be developed, this m ethod may well become a stand ard feature in responsive nurseries. Manuring In the south, w ork on m anuring has been carried out on behalf o f N ursery N u tritio n Com m ittee, and the collected d ata is at R otham sted Research Station. This w ork has, however, accounted for a very large p art o f the tim e and energy o f the nursery research foresters in the south. In the n o rth the position is som e­ w hat different, and m anuring experim ents are designed in liaison with the M acaulay Institute, and the collection and interpretation o f data is done by the Silvicultural staff. Rates o f Phosphorus and Potassium manures and Times o f Application M any experim ents have been carried out using Sitka spruce, Scots pine, D ouglas fir an d Japanese larch and Silver fir, in n o rthern nurseries. F rom these experim ents it has been found th at rates o f application norm ally prescribed and in use at the present m om ent are quite satisfactory for m aintaining fertility in conifer seedbeds. It has also been show n th a t it is im m aterial whether the fertilizers are applied three m onths or three weeks before sowing or even on the day o f sowing. T he prescriptions are 6 cwt. o f superphosphate per acre and 2 cwt. o f sulphate o f potash, i.e. th e equivalent o f 40 oz. o f P ,0 5 and 40 oz. K ,0 per 100 square yards. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 103 Rates o f Applying Nitrogen M anures at Times o f Application D etailed experim ents com paring rates o f application o f nitrogen ranging from 12.5 oz. N . per 100 square yards to 75 oz. o f nitrogen per 100 square yards have been carried o u t m ainly o n Sitka spruce, Scots pine, D ouglas fir and Japanese larch seedlings. Experim ents o n tim e o f application o f nitrogen showed th a t there was no benefit to be o btained from applying a th ird o f the m aterial (N itrochalk) before sowing a n d tw o thirds as to p dressings in July, as com pared with applying the whole o f the m aterial (N itrochalk) in tw o to p dressings in July. O ther experim ents show ed th a t to p dressings in A ugust or late July produced taller seedlings th a n those receiving nitrogen in June or early July. D uring the whole period o f experim entation no single instance has occurred, either in Scotland or in England, o f late applications o f N itrochalk increasing the frost susceptibility o f any species, even though it has been noted th a t late and heavy applications o f N itrochalk delay the setting o f winter buds. G enerally speaking the higher the rate o f application o f nitrogen the taller the plant, and from the evidence it seems th a t in nurseries where production o f usable 1 -j-0 larch or D ouglas fir seedlings is uncertain, nitrogen should be applied in order to prom ote grow th and th e percentage o f usable plants. Placement o f Fertilizers Several experim ents were carried out on the placem ent o f phosphate and potash fertilizers during the p eriod 1949-52, and results showed th at Sitka spruce seedlings respond very greatly in height to phosphate m anures placed one to tw o inches below the seed. Placed p o tash m anure did not produce any m arked increase in height grow th. Since, however, band sowing is com plem en­ tary to the placem ent o f fertilizers, and the fact th at ban d sowing reduces the yield o f seedlings p er p o u n d o f seed, the benefit in height grow th is off-set by a reduction in production. Placed fertilizers m ay com e into their own if a technique o f drill sowing, coupled w ith u ndercutting an d side-cutting, is practised for the p roduction o f u ndercut seedlings for planting in the forest, o r if nursery m echan­ isation results in drill sow ing becom ing stan d ard practice. Trials o f Urea and Am m onia as Nitrogen M anures Trials o f b o th urea an d am m onia (.880 am m onia solution) were started in 1956 an d com pared these tw o m aterials a t varying rates w ith the standard N itro ch alk applications. A lthough neither m aterials were harm ful to seedling developm ent, they in no way show ed any benefits over N itrochalk. T he true effects o f these m aterials may, however, have been m asked by an inclem ent sum m er. Seaweed M anures A p ro p rietary m aterial ‘N ep tu n e’s B ounty’ was tested in a heathland nursery to see w hether it w ould provide a satisfactory substitute for hopw aste. The m aterial show ed no special m erits an d indeed was harm ful in som e respects. T he project was discontinued. Particle S ize o f Flash T he benefits o f m anuring seedbeds w ith a slow -acting form o f nitrogen m anure in the form o f plastic w astes,have been previously dem onstrated; see Sum m ary R ep o rt in the R ep o rt on F orest R esearch for the year ending M arch, 1954. These experim ents did n o t take into account the particle size o f the flash, and a series o f experim ents were laid dow n to see w hether the particl e size played an im p o rtan t p a rt in the speed o f breakdow n o f urea-form aldehyde. Experim ents showed th a t particle sizes ranging from 16 to 100 mesh, were all equally suitable as nitrogen m anures. 104 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium and p H Demonstrations D em onstrations are being carried out at four nurseries to illustrate the effect o f N .P.K . deficiencies an d the effect o f pH on conifer seedling growth. Magnesium Deficiency Sym ptom s o f m agnesium deficiency in the soil have been observed in two Scottish nurseries. These have usually been associated with higher than norm al potash levels. Experim ents designed to determ ine suitable means o f correcting the deficiencies show ed th at ground m agnesium limestone applied at fairly low rates (14 lb ./100 sq. yd.) was m ore successful than foliar sprays o f magnesium sulphate. Soil working and tilth conditions General O n heavy soils, it is frequently asked how the physical properties o f the soil can be im proved. Little w ork has been done on this subject, the problem o f assessing changes in soil texture being one o f the difficulties that has to be overcome. Small experim ents have been carried out testing certain “ soil im provers” . Krilium This was tested at one nursery in the n o rth in 1951, at a range o f rates o f application up to 0.12 per cent by weight o f soil. All concentrations reduced the speed o f germ ination o f b o th Scots pine and Sitka spruce. A t the end o f the season it was show n th a t K rilium did not affect the final yield o f Scots pine, but it did affect the yield o f Sitka spruce, the highest dose reducing the yield by a b o u t 50 per cent. H eights o f b o th species were depressed by Krilium. W hen the areas were re-sown, treatm ents had no effects on the heights or num bers o f Scots pine or on the heights o f Sitka spruce, but with Sitka spruce the yields were increased up to 20 per cent. It was reported th at the Krilium treated soil was m uch easier w orked than u n treated soil. In the south, K rilium was applied in 1952 at St. A saph nursery at the rate o f 8 oz. per sq. yd. A t the end o f the first year there were no appreciable dif­ ferences in grow th. The treatm ent was repeated on the same site in 1953 and caused substantial reductions in the num ber and heights o f seedlings o f Scots pine, Sitka spruce, N orw ay spruce, D ouglas fir, and Japanese larch. Some im provem ent in soil texture was noted. The sam e site was re-sown in 1954 and 1955 w ithout further applications o f K rilium . In 1954 only N orway spruce and Scots pine were adversely affected on K rilium plots while in 1955 no differences in grow th o f crops were apparent. Charcoal C harcoal at a rate equivalent to a 2 inch layer, was incorporated into the to p 6-7 inches o f soil a t two nurseries in Wales in 1955. In the first year the yield o f C orsican pine and Sitka spruce seedlings was less on plots treated with charcoal while the yield o f Japanese larch and birch was unaffected. The height o f all species on charcoal plots was less than on untreated plots. In 1956, there was little difference in yield o f C orsican pine, Japanese larch, Sitka spruce and oak, while seedlings o f oak and Japanese larch were taller on plots which had been given charcoal. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 105 Date of Sowing Experim ents in the south have show n th a t the earlier in spring sowing is carried out, the bigger the seedlings obtained, but also, the lower the yield. Sowing at the end o f M arch— beginning o f A pril has usually yielded the highest num ber o f usable seedlings at the end o f the season. Grit covering for seedbeds Several experim ents were carried out in the n o rth to test locally obtainable seed covers on behalf o f C onservators. Suitable m aterials have been found as a result o f these experim ents. Experim ents in the sou th have show n th a t the colour o f seedbed covering may have some effect on germ ination, light m aterials giving slightly greater yields th an d ark m aterials. The particle size an d shape also has had a significant effect on yield o f Sitka spruce. A covering o f rounded particles the size o f coarse sand gave the best yield while a covering o f flat particles o f the sam e size was n o t as good. W ith larger particle sizes the shape o f the particle had little effect. Experim ents on thickness o f covering have show n th a t variation in thick­ ness o f cover from A inch— \ inch m ade little difference to the yield o f Sitka spruce at the end o f the season. One unexpected result was th a t Tsuga gave higher yields when covered w ith A inch and J inch cover th an it did with 4 inch. This w ork will be w ritten up as soon as the results o f the current season’s experim ents are available. Seedbed Compaction Experim ents in the n o rth com paring four intensities o f seedbed com paction, viz.. w ith 124 inch diam eter rollers weighing 14, 34 and 44 cwt., firming the seed into the seedbed surface after sowing, an d rolling w ith a 14 cwt. roller after covering the seed w ith grit, were carried out during 1952-5. The experim ents showed th a t rolling the seedbeds either before or after sow ing the seed was im m aterial and th a t rolling after applying grit can be harm ful. F o r the initial com paction a roller weighing between 1 and 3 cwt. is the m ost satisfactory. The project is sum m arized in the A nnual Research R eport for the year ending M arch, 1956. Season and Date of Lining-out In Scotland, seedlings o f Sitka spruce, Japanese larch and Scots pine, were lined-out over a period ranging from June to M arch, in order to determ ine the most satisfactory period for lining-out. G enerally speaking plants which are less than 3 inches succeed best o f all when lined-out in early spring, but for plants over 3 inches in height July lining-out norm ally gives extremely good results, providing soil conditions are suitable. A utum n lining-out is seldom satisfactory except for particularly large and vigorous plants. This w ork is to be sum m arized for publication during the current year. Irrigation A pplication o f 4in. w ater whenever the soil m oisture deficit exceeds 4in. has always increased the p ro p o rtio n o f usable seedlings in experim ents at K ennington and Kinver. In dry seasons, the increase has been o f the order o f 60 per cent. 106 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A t W idehaugh nursery, several seasons' work failed to produce any significant response. It is o f interest to note th at if the position o f these nurseries is located on a m ap show ing the difference between precipitation and evapotransp iratio n for the six m onths A pril— Septem ber, W idehaugh is found in an area where there is a surplus o f precipitation o f ab out 8 inches while both Kinver and K ennington fall in areas where there is a deficiency o f about 4 inches. This w ork will be w ritten up as soon as the results o f the current season's experim ents are available. Control of Weeds . Experim ents on m ineral oil weedkillers com m enced in the south two years before the period o f this review. A large num ber o f experim ents were carried out in 1952 and 1953, testing m ineral oils as pre- and post-emergence weed­ killers; these experim ents were successful and pre-emergence application of m ineral oils is now regularly practised in Conservancy nurseries. Further experim ents were m ade in subsequent years on post-em ergence use o f mineral oils an d also their use in tran sp lan t lines, an d recom m endations for the use of w hite spirit on seedbeds, and vaporising oil an d white spirit in transplant lines are now being put into practice by Conservancy nurseries. C urrent experim ents on m ineral oils test new blends o f white spirit and R oyal Standard paraffin. In addition to this w ork, a num ber o f other m aterials have been tested and the results are given below. P.C .P. (P entachlorphenol)— A pre-em ergence weedkiller. Two form ulations have been tested; b o th were found to dam age the seedling crop when applied at rates which gave adequate weed control. I.P.C . (Iso-propyl-phenyl carbam ate) \ B oth m aterials have caused C .I.P.C . (C hloro-iso-propyl-phenyl-carbam ate) J som e dam age to crops when applied at higher rates, but they may find a limited place. C .M .U . (C hloro-phenyl-dim ethylurea). This is a very potent and persistent m aterial which is very well suited for keeping dow n weeds on paths, etc., b u t is too persistent to be applied on cropped ground. T .C .A . (Sodium trichloracetate). This m aterial is a grass killer and can be used, in conjunction w ith cultivation to elim inate couch grass on fallow land. It can also be used as a substitute for sodium chlorate as a general w eed-killer for fallow land but is little cheaper. C .D .A .A . (alpha-chloro-N , N -diallyl acetam ide) \ B o t h these m aterials have C .D .E .C . (2-chloroallyl diethyl dithio carbam ate) J show n some prom ise as presowing weedkillers, but at higher rates o f application have dam aged crops. 2.4-D (2,4-dichloro phenoxyacetic acid) j All these m aterials have M .C .P.B . (4-chloro-2-m ethyl phenoxybutyric acid) .caused dam age to seedling 2.4-D.B. (2,4-dichloro phenoxybutyric acid) ) crops an d in addition have n o t controlled grass weeds. S.E.S. (2,4 dichlorophenoxyethyl sulphate). This m aterial is inactive and so does n o t affect p lan t foliage. In the soil however it is broken dow n to 2,4-D and is said to kill weeds ju st as they germ inate. W hen tested the m aterial was found to have little effect either on crop or weeds. Zinc sulphate 1 B oth these m aterials dam aged crops when applied at Ferrous sulphate / rates w hich gave effective control o f weeds. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 107 In add itio n several m aterials p repared by Shell Chemicals and issued under a code num ber have been tested. N o n e have been found to be effective— they either dam aged the seedling crop or did not kill the weeds. The first object in current weed control experim ents is to find weedkillers suitable for post-em ergence use on seedbeds im m ediately after germ ination. F or m ost species it is unsafe to use m ineral oils for nine weeks after the com ­ m encem ent o f germ ination an d during this period, handw eeding is the only m ethod o f controlling weeds a t present available. T he second object is to find alternatives to the m ineral oils which are cheaper or safer to use. As far as preemergence weed control is concerned, the m ineral oils are very satisfactory, but with post-em ergence and inter-row applications, there is considerably less safety m argin an d som e precision is necessary b oth in controlling the rate and direction o f ap plication o f m ineral oils if dam age to crops is to be avoided. In the n o rth assistance has been given w ith several user trials in C onservancy nurseries, and this w ork has greatly assisted in the early wide scale use o f mineral oils in Scotland. Experim ents on T .C .A . have also been carried out, and subsequently large scale trials in C onservancy nurseries have show n this m aterial to be very effective in the control o f couch grass. Mulches In Scotland trials o f hessian an d saw dust mulches, I, i and 3 inches deep, were tested in o rder to find out w hether they w ould im prove the speed o f germ ination, height grow th and final yield o f seedlings. N o im provem ents were obtained except th a t in isolated cases hessian covers placed directly on the seed­ bed surface speeded up the rate o f germ ination, but generally had no effect on the ultim ate yield or the num ber o f seedlings. Saw dust mulches were invariably harm ful. In the south m ulching experim ents have been carried out in close co llabora­ tion with D r. Levisohn, plants o f such experim ents being sent to her for exam ina­ tion o f m ycorrhizas. M ulches o f bracken or heather, applied on fallow ground in early sum m er, produced sm all increases in yields and heights o f seedlings grow n o n the sites the follow ing year. M ulches o f inert cellulose fibre were less effective, an d it is th o u g h t th a t the effect o f bracken o r heather m ay have been partially m anurial. All m ulches cause a sm all reduction in the tim e taken to weed seedbeds in the year follow ing application. M ulches o f saw dust, coarsely chopped bracken an d fresh hopw aste, produced insignificant differences in heights o f transplants, saw dust being the least an d fresh hops the m ost effective. A m ulch o f straw h ad little effect on the grow th o f Sitka spruce transplants in their first year, w hen lined out in a nursery w ith p H ab o u t 7.0; in the second year, plants benefited slightly from th e m ulch. Undercutting of Seedbeds Experim ents on u ndercutting have been carried out, both in the n o rth and south, using oak, beech, C orsican pine, D ouglas fir, Japanese larch, Sitka spruce and Lodgepole pine. T he w ork was necessarily com plicated in the early ex­ perim ents which aim ed a t determ ining the m ost suitable m onths and depths for undercutting and the m ost suitable densities for sowing. In addition, inform a­ tio n was also needed on w hether a p lan t w ould respond to b o th undercutting and side-cutting o f the roots. It appears th a t u ndercutting plants growing at low densities (100-200 per sq. yd.) at 3 in.-4in. in the early spring o f the second 108 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION year or at 2in. in A ugust o f the first year, does prom ote the production o f a plant akin to a tran sp lan t in appearance, and th a t such plants are better balanced th an those u ndercut at greater depths, or a t other seasons, or plants grow n at higher densities. In general the pines seem m ore responsive to undercutting, in as far as developm ent o f ro o t fibre is concerned, th an do the larches. U ndercutting hardw oods a t 4 inches in A ugust the first year, or M arch the second year, seems to produce a m ore fibrous rooted plant than transplanting. Extensions o f undercut plants into the forest have been generally rather encouraging in that m ost o f the plants survived; but adverse conditions have not so far been encountered. As a result, the behaviour o f 2 + 0 , undercut seedlings and 1+ 1 transplants have been very sim ilar as far as survival has been concerned. It is expected th a t this project will be com pleted w ithin the next tw o years. Shading M ost o f the w ork on this subject h ad been done before the period o f this review; the results indicated th a t shading against sum m er sun was not necessary In one experim ent at T air O nen nursery, shadings against sum m er heat had very little effect on seedling grow th. M axim um tem peratures under the shading were one or two degrees lower and m inim um tem peratures about one degree higher. Control of Fungi A num ber o f experim ents testing fungicides to control dam ping off, Botrytis, and Keithia, have been carried out for the Pathologist. Results have not been particularly encouraging, and n o t as good as the literature would have us believe. Control of Insects— Cutworm In the south, experim ents have show n chat cutw orm can be controlled effectively by applications o f A ldrin or D ieldrin in w ater made in June—July. N either m aterial dam ages Sitka spruce seedlings. In the no rth , trials o f Dieldrex 30 and Aldrex 30 at from 3-9 pints per acre produced no phytotoxic effects on conifer seedlings in this range o f concen­ trations. Growth Inhibitors W o rk is still in progress on the use o f maleic hydrazide as a growth inhibitor, and it is still too early to predict w hether this m aterial has a future or not. The intention is to find a suitable concentration o f maleic hydrazide which will check the grow th o f ‘surplus’ seedlings in 1 + 0 or 2 + 0 seedbeds, in order to avoid destroying them . C oncentrations o f 0.2 per cent, 0.15 per cent and 0.1 per cent solutions o f maleic hydrazide in w ater seem quite prom ising applications. T here m ay be som e genetic effect due to chrom osom e breakage but this has not been investigated. Records are being kept o f the places where treated seedlings have been extended into the forest. Storage and Handling of Plants General. Losses in the forest and in the nursery following planting have been causing concern. F aulty handling and storage has undoubtedly been one cause o f m any p lan t deaths an d experim ents have been carried out with the object o f reducing the risk o f faulty handling and o f improving on current techniques o f storage. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 109 In the north, in experim ents over a period o f three years in Scottish heath ­ land nurseries, storage in nursery sheughs was found to be m ore satisfactory than storage in boxes, in sheds or in the forest. Sitka spruce was able to stand storage for longer periods than lodgepole pine and both could be stored longer th an larch. In the south, experim ents showed th a t o f various m ethods o f packing for despatch o f plants, plants survived in polythene film far better than in any other form of packing (including straw and moss, and paper). Subsequent experim ents have shown th at plants can rem ain in polythene safely for long periods provided they are not exposed to sunlight and are not packed w ith wet foliage. Abies and D ouglas fir have not stored as well as Sitka spruce, C orsican pine, Law son cypress, or Thuja. Japanese larch stored well until flushing com m enced. The colour o f foliage o f plants flushing in polythene bags was cream y w hite; if such plants were lined o u t in m oist conditions soon after flushing com m enced, they survived; but if they were well flushed an d lin e d o u t into dry conditions the new foliage withered. Fungus attacks have occurred generally following death o f plants from other causes. It seems th at foliage may be killed by excess m oisture condensing in the bags an d is then invaded by fungi. Plants infected w ith Botrytis have been included in bags o f healthy p lants; the disease did not spread. English C onservancies have generally reported favourably on the use o f polythene bags in the field. A polyvinyl latex into which plants could be dipped and which then dries to leave a thin plastic film on the foliage, did not have any great effect on plant survival, n o r did em ulsions o f lanolin nor paraffin when used in a sim ilar m anner. Miscellaneous In addition to the w ork described above, a very lim ited am o u n t o f effort has been directed to the question o f studying ro o t developm ent in glass sided boxes, mainly with the object o f providing an aid to the undercutting investi­ gations. An experim ent in the sou th show ed there to be no significant benefit from growing Sitka spruce and Tsuga in intim ate m ixture com pared with their grow th in pure blocks o f each species. In both Scottish and English nurseries work has been carried o u t on beh alf o f the seed laboratory, to determ ine correlations between seed testing d ata an d nursery seedling production with and w ithout bird protection. W ork has also been carried out in heated frames with the object o f raising three or even four crops o f usable “ first year” Sitka spruce seedlings in one year, using overhead light, electrical soil heating equipm ent and boxes. F o u r crops were raised by this m ethod but difficulties arose during the period o f hardening off an d losses o f seedlings from some batches were heavy. This w ork has been w ritten up and published in the Empire Forestry Review. Summary of Present Position and Probable Trends in Nursery Research Work In the past a considerable p ro p o rtio n o f the to tal research effort has been concentrated on nursery problem s. M ost o f the im m ediate practical difficulties have been overcom e and satisfactory w orking techniques have been developed and have entered into general practice. In the last few years, a good deal o f the w ork has been brought near to conclusion and there is now need to review the situation and to cut dow n the effort on the least profitable lines o f work. The field is discussed below under a small num ber o f m ajor subject groups. 110 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 1. Seed (Seed pre-treatm ent, seed quality, etc.). We have now sufficient knowledge o f all b u t a few m in o r species to secure satisfactory field germ ination, though Abies spp. still present som e difficulties and a little m ore work on these appears to be required. T he Seed L aboratory is now concerned with the m ore funda­ m ental seed problem s, an d future w ork in the nurseries is likely to be concerned w ith field extensions o f laboratory studies, and will be on a limited scale. 2. Nutrition and Maintenance of Fertility (Including soil sterilisation, acidification, use o f fertilisers, m inor nutrients, green crops and crop rotations). This is the m ain field o f work of the N ursery N u tritio n Sub-C om m ittee, but com plem entary studies have been carried out in the no rth . The position arrived at is th a t all the m ost pressing practical problem s associated w ith th e old, “ w orked o u t” , high pH established nurseries and with the m ore recent heathland nurseries have been largely overcome. Satisfactory crops can be p roduced provided the nursery sites have been properly selected. F u tu re w ork will be concentrated on the long term effects o f various regimes o f m anagem ent, an d long-term experim ents have been started for this purpose. O ther m inor studies m ay arise,— e.g. trace elem ent or m inor elem ent de­ ficiencies or other m inor disorders occurring in particular nurseries, and there will always be a certain lim ited am ount o f w ork dealing with such specific problem s. N ew form s o f m ajor nutrients may also occasionally require testing. As regards partial sterilisation, we have here a tool th a t can be used when necessary, but it is still expensive. M ore w ork is justified in searching for a cheaper effective sterilant. A m ajor question is w hether we should investigate the desirability or other­ wise o f extending the Scottish technique o f prescribing m anurial treatm ents on the basis o f soil analysis, or w hether the present om nibus prescriptions derived from the results o f the N ursery N u tritio n C om m ittee’s investigations are adequate. Studies in Difficult or Unsatisfactory Nursery Soils T he R esearch B ranch is som etim es criticised for n o t doing more w ork on the am elioration o f heavy soil types. A little w ork has been done on “ soil im provers” (K rilium , charcoal). It is o u r opinion th at attem pts to treat such unsuitable nursery soils are uneconom ic an d th a t this is, generally an u n ­ profitable line o f w ork. T here will o f course be a few problem s on individual sites th a t m ay require exam ination, especially when starting up a new nursery. Seedbed and Sowing Techniques (Including p rep aratio n o f beds, consolidation sowing m ethods—drill, band, broadcast, date o f sowing, density o f sowing, covering media, depth o f covering, shading, irrigation). M ost o f the basic w ork leading to current nursery practice was done long ago, an d th e experim entation during the last five years has largely been directed tow ards refinem ent o f seedbed techniques. B etter standards o f fertility an d p ro d u ctio n have necessitated a re-assessment o f sowing densities, for instance. M ost o f the experim ental results have passed into practice in th e better m anaged nurseries. N o large program m e o f w ork is envisaged under this head, though there is a small am o u n t o f tidying up o f loose ends. T he current w ork on irrigation will probably be concluded w ithin a year or two when recom m endations will be m ade for its practical application in appropriate circumstances. There may be some w ork on nursery bed techniques arising out o f m echanisation developm ents. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 111 Lining-out and Undercutting W ork o n season an d date o f lining-out is reaching com pletion an d no further general w ork on lining-out is envisaged. T he use o f undercutting as a cheaper alternative to lining-out has given encouraging results, and a b o u t two years’ further w ork is required to com plete this project. Weed Control This has been one o f the m ost im p o rtan t and profitable fields o f nursery experim entation in the last seven years or so. W e have now got a satisfactory, safe cheap treatm ent for pre-em ergent weed control. F o r post-em ergent control, revised recom m endations have been issued, b u t m ore w ork is still required. Present w ork is concerned w ith screening a range o f chem icals (see page 106), not only for post-em ergence weed control, b u t also for control in tran sp lan t lines. Suitable safe an d effective weedkillers for pre-sow ing application as well as for fallow weed control an d for paths and nursery surrounds would be useful. M ore experim entation is called for here. Storage and Handling of Plants This subject has received m ore atten tio n o f recent years. T rial o f various methods o f storage produced nothing better th a n the old fashioned “ heeling in” and no obvious lines o f furth er w ork on storage suggest themselves. The latest developm ents in handling o f plants is th e use o f polythene w rappings. The early results are distinctly encouraging an d m ore w ork on this is required. Protection (Fungi, insects, birds, clim ate). R ecent w ork on control o f Botrytis, Keithia and on early dam ping off should continue. Effective control o f cut­ worm with “ A ld rin” and “ D ieldrin” has been achieved, and little fu rther work on this is required. Bird dam age in nurseries rem ains an unsolved problem . Damage, by insolation an d by frost, including frost lift, does n o t appear to call for any appreciable am o u n t o f work. Mechanisation in Nurseries The developm ent o f m echanisation in nurseries is prim arily a function o f the M achinery R esearch Officer, but the silvicultural research section has taken an active interest in all stages o f the w ork. This will continue to involve the Silviculturist in a certain am o u n t o f w ork in assessing the results o f m echanical methods o f sowing, planting, weeding, etc., an d m ay require a certain am ount o f incidental experim entation. Difficult species While satisfactory standards o f p ro d u ctio n have been achieved for m ost o f the im p o rtan t species th a t we use, there are a num ber o f species (including some o f the im p o rtan t hardw oods, an d lesser conifers such as Abies spp.) for w hich the results o f o u r nursery w ork are less predictable. Some w ork is necessary to im prove nursery techniques in such cases. Application of Research Results A great m any o f the research results obtained in the recent past have found their way into nursery practice. T heir application, however, is still very uneven, and there are still m any cases o f errors an d om issions in existing practice which could be avoided by the correct applications o f existing knowledge. It seems likely th a t som e m ore atten tio n by the R esearch B ranch to the application of 112 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION results,— both by d em onstration in selected nurseries, and by more frequent visits to the p oorer nurseries (with the D irectorate N urseries Officer whenever possible), w ould pay dividends, and th a t a greater proportion o f the nursery research officers’ tim e should be spent on such advisory and dem onstration work. TH E B E N E F I T OF L A T H C O V E R S FOR PROTECTION AGAINST FROST By J. A. O G 1 L V I E Forester, Research Branch The use o f lath covers for frost protection is a practice tending to fall into disuse in m any nurseries. This is mainly on account o f the rather large ex­ penditure involved in construction, erection and storage o f the covers and the fact th at, in m any areas, serious frost dam age has been rare in recent years. M any o f the older foresters have had to endure “ W hat, still covering?” sallies for the past few years, but w ith mem ories o f form er severe damage have, in m ost cases, covered frost-tender species religiously. This practice paid dividends in 1957. Follow ing the very mild w inter o f 1956-57 which was notable for an alm ost com plete absence o f severe frost (readings o f around 0°F. on several days each w inter are norm al a t Inchnacardoch), early m ild spring conditions induced flushing o f all m ain species before the first week o f April. Flushing does not norm ally begin before m id April. D uring the period A pril 8th— May 4th there occurred a series o f frosts o f between 22° an d 25° F. which caused considerable dam age to a fairly wide range o f unprotected coniferous and broadleaved species in seedbeds. W here a lath cover or adjacent hedge gave overhead or side shelter no dam age occurred. The value o f lath covers was particularly well dem onstrated in the case o f Sitka spruce, where covered beds were entirely undam aged, whereas m ore th an 50 per cent o f the crop in uncovered beds suffered frost dam age. In the last five years at Inchnacardoch only one year has given conditions where lath covers m ight have been dispensed with. Gales during the w inter had caused some dam age to lath covers, and where repairs had not been carried out, even to the extent o f a single missing lath, som e frosting followed. This emphasises the need for efficient erection and subsequent m aintenance. L aths m ust be well secured to supporting wires, strainers firmly driven hom e and interm ediate posts sufficient to prevent sagging. P lasterers’ laths o f 4 ft. x 1 inch x J inch are used for the construction o f shelters an d a 1 inch spacing between laths is regarded as ideal. The cover is m ost satisfactory when placed 9 to 12 inches above the bed, and slightly sloped to aid rain run-off and to prevent w ater dripping on to the seedlings. Adherence to these specifications will prevent dam age, but any increase in the height o f the cover m ay result in frost dam age along the bed edges, and gaps of more than H inches betw een laths may also result in dam age. It is essential to cover all seedbeds o f a tender species, and no attem pt should be m ade to econom ise by covering alternate beds. Such a practice has been found to create artificial ‘frost hollow s’ and m ay increase the am ount o f dam age. W here spring or early au tu m n frosts are likely to occur the following species should be covered if losses are to be avoided; Sitka spruce, Abies species. Tsuga heterophylla an d D ouglas fir. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 113 A t Inchnacardoch, lath covers are erected during the last week o f Septem ber and lifted in m id-June i.e. th e period in which dam age from frost can be expected, although in m any other less frosty areas a m uch shorter period is generally necessary. D rip dam age an d grow th-loss have often been regarded as serious disadvantages o f lath covers, but experience here has shown th a t the form er does no t occur where covers are sloped, an d loss o f grow th, where direct com parison with uncovered beds has been possible, is negligible. In the case o f shadebearing species, the seedlings m ay even show a grow th increase. The above account is based m ainly o n experience at Inchnacardoch nursery where the grow ing season is started later an d is shorter th an for the m ajority o f nurseries, and where tw o-year seedlings are m ore com m only raised th an firstyear ones; but the general principles are applicable where the stan d ard 3ft. 6 inches wide bed is used, an d fairly large areas are involved. W here sm all lots o f frost-tender species are involved, it should be possible to select sheltered corners o f the nursery w hich will give adequate protection. Finally, lath covers give little protection against fro s t lift, an d where the two problem s o f frost dam age an d frost lift occur there should be b u t one council— d o n ’t sow! A R E V I E W OF R E S E A R C H BRANC H TRIAL P L ANTATIO NS Paper prepared by M. V. E D W A R D S and R. F. W O O D fo r the Research Branch Programme Conference, June, 1957 Definition By the term “ Trial p lan tatio n ” is m eant the establishm ent o f a plot up to about 5 acres in size on land classified as unplantable by the Conservancy. Its object is to ascertain the “ degree o f u n p lan tab ility” , i.e., to find o u t w hether trees can be m ade to grow at all an d if so, w hether they will only m ake a shrubby thicket or will grow sufficiently well to indicate th at the site m ight produce tim ber. Experim ents testing different m ethods o f technique are n o t classified as trial plantations, b u t it som etim es happens th a t experim ents o f this kind, when they have been closed for their original objects, m ay be o f value as trial p lan ta ­ tions, and some o f the older experim ents o f this sort are now so classified. (The term “ pilot p lo t” has been used to describe small trial plantations, b u t in general “ pilot p lo t” an d “ trial p la n ta tio n ” are synonym ous.) This kind o f w ork has been o f great im portance in the north, but in the south there is com paratively little on exactly sim ilar lines. The m ain reason for this is a sim ple geographical one, the C om m ission has n o t in W ales and the southern tw o-thirds o f E ngland large uniform areas o f doubtfully plantable land o f one type or the osher, the older trial plantations in E ngland and W ales were established co n cu n en tly w ith or shortly after the com m encem ent o f extensive p lan tatio n on the types concerned, w ith the m ain object o f exam ining the perform ance o f a range o f alternative species. There are a few instances of experim ents which m ore closely resem ble the N o rth ern T rial P lantations (as defined) and it is also possible th a t sim ilar w ork ought to be undertaken (e.g., at high elevations in W ales). To m ake this p ap er com prehensive com m ent on southern conditions an d experience is included whenever it appears to be called for, but it should be em phasised th a t this is prim arily a no rth ern project. 114 JOURNAL OF THF FORESTRY COMMISSION Classification In the case o f m ost o f the trial plantations so far planted, the limiting factors can be considered und er three m ain heads, although o f course in all instances there is a com plex o f different conditions. Nevertheless, it is convenient to consider the plots as prim arily concerned w ith: (a) exposure at high elevations, (b) exposure at low elevations, especially near sea-coasts, or (c) lim iting soil conditions such as highly acid peat. Description The plots are based on w hat was considered the best technique o f ground preparation, m anuring, m ethods o f planting, etc., although occasionally alter­ native m ethods o f establishm ent in com m on use may be employed, though not critically com pared. Some are on u n p repared ground or on early forms o f ploughing, b u t the m ajority have been ploughed by m odern m ethods, and planted w ith or w ithout p hosphate according to circum stance. M ost o f the plots are based on one or two reliable species used as a m atrix, into which secondary species have been mixed in various different patterns. The secondary species m ay be either possible alternatives to the m atrix for establishing a first crop or enrichm ent species to be nursed by the m atrix species. Secondary species include inland Lodgepole pine if coastal is used as m atrix, an d Lodgepole pine if Sitka spruce is the m atrix. H ybrid larch (or Japanese larch) Tsuga, Abies nobilis, Picea om orika an d in certain cases N orw ay spruce, D ouglas fir, and oth er Abies species have been included. A round the perim eter a strip to give low shelter (m ountain pine) has usually been planted. In the south, the circum stances have not arisen in which we should have wished to follow this ap proach. F o r exam ple the trial plantations on the peculiar W estern H eath at C roft Pascoe, C ornw all, could not be regarded as logical extensions o f o u r h eathland experim ents elsewhere. We know too little ab o u t the environm ent, an d have found it desirable to ask m ore questions th a n the prim ary one— will the best indicated species with the best indicated treatm en t m ake a crop ? Results In all n o rth ern trials it seems to be true th a t the m atrix species are the m ost successful. T he use o f oth er species usually tends to result in gaps in the plots which will delay canopy fo rm ation for a considerable tim e and in extreme cases will, it is suggested, prevent the possibility o f obtaining a fully stocked plot. It seems th a t under the lim iting conditions in which these plots are established it w ould be better to p lan t only one or two species. In the north, this usually m eans either Sitka spruce or Lodgepole pine. A perim eter o f m ountain pine, o f bo th p ro strate and erect form , is also probably d fh ra b le from the long-term aspect. W e have perhaps been too precipitate in introducing the secondary species and we should n o t w orry ab o u t them until we have established th at a crop o f th e m atrix species grows reasonably well. U nder limiting conditions, w hether o f clim ate, soil or vegetation, it seems essential to remove com petition by vegetation an d produce a tree cover before endeavouring to start the secondary species. T he only im p o rtan t m odification o f these conclusions which is indicated by southern experience is the som ew hat obvious one th a t restriction in choice o f NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 115 species is not so m arked where clim ate is less lim iting. To tak e the rath er extrem e exam ple o f C roft Pascoe again, we m ay n o t succeed in getting satis­ factory grow th, but it is alm ost certain th a t well over a dozen species will be very m uch alive there in ten years’ tim e. O ne m ight also m ention the favourable soil conditions often found at high elevations in W ales where clim ate (in the broad sense) is lim iting. This also widens the initial choice o f species som ew hat. Quite generally, we do n o t in the sou th so often experience the full com bination o f lim iting factors. Organisation O ur capacity to lay dow n trial plantations is lim ited. All need considerable organisation in arranging for ploughing, tran sp o rt, planting, etc., because they are usually on d istant and often som ew hat inaccessible sites. In certain cases we have undertaken the plots on the basis th a t the C onservancy staff w ould organise the establishm ent an d th a t we w ould help, and record the results, b u t this division o f responsibility leads to them being looked upon as “ experim ents” and in practice they becom e o u r responsibility, nothing being done except under the control o f the R esearch Forester. M odern trial plantations have usually been ploughed, b u t the ploughing o f a small and rather inaccessible area is not easy to arrange. The Technical Com m ittee considered th a t such trials should n o t be lim ited to ploughed land, but, in practice, hand p rep aratio n o f the ground in distant areas m ay be even more difficult to accom plish th a n ploughing. Future Plans—New Plots If these argum ents are adm itted, then there is no reason why Conservancies should not establish trial plantations and m ake m any m ore th an we are able to do. It w ould be sufficient if their situation an d a brief rep o rt o f the m ethods o f establishm ent were reported to the R esearch Branch. A jo in t visit by C on­ servancy and R esearch B ranch after the ten th year from establishm ent, followed by an assessm ent if considered desirable, w ould be adequate, and inform ation o f this kind from a large num ber o f plots w ould be a great deal m ore useful th an detailed inform ation from the few plots at present existing. Successful plots w ould o f course be m aintained an d their later history recorded. W here soil is n o t a lim iting factor, the present type o f plot w ith b o th m atrix and secondary species, or shelterbelt plus species plots, w ould o f course continue to be used, but experience shows th a t when com plications are involved, the plot m ust be a R esearch B ranch responsibility. Future Plans— Old Plots T here are, o f course, m any old plots already established both by the C om m ission an d by private owners. R esearch B ranch already has notes o f these in som e cases, especially in the vicinity o f th e trial plantations th at we have established. It is suggested th a t a wider survey o f such plots would be useful. A m ap show ing their position an d the com pilation o f Experim ent R ecord Form s 1,2 and 4, plus the experim ental punched card, would give us a m uch better general picture th a n we have at present, and would be a valuable addition to ou r knowledge. 116 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION F orest Lael D u n d o n n ell (Ross) A chnashellach G len Righ S outh L aggan In chnacardoch „ T he Q ueen’s F orest C lashindarroch I) >> F etteresso D rum tochty G len D oll Blackcraig C arrick G lentrool G arraries K ielder ,, C leveland H alifax H ebden R oyd H ope ” S hetland „ H oy (O rkney) B orgie S trathy Skiall (C aithness) »» >» »» •* F o rss (C aithness) »» 55 55 W atten (C aithness) R eay Lael D undonnell (Ross) T ype a n d N u m b e r o f E xperim ent (a) H igh Elevations 14 P. 54 1 P. 54 6 P. 28 18 P. 33 21-26 P. 30 7, 9, 10 a n d 12 P. 28 3 a n d 11 P. 22, 28 a n d 29 21 P. 26 25, 25A a n d 139; P. 27, 29, 53 142 P. 54 1-9 P. 30 2 a n d 3 P. 31 9 a n d 14 P. 31 a n d 34 11 P. 33 12 P. 33 5 P. 53 3 and 5 P. 51 1 a n d 2 P. 52 1 P. 35 1 and 2 P. 54 5 P. 55 15 P. 55 1 P. 55 55 P. 50 56 P. 50 61 a n d 62 P. 51 67 and 68 P. 52 I P. 52 1-2 P. 51 3 P. 51 4-6 P. 51-52 1-3 P. 57 1 P. 39 5-7-S-9; P. 40 and 41 (b) C oastal Exposure 1 P. 52 2 P. 53 1-2 P. 54 3-4 P. 54 1-2 P. 30 6 P. 39 7 P. 40 1 P. 49 2 P. 50 3 P. 51 1 P. 49 2 P. 50 3 P. 51 5 P. 53 1 P. 50 2 P. 51 3 P. 51 1 P. 51 1 P. 51 2 P. 53 15 P. 55 3 P. 56 E levation, feet 800- 950 940-1000 920 800- 900 800- 900 1300 1800 1250 1100 1600 1300 1300-1400 1250 1250 1000 1100-1200 2000 1200 1200-1400 1400 1400 1500-2000 1000 1100 1350 1450-1500 900 1000 1025 1100 900-1200 1100-1300 1100-1300 S = Severe exposure M = M oderate „ M M S M M M S S S S s s S s s s s M and S S s s s s M s s s s M s M M S s M S S M S S s M M M S M S M S s s s M M S S NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX Forest iiType a n d N u m b er o f E xperim ent 117 1957 S = Severe exposure M = M o d erate „ E levation, feet i i Achnashellach Inchnacardoch „ >» J} ,, G len Righ •> Glencoe T eindland Bcnmore W auchope Spadeadam (c) Acid Peat or U pland H eath 7 P. 28 ; 25 P. 38 1 2 P. 22 75 P. 29 i 86 a n d 9 1 ;P. 30 a n d 31 (G roups) 93 P. 31 ! 75 a n d 95 P. 32 103 P. 33 120 P. 38 (G roups) 128 P. 46 129 P. 46 I 135 P. 47 5 P. 27 ! 12 P. 28 ' 32 P. 35 1 P. 57 62 P. 38 4 P. 36 4 P. 53 1 a n d 2 P. 56 S M S S s s M and S S S M S s i M M M S M M M S Some additional plantations have still to be added to this list in 'so m e centres as old experim ents on technique are closed and am algam ated. T rial Plantations in the South It would merely confuse the issue to ad d a list o f southern experim ents here which have som e features or objects in com m on w ith the N o rth e rn T rial Plantations but are in fact m aterially different in approach. H owever, it may be useful to m ention some o f the recent w ork on difficult sites w hich provides the closest analogy. Cornish H eaths Croft Pascoe. Peculiar site overlying Serpentine, high degree o f m aritim e exposure. Ploughing m ethods; trials o f species; nursing; m ixtures; m ethods o f establishm ent (including direct sow ing); fertilizers, etc. Wilsey Down. Culm m easures, high degree o f exposure. Species trials have been laid dow n on sites where the crop has failed com pletely. Southern H eaths W areham , Purbeck, H aldon. Sites w ith advanced podsolisation, extremely low phosphate content, and (locally) physical difficulties. On one site at W areham (H yde H eath Bog), at present rated unplantable, a “ pilot p lo t” in th e accepted sense has been laid dow n. Elsewhere in the group a considerable am o u n t o f w ork has been done in recent years, p art on new ground, p art on the sites o f failed plantations. Experim ents have included m ethods o f ploughing, trials o f species, fertilizers, and control o f Calluna. 118 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION C entral W ales Taliesin. M ineral soils at fairly high elevations, overlying shaly rocks. T ending to revert to Calluna/Ulex gallii/Vaccinium associations on the cessation o f grazing. Experim ents have included th e usual range o f treatm ents—m ethods o f ploughing, trials o f species, fertilizers, etc. W ork has been done at b o th m oderate an d high elevations. T R IA L S O F A D IS C P L O U G H ON UPLAND HEATHS By G. G. ST E W A R T D istrict Officer, Research Branch The investigations o f ro o t developm ent on u p land heaths carried out by C. W . Y eatm an in 1952 and 1953, led him to suggest th a t a ground preparation m ethod o f com plete surface cultivation w ould be better th a n the usual h eath ­ land technique o f single m ould b o ard ploughing giving a ridge and furrow (see Forestry C om m ission Bulletin N o. 21). Y eatm an presented tw o m ain reasons why spaced furrow ploughing was n o t satisfactory; first, the m ain roots were confined to the cultivated furrow and ridge an d thus n o t able to m ake the fullest use o f the site; secondly, the o rientation o f the roots in only one direction increased the likelihood o f w indblow . H e advocated th at com plete ploughing o f m edium depth (8-10 inches) w ould overcom e these disadvantages. Com plete ploughing can be carried out on m any heathland soils w ith some o f the ordinary single m ouldboard ploughs, but the operation is slow, expensive and often n o t very effective in giving the necessary degree o f surface cultivation; if the heather vegetation is tall and dense, burning beforehand is essential. An alternative m ethod o f com plete surface cultivation is by using disc ploughs, and in 1953 trials o f tw o such ploughs—the N ew lands 3 disc plough and a modified Sunshine plough w ith 4 discs, both ploughs tracto r m ounted— were m ade at Devilla Forest, Fife, and o f the latter at H allyburton Forest, Perthshire. N either o f these im plem ents gave satisfactory cultivation. It was believed th a t they were too light— they each weighed ab o u t half a to n — and th at a m uch heavier trailed disc plough m ight give the necessary cultivation, n o t only over the surface, b u t also sufficiently deeply to satisfy the rooting needs o f the trees dow nw ards. Y eatm an knew th a t heavy disc ploughs were widely used in A ustralia and in A ugust 1954 a M ajestic disc plough was brought over from th a t country. Description T he M ajestic plough is o f the “ stum p-jum p” pattern, th a t is, the discs are spring loaded so th a t they can ride over stum ps or other obstacles in their path w ithout upsetting the carriage. It is a very large im plem ent 12 feet long by 10 feet wide, an d carries eight discs each 26 inches in diam eter. T he total weight is 3 tons 1 cwt. and the m achine is extrem ely robust. Trials T he plough was used a t four forests— A llerston and Cleveland, Y orkshire, H allyburton, an d Speym outh in M oray—in 1954 and 1955. All the sites were uplan d heaths o f varying types and in all ab o u t 50 acres were covered, p a rt in com bination w ith stan d ard single furrow ploughing practices. D etails o f these trials are given below. o. Z 2 » r» 13 Q ■o c 1 |a Ex < Z2 r. - 2 82 fl Ex £ •P 2 ^ ^ > OS Ka KK wwww U a 6 £2 >ia -*os — - t- r\o‘ 2* Q •o a II U g-§ sa u a 0 1 CO D. 3-5 7-8 S.P., P.C., J.L., 1 S.S. S.P., P.C., J.L., S.S. TD 18 pine; Boulder strewn heather moor with 3-6' peat over yellow stony clay loam. The perimeter of the compt. was ploughed round and round. The vegetation and peat layer were not buried over more than 40% of the area. Later, 7 of the 8 acres were ploughed by RLR. Ground and vegetation similar to Compt. 71. 1 acre was ploughed completely; 1 acre was ploughed in bands S feet wide leaving 5 feet uncultivated between each band. The vegetation— heather—and peat were IS to 20% buried. A comparison with various other ploughs, including RLR and Tine will be possible in the adjacent ploughing Experiment 41 P.54. Convex summit of a felled S.P. wood. Vegetation mainly grass with some gorse and bracken; many hard stumps. Area , “ chewed” rather than ploughed. Stumps caused discs to miss patches. Vegetation mainly 3-4 inch tall heather with some grass. Pan touched occasionally by discs. Rather a rough job with small patches missed owing to discs hitting stones. Vegetation mainly grass with patches of heather. A more pronounced pan than in Compt. 19. Old woodland area with hard stumps. Vegetation heather/deer grass (recently burned). Some hum ­ mocks but no stumps or boulders. Raw humus layer and part of gleyed former A horizon were turned over. B horizon and pan were rarely broken into. On steeper slopes there was a , gravelly ‘pavement’ n few inches down and this was not broken up. Most of the area was rcploughcd by Tine (without mould­ board). Vegetation short heather (burned within 3 to 5 years). 2 in. peat over 3-6 in. sandy clay (no pan). A few large boulders but generally not stony. Various combinations of discing and Tine ploughing were made, including the reploughing of an area disced by a Sunshine plough in 1953. The depth of Tine ploughing was 12-16 inches. w-t cu so eu so m CU *6 CU vo CU £ 9m kT o .o om 9©v — 02 3 o\ ■o o o •i2 =1” X C.P. "Corsican S.P. TD 18 (D 4 ! S.P. (with was tried but scattered birch failed to pull groups) the plough) 18 18 J.L ..S.S . Notes v© P.C.=LodgepoIc pine; S.P. = Scols pine; J.L.« Japanese larch; S.S. *=Siika,spruce. 59 Expt. 5 P.56 TD > -r h £ E >•* © 319 TD 6-8 £ u 22 Expt. 2 P.56 TD 7-9 £ e 18 TD 9 (Narrow tracks) CD S.P., C.P., J.L ., 2 rows of plants were planted on each ploughed band. TD 9 (N arrow | P.C., J.L., S.S. tracks) i 6-8 Species ao *n | 1 Depth < ploughii (ins-) (m to )ate of oughing Tractor used T R IA L S o. o a Note: i Area (acres) PLOUGH CU iveland 'Hutton] Compt. No. DI§C NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 120 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Ploughing Performance The discs cu t a sw athe o f a little over five feet in one run, th a t is eight to eight and a h a lf inches per disc. U nder the conditions encountered, the depth o f cultivation was ab o u t six to eight inches an d on only one site was a depth o f as m uch as ten inches achieved. T he stum p-jum p action w orked well and the individual discs rose over stum ps an d boulders, the whole plough lifting only when the obstacles were close together or very large. The tu rn o u t o f soil was n o t w hat is expected from a norm al single m ouldboard plough but was no worse th an is usual w ith disc ploughs. R ough heather was a difficulty and seriously reduced the turnover o f th e to p soil. N o breakages occurred despite the h ard use the plough received; it is interesting to note th a t in sim ilar con­ ditions a t tw o o f the sites, the R L R plough usually suffered breakages costing 15/- per acre to repair and th a t the T ine plough had difficulty in working. Ploughing Techniques The plough is a form idable m achine by reason o f its size and weight, and its pro p er adjustm ent is not easy, b u t is o f great im portance. T urning the plough is difficult, and the best m ethod o f w orking was found to be ro u n d and round in an anticlockwise direction. W hen turned to the left like this, a turning radius o f eight yards is possible, as the discs roll on their edges but do n o t cut into the ground. By beginning at the perim eter o f a com partm ent it is possible to cover the whole area, a p a rt from the very corners and a small area in the middle. The tool is obviously best suited to large scale operations. The speed o f ploughing is o f im portance and a t a fairly fast speed the turnover is greatly im proved; a speed of ab o u t three miles per h o u r was found to be suitable. Tractors A pow erful tracto r is needed and a T D 18 was found the best. A T D 9 m anaged successfully at tw o sites b u t probably only because o f a slightly less com pacted soil; a D 4 could n o t pull the plough. A large m achine like a T D 18 was able to operate at a good speed and this increased the quality o f the plough’s work. Results of Trials There is no reason to d o u b t th at the M ajestic is an efficient tool for com plete cultivation an d w ould w ork well on fairly loose soils even if they are full of boulders or covered w ith stum ps (as it does in A ustralia, apparently m ost successfully). In practically every trial m ade, the soils were too com pact to allow the discs to penetrate deeply. The m ost difficult site was at Speym outh where there was a h ard “ pavem ent” o f gravel a few inches below the surface, which the discs could n o t penetrate.' In general, the leached layer was n o t fully disturbed and the pan, where there was one, was n o t b ro k e n ; thus the prim ary necessity for ro o t p enetration was n o t obtained. This often had the effect of leaving the area wet on the surface; ru p tu re o f the deeper com pact layers w ould enable vertical drainage to tak e place; if these layers are n o t broken, ordinary surface drains m ay be necessary. The actual cultivation o f th e surface layers was satisfactory on the whole, but the discs could n o t deal effectively w ith tall grow ing heather and needed a fairly clean surface if the soil was to be tu rn ed up effectively. The looseness of the surface layers has led observers to question their suitability for planting, but this lack o f consolidation m ay m ean merely a longer delay before planting th an is th e general custom . A nother objection has been th a t the loose to p soil will be invaded rapidly by new vegetation. H ow ever, w ith the Sunshine ploughing at H allyburton, which was n o t considered a success a t the time, the soil w eathered NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 121 to a surprising degree in tw o years, a n d th e regrow th o f vegetation has n o t been as strong as expected. C onsequently, it m ay be th a t loose b u t com plete dis­ turbance o f the whole surface is a better way o f eradicating vegetation th an is com m only thought. T he ro u g h an d untidy result given by the plough has been a criticism, because o f the difficulty o f finding suitable planting spots; usually it was found easiest to p lan t in the hollow s betw een the disc slices. Summary of Disadvantages and Advantages The m ain disadvantages ap p ear to be the following: 1 Lack o f d ep th o f cultivation— a very serious fault. 2 Difficulty o f planting because o f lack o f surface consolidation an d because there is no definite furrow to follow. (This is a difficulty o f establishm ent only.) 3 Expected ra p id regrow th o f vegetation. (This rem ains a m atter o f opinion and m ay n o t take place.) 4 Difficulty o f m anoeuvre an d tran sp o rt— an o th er im p o rtan t point. 5 N eed for a pow erful tractor. The m ain advantages are as follow s: 1 C om plete cultivation can be expected to give the crop a m ore balanced an d efficient ro o t system. 2 The plough can overcom e the difficulties o f boulders an d stum ps w ithout breakages. 3 The plough covers th e ground very quickly. (This m ay offset the high cost o f the heavy tractor.) Conclusions The M ajestic disc plough has given fairly good surface cultivation o f the com pacted soils o n w hich it has been tried b u t it has n o t given the depth o f cultivation w anted; and depth o f ploughing usually has been considered to be the point o f first consideration. I f this is n o t obtained, th en other m atters are o f secondary im portance, an d it is the failure o f th e M ajestic plough to go deeply into com pact h eathland soils which has condem ned it in the eyes o f m ost o f those who have seen its w ork. C onsequently, th e problem originally posed o f how to com bine the advantages o f b o th depth an d com plete surface cultivation has not been solved by the M ajestic Plough. H owever, there is no reason to doub t th a t m ore satisfactory results w ould be o btained on soils less com pact than the rath er extrem e types on w hich the plough was tested. U nfortunately, large areas o f ground suitable for th e M ajestic plough are rarely available for forestry an d the use o f so large a m achine in sm all enclosures is im practicable. Acknowledgments. This article has been m ade up from the reports o f m any who have w orked with the M ajestic plough, in particular, those o f M . V. Edw ards, J. W . L. Zehetm ayr and J. W eathered. 122 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION S O M E P R I N C I P L E S OF C O M B U S T I O N A N D T H E I R S I G N I F I C A N C E IN F O R E S T FIRE B E H A V I O U R G EO RG E M. BYRAM Physicist, Southeastern Forest Experim ent Station, U .S.A. Reproduced by kin d permission, fro m the United States Department o f Agriculture periodical Fire C ontrol N otes. Combustion chemistry A lthough a large fire is essentially a physical or m eteorological phenom enon, com bustion itself is a chemical chain reaction process, which takes place at high tem peratures. In all forest fires, large or small, m aterials such as leaves, grass, an d w ood com bine w ith oxygen in the air to form com bustion products plus large quantities o f heat. H eat, as we shall see, is the m ost im portant com ­ bustion p ro d u ct in fire behaviour. T here are three rath er definite phases o f com bustion, although they overlap som ew hat and all exist sim ultaneously in a m oving fire. First comes the pre­ heating phase in which fuels ahead o f the fire are heated, dried, partially distilled, and ignited. In the second phase, the distillation o f gaseous substances con­ tinues but is now accom panied by their burning o r “ oxidation.” Ignition might be regarded as the link between the first, or preheating, phase and the second, or gaseous, com bustion phase. Ignition m ay also be regarded as the beginning o f th a t p a rt o f the com bustion process, in w hich heat is given off. The flames seen over a forest fire or in a fireplace are the burning o f distilled g ases; com ­ bustion products are principally invisible w ater vapor and carbon dioxide. If com bustion is n o t com plete, som e o f the distilled substances will condense w ithout being burned and rem ain suspended as very small droplets o f liquid or solid over th e fire. These condensed substances are the fam iliar sm oke th at accom panies m ost fires. U nder certain conditions som e o f the w ater vapor may also condense an d give the sm oke a whitish appearance. In the th ird or final phase the charcoal left from the second phase is burned and leaves a small am ount o f residual ash, which is n o t a com bustion product. If com bustion is com plete and if the charcoal is m ostly carbon, the prim ary com bustion prod u ct in this phase will be carb on dioxide because the initial w ater is driven off in the first tw o phases. Some carbon m onoxide is form ed as an interm ediate p ro d u ct which in tu rn burns as a gas to form carbon dioxide. The sm all blue flames appearing over the coals in a fireplace are carbon m on­ oxide burning. However, if com bustion is n o t com plete, sm all am ounts o f carb o n m onoxide rem ain. In this phase the fuel is burned as a solid, with oxidation taking place on th e surface o f the charcoal. N ote.—T he com position o f charcoal varies, depending on the conditions under which it is form ed. I f the distillation tem perature is low, 400 to 500° F., the charcoal will contain considerable ta r coke. H ow ever, in the rapid heating and resultant high tem peratures existing in a forest fire, the deposits o f secondary products in the charcoal are probably low. Even though the three com bustion phases tend to overlap, they can be plainly seen in a m oving fire. F irst is the zone in which leaves and grass blades curl an d scorch as they are preheated by the oncom ing flames. N ext is the flame zone o f burning gases. Follow ing the flames is the third but less conspicuous zone o f burning charcoal. Unless fuels dry to a considerable depth (that is, unless th e Built-up Index is high), this last zone m ay be alm ost absent. I f this happens the burned-over area will appear black instead o f gray, which m eans NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 123 th at m uch o f the rem aining charcoal, as well as som e o f the underlying fuel, has not com pletely burned. W ith the exception o f such years as 1947, 1952, and 1955, a blackened burned-over area has been m ore com m on th an a grey ashcovered area in th e E astern an d Southern States. Heat of Combustion The h eat o f com bustion is heat th a t m akes com bustion a chain reaction. H eat supplied to u n burned fuel raises its tem perature to the p o in t where the fuel, or the gases distilled from the fuel, can react w ith the oxygen in the atm osphere and in so doing give off m ore heat. This in tu rn raises the tem perature o f adjacent fuel, an d thus the chainlike natu re o f com bustion becomes established. The heat energy released by burning forest fuels is high and does n o t vary widely between different types o f fuels. T he tab u lation below gives the heats o f com bustion for a num ber o f substances. These m aterials and heats were selected from tables in K e n t’s M echanical Engineers H andbook, 12th edition. T heir average is probably a good ap proxim ation for forest fuels. Fuels do n o t ordinarily b u m w ith m axim um efficiency, so th e actual am o u n t o f heat released per pou n d o f fuel in a forest fire will be som ew hat less th a n show n in the ta b u ­ lation. F o r a sm all fire burning in dry fuels w ith very little sm oke, the com ­ bustion efficiency m ight be as high as 80 per cent. Large fires burning w ith dense sm oke w ould be less efficient. C om bustion efficiency probably drops som ew hat w ith increasing m oisture content. Substance W ood (oak) W ood (beech) W ood (pine) W ood (poplar) Pine saw dust Spruce saw dust W ood shavings Pecan shells H em lock b ark Pitch A verage (excluding pitch) H eat o f combustion per pound, dry British therm al units 8,316 8,591 9,153 7,834 9,347 8,449 8,248 8,893 8,753 15,120 8,620 H eats o f com bustion are given in British therm al units per p o u n d o f dry fuel. A B.t.u. is the q uantity o f h eat needed to raise the tem perature o f 1 pound o f w ater 1° F. F o r exam ple, the above ta b u la tio n shows w ith the help o f a little arithm etic th a t the burning o f 1 p o u n d o f an average w oody fuel gives off enough heat to raise the tem p eratu re o f 100 pounds o f w ater a b o u t 86° F. To raise the tem perature o f 100 pounds o f w ater (about 12 gallons) from a tem ­ perature o f 62° F. to th e boiling tem perature o f 212° F. would require about 1.7 pounds o f an average w oody fuel if it burned with m axim um efficiency. A bout 1 p o u n d o f pitch would accom plish the sam e result. T he rate o f h eat release in a forest fire can be visualized by com paring it with a fam iliar rate, such as th a t required for house heating. F o r example, consider a hot, rapidly spreading fire burning w ith a 20-chain front and with a forw ard rate o f spread o f 50 chajns per hour. I f the fire burns 6 tons o f fuel per acre, in 1 h o u r’s tim e enough fuel w ould be consum ed to heat 30 houses for a year if each house yearly required th e equivalent o f 10 cords o f w ood weighing approxim ately 2 tons per cord. Occasionally there is a fire in the E astern States 124 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION with a rate o f spread exceeding 5,000 acres p er h our. I f it burns in a dense, continuous stand o f conifers, which m ight have 12 tons o r m ore o f available fuel p er acre, such a fire could consum e enough fuel in an ho u r to heat 3,000 houses for a year. Heat transfer There are three prim ary ways in w hich h eat travels or is transferred from one location to another. These are conduction, convection, and radiation. A lthough dependent on convection, there is a fourth or secondary m eans of h eat transfer in forest fires, which m ight be described as “ mass tran sp o rt” . This is the carrying o f em bers and firebrands ahead o f the fire by convective currents and results in th e fam iliar phenom enon o f “ spotting” . As a heat-transfer m echanism , conduction is o f m uch greater im portance in solids th a n in liquids and gases. It is the only way heat can be transferred w ithin opaque solids. By m eans o f conduction, heat passes through the bottom o f a teakettle o r u p the handle o f a spoon in a cup o f hot coffee. C onvection is th e transfer o f heat by the m ovem ent o f a gas or liquid. F o r example, heat is transferred from a hot air furnace into the interior o f a house by convection, although the air picks up heat from the furnace by conduction. R ad iatio n is the type o f energy one feels w hen sitting across the room from a stove or fireplace. It travels in straight lines like light, and it travels with the speed o f light. M ost o f the preheating o f fuels ahead o f a flame front is done by radiation. F o r a fire th a t occupies a small area and can be thought o f as a “ p o in t” (such as a small bonfire or a spot fire), the intensity o f radiation drops as the square of the distance from the fire increases. F o r exam ple, only one-fourth as m uch radiatio n would be received at 10 feet as a t 5 feet from the fire. However, when a fire becomes larger, the radiation intensity does not dro p off- so rapidly. F o r a long line o f fire, the rad iatio n intensity drops as the distance from the fire increases; th a t is, one-half as m uch rad iatio n w ould be received at 10 feet as at 5 feet. F o r an extended wall o f flame, radiation intensity drops off even m ore slowly. This tendency for rad iatio n to m aintain its intensity in front o f a large fire is an im p o rtan t factor in the rapid grow th o f a fire’s energy output. C onvection, w ith som e help from radiation, is the principal means o f heat transfer from a ground fire to the crow ns o f a conifer stand. H o t gases rising upw ards dry out the crow n canopy above and raise its tem perature to the kindling point. A lthough convection initiates crow ning, both convection and radiatio n preheat the crow n canopy ahead o f the flames after a crow n fire is well established. Convection is also a factor in the preheating o f the ground fuels in a surface fire but to a lesser extent th a n radiation. The effects o f both rad iatio n and convection in preheating are considerably increased when a fire spreads upslope, because the flames an d h o t gases are nearer the fuels. The opposite is true for dow nslope spread. Convection an d rad iatio n can transfer heat only to the surface o f unburned (or burning) fuel. A ctually, rad ian t heat m ay penetrate a few thousandths o f an inch into w oody substances and this p enetration may be o f som e significance in the burning o f thin fuels, such as grass blades an d leaves. How ever, radiation, like convection, for the m ost p a rt transfers heat only to the surface o f fuel m aterial, and conduction m ay be considered the only means o f heat transfer inside individual pieces o f fuel. F o r this reason conduction is one o f the m ain factors lim iting the com bustion rate in heavy fuels, such as slash and limbs and logs in blow dow n areas. M aterials th a t are p o o r conductors o f heat, such as NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 125 mosl forest fuels, ignite m ore readily th an do good conductors, b u t they b u rn more slowly. A lthough the effects o f conduction are far less conspicuous than those o f rad iatio n and convection, conduction is a very im p o rtan t factor in the com bustion process. Factors Affecting the Combustion Rate M any factors affect com bustion in such com plex ways th a t they are not yet fully u nderstood even for a sim ple gas or liquid fuel. Solid fuels are even more complex. Even so, there are tw o rath er simple factors th a t have obvious and definite effects on the com bustion rate o f w oody substances and are o f great im portance in forest fire suppression. T he first o f these is the m oisture content o f the fuel, and the second is fuel size and arrangem ent. It is difficult to overestim ate the effect o f w ater on the com bustion rate and, hence, on fire behavior. W ater in a fuel greatly dim inishes the preheating rate in the first phase o f com bustion. M uch o f the h eat is used in raising the tem ­ perature o f the w ater and evaporating it from th e fuel. The large quantities o f resulting w ater vapor dilute the oxygen in the air and thus interfere with the second or gaseous com bustion phase. I f the initial fuel m oisture is high enough, water vapor m ay m ake the m ixture so “ lean” th a t the gases will n o t burn. This dilution o f the oxygen in the air also affects the third o r carbon-burning phase o f com bustion. A lthough d ata are lacking, it is probable th a t m oisture reduces considerably the heat yield or com bustion efficiency. This heat loss w ould be in addition to that resulting from the w ater-heating and evaporation requirem ents. The effect o f size an d arrangem ent o f fuel on com bustion can be illustrated by the following example. C onsider a large pile o f dry logs all a b o u t 8 inches in diam eter. A lthough som ew hat difficult to start, the log pile will burn with a hot fire th at m ay last for 2 or 3 hours. The three prim ary heat-transfer m ech­ anisms are all at w ork. R adiation and convection heat the surfaces o f the logs, but only conduction can transfer heat inside the individual logs. Since con­ duction is the slowest o f the three heat-transfer m echanism s, it limits the com bustion rate in this case. C onsider now a sim ilar pile o f logs th at have been split across their diam eters twice, or quartered. Assum e th a t the logs are piled in an overall volum e som ew hat greater than the first pile, so there will be am ple ventilation. This log pile will b urn considerably faster th an the first one because the com bustion rate is less dependent on conduction. T he surface area was more than doubled by the splitting, so th a t convection and rad iatio n are corres­ pondingly increased in the preheating effects. The burning surface is also increased by the sam e am ount. Assume th a t the splitting action is continued indefinitely until the logs are in an excelsior state and occupy a volum e 30 or 40 times as great as in their orig­ inal form. Convective a n d radiative heat transfer will be increased trem endously in the spaces th ro u g h o u t the whole fuel volum e, and the com bustion rate might be increased to a point where the fuel could be consum ed in a few minutes instead o f hours. The effect o f fuel arrangem ent can be visualized if a volum e o f fuel resem ­ bling w ood wool, such as th a t ju st described, is com pressed until it occupies a volume only 4 or 5 tim es th a t o f th e original volum e o f logs. The total burning surface an d radiative conditions rem ain the sam e as before com pression, but both convective heat exchange an d oxygen supply are greatly reduced. There will be a corresponding decrease in fire intensity. Fuel size an d fuel arrangem ent have their greatest effect on the lower intensity fires an d in the initial stages o f the buildup o f a m ajor fire. W hen a fire reaches conflagration p roportions, the effect on fire behavior o f factors such 126 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION as ignition probability and q uantity o f firebrand m aterial available for spotting m ay be greater th a n the effect o f fuel size an d arrangem ent. This p o in t will be discussed in the section on applications to fire behaviour. The Fire Triangle The principles o f com bustion m ay be sum m arized in an effective way by m eans o f the fire triangle. This triangle neatly ties together n o t only the prin ­ ciples o f com bustion b u t illustrates their application as well. T he three sides of the triangle are F U E L , O X Y G E N , and H E A T . In the absence o f any one of these three sides, com bustion can n o t take place. The fire triangle represents the basic link in the chain reaction o f com bustion. R em oving any one or m ore sides o f the triangle breaks or destroys the chain. W eakening any one or m ore sides weakens the chain an d dim inishes fire intensity correspondingly. The purpose o f all fire suppression efforts is to rem ove or w eaken directly or indirectly one or m ore sides o f the fire triangle. Conversely, all conditions th a t increase fire intensity operate in such a way as to greatly increase or strengthen the sides o f the triangle and, hence, the chain reaction o f com bustion. In a blow up fire the chain becomes so strong th a t it cannot be b roken by the efforts o f m an. This m eans th a t w hen blow up conditions exist, the only opportunity to break the chain is by early strong initial attack. Application to Fire Behaviour I t is m ore difficult to apply o u r know ledge o f ignition and com bustion to the behavior o f very high-intensity fires, som etim es referred to as conflagrations or “ blow ups” , th an to th e behavior o f the m ore frequent low-intensity fires. T he o rdinary fire behaves for the m ost p a rt as one w ould expect from the principles o f com bustion. In a conflagration or blowup, however, the sides o f the fire triangle are greatly strengthened by factors th a t are absent, or nearly so, in sm all fires. A lthough these factors w ork through the basic com bustion principles, they so greatly m odify the expected effects o f the basic processes th at a high-intensity erratic fire cannot be considered as a large-scale m odel o f a low-intensity fire. This is best illustrated by considering the spatial structure o f the tw o types o f fires. T he height o f the significant vertical structure o f a lowintensity fire can usually be expressed in tens o f feet. This distance is usually sm all com pared to the surface dim ensions o f the burning area, so th at in a physical sense the fire is “ th in ” or 2-dim ensional as far as volum e structure is concerned. O n the other hand, the significant vertical structure o f a welldeveloped conflagration m ay extend thousands o f feet into the air, and this dim ension m ay a t times exceed the surface dim ensions o f the burning area. T he height th a t sm oke rises above, or in the. neighborhood of, a fire is not always a tru e indicator o f the height o f the active convection colum n above a fire. Sm oke from a small fire m ay reach a height o f 1,000 feet or m ore, but active convection m ay reach only a few percent o f this height. N ote.— A lthough it is too involved to discuss in a paper on com bustion, the height o f the convection zone depends on the rate o f heat ou tp u t o f the fire, the wind speed, the vertical w ind shear, an d the stability o f the atm osphere. It is the 3-dim ensional structure o f a large fire th a t causes it to take on storm characteristics which, in turn, produce behavior phenom ena th at one could not expect by scaling upw ards the behavior o f a low -intensity fire. However, this does n o t m ean th a t scale-m odel fires, including small fires in the laboratory under controlled conditions, w ould n o t be useful in prelim inary convection colum n studies. P robably experim ental w ork on convection colum n properties NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 127 should be started first on sm all scale fires. Such w ork m ight give essential fundam ental info rm atio n on the relation betw een the variables controlling the convection process. C ertain properties o f the atm osphere, such as the vertical wind profile and to a lesser extent the vertical tem perature profile, appear to be the controlling factors in extrem e fire behavior if an extensive area o f plentiful dry fuel exists. A discussion o f the atm ospheric factors is outside the scope o f this paper, b u t it may be well to exam ine in som e detail those phases o f the com bustion process that perm it the atm ospheric factors to exert their m axim um effect. Fire behavior is an energy phenom enon and its relation to the com bustion process can be u nderstood by the use o f four basic fuel factors relating to energy. These are (1) com bustion period, (2) critical b u rn-out time, (3) available fuel energy, and (4) to tal fuel energy. This last factor is constant, or nearly so, for any given q uantity o f fuel p er acre. T he first three are variables which, even for any hom ogeneous com ponent in a given fuel type, depend on factors such as fuel m oisture content an d fire intensity. A fifth fuel factor, the quantity o f fire­ brand m aterial available for spotting, is m ore or less independent o f the other four and will be treated separately. The com bustion period m ay be defined as the tim e required for a fuel to burn up com pletely, an d depends prim arily on fuel size, fuel arrangem ent, fire intensity, and fuel m oisture. It m ay range from a few seconds for th in grass blades to several hours or longer for logs and heavy limbs. Critical b u rn -o u t tim e is defined as the m axim um length o f tim e th a t a fuel can burn and still be able to feed its energy into the base o f the forw ard travelling convection colum n; its m agnitude depends prim arily on fire intensity or the rate o f a fire’s energy o u t­ put. The available fuel energy is th at p art o f the to tal fuel energy which is fed into the base o f the convection colum n. F o r fuels w ith a com bustion period equal to or less th a n the critical b u rn -o u t tim e, the available fuel energy is equal to the to tal fuel energy. If the com bustion period is longer than the critical burn-out time, then the available fuel energy is less th a n the total fuel energy. Total fuel energy is determ ined by the quan tity o f fuel per acre and the com ­ bustion efficiency. If the com bustion efficiency is assum ed to be constant, the terms “ available fuel energy” an d “ total fuel energy” can be replaced by the terms “ available fuel” and “ total fuel” . An exam ple will illustrate how fire behavior relates to the four preceding quantities. C onsider a fire spreading in an area o f plentiful heterogeneous fuel, a considerable p art o f which is in the form o f flam m able logs and heavy slash and the rest a m ixture o f sm aller m aterial such as twigs, pine needles, and grass. Assume th at the critical b u rn -o u t time is ab o u t 20 m inutes. Those fuel com ­ ponents w ith a com bustion period less th an 20 m inutes will have an available fuel energy equal to their to tal fuel energy. H ow ever, logs and heavy limbs may require several hours to b u rn out, so their available energy may be com paratively low ; they could still be burning after the fire had m oved several miles, so would not be affecting the behaviour o f the fire front. N ote.— H eat sources a considerable distance behind the m ain flame front could possibly have indirect effects on fire behaviour by slightly m odifying the structure o f the wind field. F rom the stan d p o in t o f fire behaviour, a crow n fire in a dense conifer stand could have m ore available fuel energy th an a fire in an area o f heavy logging slash. However, unless large portions o f a heterogeneous fuel have very long com bustion periods, fuel size and fuel arrangem ent should not have as m uch influence on the behaviour o f m ajor fires as on sm aller fires. In a m ajor fire a larger p ro p o rtio n o f the heavier fuels take on th e characteristics o f flash fuels. 128 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION This is a com bined result o f the shorter com bustion periods and longer critical burn -o u t times for the high-intensity fires. Nevertheless, fuel size and fuel arrangem ent contribute heavily to the rate o f buildup o f fire intensity, especially in the early stages, and are therefore an im portant part o f the fire behaviour picture. M uch o f the effect o f fuel m oisture can be interpreted in term s o f the four basic fuel factors. Because m oisture decreases the com bustion rate, it increases the length o f the com bustion period. This, in turn, m eans th at a sm aller fraction o f a heterogeneous fuel will have a com bustion period less th an the critical burn-out time. The available fuel energy and fire intensity will, therefore, drop as fuel m oisture increases. F or m ost fires there are some fuel com ponents which do not b u rn because o f their high m oisture content; in other w ords, these com ponents m ay be regarded as having infinitely long com bustion periods. A n increase in fire intensity can greatly reduce the com bustion period for those fuel com ponents w ith the higher m oisture contents. F o r som e com ponents the com bustion period might be infinite for a low -intensity fire, but perhaps only a few m inutes, or even less, for a high-intensity fire. F or example, in the highintensity Brasstow n fire on M arch 30, 1953, in South C arolina, as well as in other large fires in the Southeast in the last few years, green brush often burned leaving blunt pointed stubs. In a sim ilar m anner a reduction o f the com bustion period from infinity to a few seconds for green conifer needles takes place when a fire crowns. T he fifth fuel factor, the quantity o f firebrand m aterial available for spotting, becomes increasingly im p o rtan t as fire intensity increases. Equally im portant is the relation between surface fuel m oisture and the probability o f ignition from embers or firebrands dropped from the air. This relation has not as yet been determ ined experim entally, but ignition probability increases rapidly with decreasing fuel m oisture— hence with decreasing relative hum idity. We know th a t the ignition probability for m ost firebrands is essentially zero when fuel m oisture is 25 or 30 percent (on an oven-dry weight basis). We also know that not only ignition probability but com bustion rate as well is greatest for ovendry m aterial. In addition, both o f these phenom ena in the lower m oisture content range appear to be considerably affected by a change o f fuel m oisture content o f only a few percent. The im portance o f the relation between fuel m oisture and ignition p ro b a­ bility in the behaviour o f large fires can be illustrated by a hypothetical example. Suppose th a t from the convection colum n over a large fire, 10,000 em bers per square mile per m inute are dropping in front o f the fire. Suppose th a t the sur­ face fuel m oisture content is such th a t only 0.1 percent o f these firebrands catch and produce spot fires, thus giving only 10 spot fires per square mile. On the other hand, if we assume th at the surface fuel m oisture is low enough for 5 per­ cent o f the em bers to catch, then there would be 500 spot fires per square mile. As they burn together, these spot fires would greatly increase the rate o f spread and intensity o f the m ain fire. Thus, relative hum idity (w orking through fuel m oisture) has a 2-fold effect on rate o f spread in certain types o f extrem e fire behaviour. First is the effect on fuel com bustion rate and rate o f spread o f the ordinary flame front. This effect would be present on small and large fires alike. Second is the effect in accelerating rate o f spread and fire intensity by increasing the probability o f ignition from falling embers. This latter effect would be present only on fires where spotting was abundant. Ignition p ro b a­ bility will also depend on other factors, such as the nature o f the surface fuel in which firebrands fall and the fraction o f the ground area covered by the fuels. Fuel characteristics th a t m ake plentiful and efficient firebrands are not NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 129 definitely know n. The m aterial would have to be light enough to be carried aloft in updrafts, yet capable o f burning for several m inutes while being carried forward by the upper winds. Decayed punky m aterial, charcoal, bark, clum ps o f dry duff, and dry moss are probably efficient firebrands. Leaves and grass are m ore likely to be inefficient firebrands except over sh o rt distances. The initial phases o f the blow up phenom enon are directly related to the com bustion process and the basic fuel factors. A decreasing fuel m oisture means higher com bustion rates an d shorter com bustion periods. T here will, therefore, be an increase in the available fuel energy, or available fuel, accom ­ panied by an increase in fire intensity. T he increase in fire intensity lengthens the critical b u rn -o u t tim e, which m eans a further increase in available fuel. A cycle o f reinforcem ent is thus established which favours grow th o f fire intensity. As the intensity increases, the atm ospheric factors becom e increasingly im ­ portant. It is a t this stage th a t spotting and ignition probability m ay becom e dom inant fire behaviour factors. By using the basic fuel factors it is possible th at a fuel classification m ethod could be developed to classify fuel in term s o f expected fire behaviour. It w ould first require a series o f burning experim ents to m easure som e o f the factors and their response to variables such as m oisture content and fire intensity. H ow ­ ever, once this was done, the classification system itself m ight be com paratively simple. Probably its greatest value would be in estim ating the conflagration potential o f different fuel and cover types for different com binations o f w eather conditions. There is an im p o rtan t difference in the energy conversion process for a lowintensity fire and a high-intensity fire. In the “ th in ” or 2-dim ensional fire, m ost o f the energy rem ains in the form o f heat. A t the m ost, such a fire cannot convert m ore than a few hundredths o f one percent o f its heat energy into the kinetic energy o f m otion o f the u p d raft gases and the kinetic energy o f the convection colum n eddies. On the other hand, a m ajor conflagration may convert 5 percent or m ore o f its heat energy into kinetic energy which appears in the form o f strong turb u len t updrafts, indrafts, convection colum n eddies, and whirlwinds which can carry burning m aterial aloft. The efficiency o f the energy conversion process, and hence the kinetic energy yield, increases rapidly with increasing fire intensity. This is brought ab o ut by the m utual reinforcem ent action in the basic fuel factors plus favorable atm ospheric conditions. In addition to the difference in the energy conversion processes in the two types o f fires, there is an enorm ous difference in rate o f energy yield. F or example, there were periods in the Buckhead fire in n o rth F lorida in M arch 1956 when the rate o f spread probably exceeded 8.000 acres per hour. The rate o f energy release from this fire w ould com pare favourably with the rate o f energy release from a sum m er thunderstorm . N ote.— A lthough a detailed discussion is outside the scope o f this paper, energy conversion processes in a fire can be studied by a therm odynam ic procedure in which a large fire, like a thunderstorm , can be treated as a heat engine. The efficiency o f a heat engine is m easured by the fraction o f heat or therm al energy th at can be converted into the kinetic energy o f m otion. A 2-dim ensional fire has an efficiency as a heat engine th a t is very nearly zero or, at the most, only a few hundredths o f one per cent. A m ajor high-intensity fire has an efficiency as a heat engine th at may reach 5 percent or more. Summary C om bustion is basically a chemical chain reaction th at can be divided into three separate phases: (1) Preheating and distillation, (2) distillation and the burning o f volatile fractions, and (3) the burning o f the residual charcoal. 130 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION F o r a forest fuel, ignition is the link betw een phase 1 and phase 2 o f the com bustion process. F o r m ost forest fuels the heat o f com bustion is between 8,000 and 9,000 B .t.u.’s p er pou n d on a dry w eight basis. H eat is transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. A fourth m eans o f heat transfer m ight be defined as m ass tra n sp o rt and is the fam iliar phenom enon o f spotting, which becomes increasingly im p o rtan t on highintensity fires. Fuel m oisture has m ore effect on the ignition and com bustion process th an any oth er factor. Low -intensity fires are essentially 2-dim ensional phenom ena, and m ajor high-intensity fires 3-dim ensional. T he th ird dim ension o f a high-intensity fire perm its the conversion o f p a rt o f its h eat energy into the kinetic energy o f m otion, w hich changes the relative significance o f the various com bustion factors and greatly modifies their expected effects. F o r this reason a high-intensity fire cann o t be regarded as a magnified version o f a low -intensity fire. T he relation o f fire behaviour to the com bustion process can be understood by the use o f a group o f basic fuel factors which are (1) com bustion period, (2) critical b u rn -o u t time, (3) available fuel energy, (4) total fuel energy, and (5) q uantity o f m aterial available for spotting. Such a group o f factors m ight be used to classify fuels in term s o f expected fire behaviour. If atm ospheric conditions are such th a t one or m ore strong convection colum ns can form , the follow ing ap p ear to be the m ain com bustion factors th at determ ine the intensity and rate o f spread o f a m ajor fire: 1. T he q uantity o f available fuel energy, or available fuel, per acre. The m agnitude o f this quan tity depends on a reinforcing relationship between the basic fuel factors. In tu rn , this relationship is regulated prim arily by fuel size and arrangem ent, fuel m oisture, and the intensity o f the fire itself. 2. Q uantity o f firebrand m aterial per acre available for spotting. 3. P robability o f ignition from firebrands dropping ahead o f the main burning area. This probability depends on several factors, the m ost im portant o f w hich is the prevailing relative hum idity determ ining the surface fuel m oisture. A N E X P E R I M E N T T O C O N S E R V E W A T E R U S E D BY A LAND-ROVER FITTED WITH A LANGDON PU M P FOR FIRE F IG HT IN G By R. T. W H E E L E R Forester, N orth-East England This invention was the subject o f an award under the S ta ff Suggestion Schem e.— Ed. Foresters w ith vehicles fitted w ith the L angdon P um p and W ater T an k for fire fighting m ay be interested in an experim ent carried out w ith a view to conserving the lim ited am o u n t o f w ater available in the T ank. P ast experience o f fire fighting in the R o th b u ry district o f N orthum berland where scarcity o f w ater can be acute, particularly during periods o f high fire danger, has show n th at, while the L and-R over carrying a 30 gallon w ater tan k NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 131 could do valuable w ork attending m o o rlan d fires, it was som etim es necessary to lose several valuable m inutes, aw ay from the actual scene o f the fire, travelling som e distance to th e nearest stream o r static w ater supply for a tan k refill. It was also found th a t th e volum e o f w ater discharged by the H athaw ay Pistol N ozzle norm ally fitted, th o u g h excellent under certain conditions, p a r­ ticularly when dealing w ith fires in very long heather or taller vegetation, was greater th an th a t really needed for sh o rt vegetation. T he rate o f discharge was such th a t the ta n k em ptied in 6 m inutes continuous pum ping. It was felt th a t a m uch finer spray th a n is possible w ith th e H athaw ay nozzle w ould be m ore effective b o th for dam ping dow n the actu al flames and conserving water. Fig. 2. Fine spray arrangem ent. W ith the aid o f the M obile M echanist w ho provided a 6 foot length o f A inch m etal piping suitably th readed a t one end to take a K napsack Pum p nozzle (see Fig. 2), experim ents to produce a suitable spray were started. T he H athaw ay nozzle, which was attached to a plastic delivery hose from the L angdon pum p by a sm all Jubilee clip, was rem oved and the 6 foot m etal tube w ith the K napsack p um p nozzle attached by the sam e Jubilee clip to the hose. A t first the spray produced was too fine an d im m ediately blew away as a light mist. By enlarging the nozzle outlet hole from TV inch to TV inch, however, a suitable cone-shaped spray was obtained, giving a solid funnel-shaped wall of w ater up to 9 inches from the nozzle before breaking up into a fine spray heavy enough to fall to the gro u n d from a height o f a b o u t 2 feet. W ith the engine o f th e L and-R over running on the hand throttle, at the same speed as th a t by which the ta n k em ptied in 6 m inutes continuous running when using th e H athaw ay nozzle, it now to o k 31 m inutes to empty. 132 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 6 ft metal tube screw adjusting cap removed Coarse Spray. Itfiapsack pump nozzle in use without cap ^ / •/ ■ -Vi)' i Fig. 3. C oarse spray arrangem ent. If a heavier spray was required this could be provided by rem oving the screw adjusting cap from the outlet end o f the nozzle (Figs. 2 and 3) which then gave double the am ount o f spray, em ptying the tan k in 16 minutes. It was necessary, o f course, to keep the nozzle close to the actual fire to be effective, bu t this did not expose the o p erato r to intolerable heat, as he held the nozzle at the end o f his reach on the 6ft. m etal tube. In fact, should he have found him self dealing w ith heat greater th an he was able to bear, the time would have com e to revert to the H athaw ay nozzle, w hich was always carried and easily exchanged in a few seconds by loosening the Jubilee clip with a screwdriver. It has been suggested th a t an instantaneous coupling could be fitted to the inlet end o f the m etal tube, thus dispensing w ith the Jubilee clip and need for a screw driver when changing from or to a H athaw ay nozzle. plastic delivery hose from Lanqdon pump secured permanently with jubilee clip adaptors'' Hathaway couplings metal tube carrying spray jet nozzle permanently screwed or welded to coupling adaptor Fig. 4. C oupling arrangem ent. NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 133 This w ould be a great im provem ent although necessitating a pair o f H a th a ­ way couplings, sim ilar to those already used o n norm al 60ft. delivery hose, being adapted to fit the i inch plastic delivery hose from the L angdon pum p on the L and-R over on one side, and the ^ inch m etal tube on the other (see Fig. 4). Such a coupling would also enable the spray nozzle to be fitted to any length o f norm al fire hose, instead o f the H athaw ay pistol nozzle. Similarly, stan d ard fire hose could be coupled to the L and-R over L angdon pum p if required. In the event o f the L and-R over being unable to get close enough to the fire, one or m ore 60 ft. lengths o f hose attached to the pum p may save the day. The occasion m ay also arise when a boosting pum p is required for pum ping long distances or over steep hills. W ith H athaw ay coupling attached the L ang­ don Pum p could be used for th a t purpose. SUPPLY PO INTS FOR KNAPSACK SPRAYERS By. J. W. E N G L A N D Assistant Forester, South Wales [See Plates 19 an d 20— Ed.] The developm ent o f Fire E quipm ent for use at Forest Fires is a continuous process, and as p art o f th at process the item o f equipm ent described in this article suggests a further step tow ards the speedier control o f fires. The expansion o f the F orest R oad P rogram m e has facilitated the installation o f Static W ater Supply T anks, they can be installed m ore frequently and m aintained m ore econom ically an d easily. C onsequently the practice o f using w ater in conjunction w ith oth er m ethods, e.g. beating, is becom ing m ore wide­ spread. The use o f the knapsack sprayer to follow up beating as a norm al m ethod o f attack m eans th at an adequate supply o f w ater m ust be im m ediately available for refilling, as m uch valuable tim e is lost when the m ain jet is interrupted for this purpose. To avoid this w ithout incurring any extra loss o f tim e by undue walking and the necessity to direct the operators, I have m ade a simple item o f equipm ent which is effective an d easy to use. It is also cheap to produce. It consists o f a short length o f canvas hose 3 feet long, fitted at one end with a stan d ard bayonet coupling an d at the other end with a simple ta p o f small bore, b o th secured w ith Jubilee clips. The equipm ent can be inserted anywhere along the length o f hose betw een the pum p an d the delivery nozzle by m eans o f the stan d ard ‘Y ’ coupling (it has therefore, the extra advantage o f being readily located). It is essential th a t a tap o f small bore is used as this prevents any undue loss o f pressure at the nozzle o f the main jet. A £ inch bore tap fills a W izard type K napsack Sprayer in u nder ten seconds. 134 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A V I S I O N O F F . Y . 85 O R FIRE P R O T E C T I O N F A NTA SY By. M . R. W . W IL L IA M S D istrict Officer, South Scotland O utside it was h o t an d dusty, although the newly opened leaves on the trees proclaim ed it to be only early M ay. Inside the long, low building it was cool and in the large ro o m the light was dim. Seated in the room were four people, tw o m en and tw o wom en. E ach was anxiously scanning a series o f telescreens on w hich appeared a m oving p an o ram a o f w ooded countryside. Joe M cT aggart, the older m an in the room , stared nostalgically a t the w ooded hills an d valleys appearing in front o f him . H e was rem em bering how as a young m an in the 1950’s he h a d w atched these same hills through fieldglasses from the top o f a high tow er. It was certainly m uch easier now to sit in this darkened ro o m som e 20 miles aw ay and see the whole forest spread o u t in front o f him , instead o f laboriously clim bing over the plough furrow s to the to p o f the hill. However, he missed the clean invigorating air o f the m ountains, the smell o f bog-m yrtle and heat baked pine needles. Suddenly he stiffened, on the th ird screen in the second row he saw a wisp o f sm oke curling u p from the edge o f a ride. G rabbing the controlling knob he stopped the regular m ovem ent o f the television scanner and adjusted it until the sm oke coincided w ith a vertical line in the middle o f the screen. R eading off the bearing at the foot o f the screen, he pressed dow n a switch and spoke to the C ontroller in the next room . “ Sm oke on B.3., bearing 056” he said crisply into the m icrophone. “ R ightho, Jo e ” replied the voice o f the C ontroller “ see if you can get a correlation on C .5” . M cT aggart transferred his attention to the fifth screen in the third row and w atched carefully until the sam e point cam e into view and th en saw th e sam e tell-tale sm oke curling up. “ Bearing 237 on C .5” he said into th e m icrophone. In the next room , Jo h n Sm ith, the Fire C ontroller strode across to a large m ap on the wall and pulled tw o cords across until they coincided. Jotting dow n the G rid Reference on a p ad he switched the radio set in fro n t o f him to ‘tran sm it’. W hen it h a d w arm ed u p he spoke “ Fire C ontrol to Bentrool, sm oke visible at G rid Reference 325400, n o rth edge o f ride between com partm ents 25 and 26. Please investigate and re p o rt” . “ B entrool answering, R oger” , cam e the reply. W alking over to an o th er wall, he p u t over a switch and adjusted a knob until the whole o f the wall carried an enlarged im age o f the views on telescreens B.3 in the next room . H e drew the curtains to m ake the picture clearer, sat dow n again an d lighted his pipe. Twenty miles away in the F orest Office at Bentrool, the m ounting tension had been b roken by the message on the radio. A ndrew M cIntosh, the H ead Forester, tu rn ed to his assistant Jo h n B right an d said “ T ake the Skyrover and have a look at som e sm oke reported betw een com partm ents 25 and 26” . H ardly pausing to answer, Jo h n ra n outside to th e w aiting Skyrover. In a m atter o f seconds the ro to r blade was revolving an d the green-painted m achine rose gracefully over the office and headed out over the valley tow ards the reported fire. Soon he saw it an d circling low landed on the ride beside the source o f trouble. Switching on th e electric pum p, he ju m ped o u t dragging a length o f light hose w ith him and began spraying the fire. However, he could tell th at w ithout assistance it w ould get out o f h and and ran back to his m achine to report. “ H ello M r. M cIn to sh ” he said into the m icrophone, “ I shall need som e assistance. Please send the duty fire crew w ith beaters and light pum ps” . NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 135 W ithin five m inutes, while Jo h n h ad been keeping the fire a t bay as best he could, a heavy Bedford R o to rtru ck cam e sweeping in to land beside the Sky­ rover. O ut ju m p ed 20 m en w ith pow erful knapsack sprayers and m echanical beaters. In a m atter o f m inutes the fire was out. It hardly needed M cIn to sh 's triu m p h an t m essage on the radio to say th at the fire was out to let Sm ith know th a t all was well, for he had been w atching the whole dram a on the wall o f his office. H e h ad seen B right’s gallant efforts on his own and the arrival o f the fire crew as if he had been there. The m inor excitem ent over, the firewatchers continued their steady w atch over the screens as the m echanical scanners swept slowly over the countryside. “ Tim e for the m idday reading” th o u g h t Jo h n Smith, looking at his watch. Stepping across to a control panel, he p u t over a num ber o f switches, each below a dial. He carefully noted in a book the various readings o f tem perature, humidity, rainfall, etc., from a num ber o f panels, each representing an au to ­ m atic m eteorological station situated from 10 to 30 miles away. Pressing a m aster switch on this panel sent out a radio-w ave which caused a relay in the distant statio n to trip, thus switching on its transm itter. The inform ation from the instrum ents at the station was thus autom atically relayed and could be read off the dials in this room . H aving noted the inform ation from the various stations, Sm ith then m oved over to an o th er instrum ent and set the dials to the figures noted in his book. He switched on an d w aited for the m achine to w arm up. A fter perhaps half a m inute, a high pitched whine could be heard which suddenly stopped with a loud click. A red light came on and the pointer sud­ denly swung round to the figure 2. “ N o change” he m uttered to him self as he went over to the radio on his desk. Switching it to ‘transm it’, he spoke “ Fire C ontrol calling all units. Fire H azard for this afternoon will be G rade 11. Take all necessary precautions. A nsw er by turn, over” . Each o f the fifteen units then acknow ledged the message in turn. Telling the firewatchers in the next room to keep their eyes skinned, he opened his packet o f sandwiches. V O L E D A M A G E 1 9 5 6 /5 7 By W. A. C A D M A N Divisional Officer, Directorate fo r Wales In W ales, with the exception o f pockets m ostly on the high ground, rabbits were elim inated by m yxom atosis in 1954. This h ad two im p o rtan t results which have a bearing on the vole population. T here was a rapid reduction in the num bers o f predators. M any failed to breed during 1955, a year when w eather conditions during the spring were also very adverse. W hilst this was going on there was a rapid an d m arked acceleration in the grow th o f vegetation, hitherto kept in check by rabbits. The sum m er an d au tu m n o f 1955 were w arm and dry, which led to heavy seed bearing o f m any p lan t and tree species, m ostly in the following year (1956). All these conditions were favourable for a rapid increase in the vole p o p u ­ lation. In fact, the increase rapidly reached plague level in 1956 and this was m ore w idespread, th ro u g h o u t W ales, th an any previous vole plague within living m em ory. N orm ally, where vole num bers reach plague conditions, a peak is reached during the lean m onths o f the early spring o f the following year, and thereafter 136 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION there is an alm ost com plete disappearance. To som e extent this norm al pattern was followed tow ards the end o f M arch 1957, and num bers did fall sharply. But the very m ild w inter, com bined w ith an exceptionally early spring (when grow th o f vegetation was a m onth or six weeks before its norm al tim e) were favourable factors for the survival o f voles. There is no d o u b t th a t som e in m ost places, and m any in some places, did survive, and odd cases o f dam age have occurred during the sum m er o f 1957. Distribution In the past in W ales, w ithin the knowledge o f the Forestry Com m ission, there have been several severe vole plagues. But they have been confined to the hill ground an d these plagues have occurred in relatively isolated areas. The 1956/57 plague was w idespread. Plague conditions occurred within every district in W ales. Even in Anglesey voles have been present in plague num bers and serious dam age has occurred, in places. An unusual feature has been the fact th a t the plague has not been confined to the hill ground, or to M olinia areas, as in p ast instances. N um bers have been excessive in all types o f country, including w oodlands, pastures, nurseries and gardens at low elevations. Even dense bracken areas have been very seriously affected, which is unusual. In sand-dune areas num bers have been less than elsewhere. Types of Damage In nurseries very serious dam age has been done to seed beds o f Sitka spruce, Japanese larch, E uropean larch and to lines o f red oak. In places two year Sitka spruce has been cut off as if by shears. In the plantations every type o f dam age has occurred including girdling the root collar, the m ain stem, the roots (particularly in the case o f N orw ay spru ce)an d thesid e branches; gnawing th ro u g h a t ground level (this has occurred to trees 7ft. and 8ft. high) and nibbling the tips o f the grow ing shoots w ithout girdling. In m any cases trees planted during the 1957 season were eaten within tw enty-four hours, losses being up to 60 per cent, even in Sitka spruce. In m ost cases dam age has been confined to plantations under four years old. D am age to different species was by no m eans consistent in different areas, but a b ro a d assessm ent by species is :— Beech M ost universally attacked o f all species. Trees up to six years old and 7ft. high being affected, in places. R ed O ak / O ak B oth very severely dam aged with possibly som e preference for red oak. C hestnut / Ash / O dd cases reported, b u t these are not species which have Sycam ore been m uch planted. Law son cypress This species was attacked m ore readily than any other conifer. N orw ay spruce In South Wales attacks on N orw ay spruce have been rather m ore w idespread th an in N o rth Wales, where the incidence o f dam age has n o t been so proportionately heavy as in previous vole plagues. (B ut in South W ales there are fewer “ other species” available.) NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 137 Thuya, Hemlock B oth seriously attacked, where present in young age-classes. Japanese larch D am age to Japanese larch has been m ore serious in South Wales th an in N o rth W ales. Trees up to 6ft. high have been killed. D am age has occurred in eight districts. Sitka spruce In m any cases Sitka spruce has not been dam aged. But where it has been attacked very heavy losses have been inflicted. In m ost cases dam age has been confined to sm all plants only ju st planted (and to nursery seedlings). Douglas fir D ouglas fir has been affected in a few instances, m ainly in newly planted areas. Abies grandis T here has been one case o f dam age to Abies grandis four years old. Probably m ore would have com e to light, if it were a species m ore widely used. .Abies nobilis N o dam age has been reported. Pines W ith o u t doubt, pines are attacked by voles less th an any o ther conifer. There has been one case where Scots pine five years old and 5ft. high was stripped o f bark, even into the branches. C orsican pine, lodgepole pine and m aritim e pine have all suffered dam age, but cases reported have been very few. O f the unusual species, Metasequoia, Sequoia and Crypto'meria have been show n to be very susceptible. T here has been one case o f dam age to poplars. Control M easures P redators have exercised a certain am ount o f natural control. Short-eared owls were unusually num erous thro u g h o u t the w inter m onths. Foxes were feeding mainly on voles during the w inter and early spring. As m any as eighteen voles were found in a fox’s stom ach. The result o f this easy living was th a t vixens produced very heavy litters o f up to ten cubs. Stoats and weasels appear to be m ore num erous. Tw o m ain m ethods were used in Com m ission forests. W here the voles were concentrated, w arfarin was p u t dow n in various form s (R am icide and Rami being frequently used). Some dead voles were found an d in som e cases the ap p aren t success was considerable: but, it was im possible to assess how m uch the ap p aren t reduction was due to poison an d how m uch to the natural recession which to o k place in M arch. The oth er m ethod involved the use o f repellants such as anim al oil and bitum en em ulsion. H ere again the ap p aren t success was m asked by the natural recession o f voles, an d the alternative food supply as the vegetation cam e into grow th, abnorm ally early. In som e areas voles were trapped by sinking old tins and jam jars in the ground. 138 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION T H E N A T U R A L A N D A R T I F I C I A L C O N T R O L OF V E R T E B R A T E P E S T S OF A G R I C U L T U R E By D R . I. T H O M A S M inistry o f Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (A paper read at the British Association M eeting, Sheffield, 1956) F ro m palaeolithic times m an has left his im print on nature— he himselt is p art o f the n atu ral scene, indeed, p art o f th e anim al kingdom ; hence biologists regard the term ‘balance o f n atu re’ w ith a certain am o u n t o f misgiving. D o we say th a t n atu re was balanced before m an exerted his influence, or do we say that nature was balanced before, say, rabbits were introduced into B ritain? M any examples o f m an ’s interference w ith n ature are quoted by Taylor (1955) in a talk on ‘The adverse effects on anim al life brought about by m an's interference w ith n atu re'. It can be argued th a t the very appearance o f the rab b it in this country can be p u t dow n to m an. The extent to which m an has changed the n atu ral scene will be fully appreciated by anyone who has read Dawn in Andromeda, by E. C. Large. In a book on the Balance o f N ature, in 1909, G eorge Abbey described verm in as ‘wild anim als o f carnivorous habits, called ground [vermin] and wild birds o f a rapacious nature, term ed winged [verm in]’ and m any people would still define this dangerous w ord in the same way today. The dictionary says, ‘m am m als and birds injurious to game, crops, e.g. foxes, weasels, rats, mice, voles, owls, etc.’ But th ro u g h o u t the length and breadth o f the country there are differing shades o f opinion as to which anim als are beneficial, which harm ful an d which are vermin. If then we argue th at land should be used solely for the prod u ctio n o f food, both anim al and vegetable, and th a t the m axim um should be got out o f every acre irrespective o f housing, or factories, or defence, or am enities, or sp o rt— then stoats and weasels im m ediately become beneficial. A t present they are regarded as verm in because they kill ground game and winged game. Jays and m agpies are verm in because they take the eggs o f game birds, but stoats and weasels are am ong the chief predators o f the rabbit, and stoats m ay take the eggs o f the w ood-pigeon. The wood-pigeon may also be kept in check by the jay and m agpie, and even the grey squirrel may, on occasions, be beneficial in this respect. F o r the purpose o f my talk, however, I have in som e arbitrary way to distinguish between those anim als which I believe to be harm ful to agriculture and those w hich are beneficial, and I am going to deal specifically with the tw o m ost harm ful, namely, the rab b it and the w ood-pigeon. The Rabbit The rab b it itself is an introduced species—it is believed to have been introduced by the N orm ans (T hom pson & W orden, 1956). Such an event as the intro d u ctio n o f an im p o rtan t new species into a com m unity, is clearly a change in the balance o f nature. W hat has this m eant to agriculture? At first wild rabbits were kept in small com m unities in circum scribed warrens and they were n o t unreasonably regarded as a useful additional source o f food because they did not take the place o f anim als which were m ore econom ic and better converters o f herbage. W arrens were usually constructed in coastal areas and along the boundaries o f parishes where the activities o f the rabbits would not impinge upon agriculture as then practised. In the M iddle Ages rabbits were regarded as a delicacy and their value as food was very high. In the U nited K ingdom a rough balance-sheet has been draw n up (T hom p­ son & W orden, 1956). O n the credit side the rab b it m ay be said to have been NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 139 w orth ab o u t £15 m illion per an n u m to the com m unity; this includes the m eat value, the fur value and the value o f the finished products produced from the fur. T he value o f the raw m aterial was only a fraction o f the to tal and the in­ come from rabbits actually received by agriculture was probably less th a n £2 m illion per annum . In add itio n there are on the credit side certain intangible factors the value o f which it is difficult to estim ate— the pleasure afforded to children by the sight o f live bunnies— the sp o rt they afford to m any a countrym an, the training o f gun-dogs and th e additional protein which m ight n o t otherw ise be consum ed. Last but not least perhaps I should ad d th a t the shooting o f rabbits is possibly the tow nsm an’s easiest m ethod o f satisfying his prim eval hunting instinct. Put a tow nsm an in th e cou n try an d it is surprising how quickly he gets the habit o f walking aro u n d w ith a gun— after all, m ost tow nsm en are only one or two generations rem oved from the country. T he question is— how m uch are we as a country p repared to pay for these pleasures ? In France m em bers o f L a Chasse come from tow n an d country and freedom to ‘h u n t’ was one o f the rights fought for in the Revolution. On the debit side the dam age to crops has been variously estim ated at between £45 million and £60 million per annum . This includes dam age to trees— the annual cost o f protecting 750,000 acres o f State-ow ned plantations is about £500,000. The dam age to cereals carefully calculated as a result o f statistically conducted experim ents th ro u g h o u t the country was o f the order o f 5 per cent per annum o f the cereal tonnage. T he average yield o f spring wheat, for instance, from unprotected plots was 15.2 cwt. per acre as com pared w ith 18.2 cwt. per acre from protected plots. The dam age to grassland can be estim ated only from a few experim ents. In W est Wales, for instance, in one experim ent the increase in weights o f lam bs on rabbit-dam aged plots was 263 lb. com pared w ith an increase o f 521 lb. on rabbit-free plots. Similar figures were obtained at Wye where the increase o f weight o f sheep on rabbit-grazed plots was 64 per cent less than on rabbit-free plots. The to tal loss o f herbage from rabbits is thought to equal the losses to cereals. To these figures m ust be added a considerable sum necessary for the repair o f ditches an d banks, the depreciation o f the value o f land and the possible role o f rabbits in the spread o f certain im p o rtan t diseases o f dom estic anim als. H ow did this situation arise? R abbits eventually spread from the w arrens into cultivated and well-caredfor land. A t first, however, they were kept in check because the land was m ostly in the hands o f small or large estate owners an d it was usually well keepered. Rabbits were snared, ferreted an d netted ; hares were usually present in some num bers and winged gam e was well looked after. Subsequently, when rail transport becam e cheap an d the dem and for rabbit skins and carcases increased, the trapping o f rabbits becam e a rem unerative occupation, and particularly during the First W orld W ar open trapping w ith the steel gin trap led to much increased catches. W hen such trapping started on farm s in C arm arthenshire, for instance, foxes, weasels, stoats, cats and dogs were usually caught in some num bers, in addition to rabbits. Buckley (in K irkm an, 1934) has, for instance, cited the case o f a farm in Pem brokeshire o f ab o ut 250 acres, where on the first trapping only 250 rabbits were caught, but there were in addition twelve foxes, between thirty an d forty weasels an d stoats as well as cats and dogs. In sub­ sequent years, 5,000 rabbits were caught annually on this farm , the hedges and fences becam e dilapidated and the farm becam e m ore or less a ranch. W here previously the rent o f the farm was £1 an acre, following the increase o f rabbits it could not be let at 5j . an acre. On an o th er farm o f about eight acres, in the first 140 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION round the trap p er caught tw enty-one cats. D uring the First W orld W ar trapping thus becam e an industry in W est W ales to the detrim ent o f farm ing and other field sports in the area. This has been attrib u ted by Buckley to the use o f the steel gin trap, and striking confirm ation o f this view has been obtained in a few pre­ lim inary experim ents we have done on the open trapping problem . In one experim ent, using a gin an d a hum ane trap in the open, we caught thirty-seven rabbits; but in additio n to a few birds we also caught three grey squirrels, three cats and one pole-cat. T here was in addition evidence that the traps had caught but failed to hold two foxes, one badger an d a few dom estic anim als, to say nothing o f one farm er! It is possible th a t the killing o f a com paratively small num ber o f predators would allow the rab b it population to build up to num bers which would become out o f h an d ; the result w ould soon be the disastrous condition know n as rabbitfarm ing. Q uite a p a rt from this aspect o f trapping, other considerations tend to favour the build-up o f the rab b it population. F or instance, trapping is done only to tak e off the ‘cream ’ o f the ‘cro p ’, w ith sufficient residue being left for breeding up quickly in subsequent years and, w hat is m ore, it has been shown th at by intensive snaring following gin trap p in g in the open, m any more does are caught than bucks. In areas where rabbit-farm ing was practised, individual farm ers attem pted to stand out against these m easures, but usually they had to succum b to pressure from all aro u n d them because o f the very large num bers o f rabbits m oving in from neighbouring farm s. M atthew s (1952) in his book on British M am m als also m akes the point th at the great increase in the trapping ol rabbits has been responsible for the decrease in predators. O f stoats, he states th a t in south-w est W ales, they have been locally, but probably only tem porarily, com pletely exterm inated. The destruction o f carnivores, he says, ‘dates from a b o u t the m iddle o f the last century or a little before, and its onset coincides with the introduction o f the steel trap or gin. W hatever may be said about trapping anim als, it cannot be denied th a t this is a cruel device th a t has been responsible for the death o f great num bers o f the p redators as well as o f the prey'. It is difficult to tell w hether m yxom atosis comes under the heading o f natural or artificial control. It was anticipated th at as a result o f the calam itous decline in the rab b it population due to m yxom atosis, foxes w ould become hungry and w ould attack dom estic anim als on an increasing scale. It is known, for instance, th at over a period o f years the num bers o f foxes killed in Wales by Fox Des­ tructio n Societies may be m easured in thousands. The figures are: 1949, 7,739; 1950, 8,321; 1951, 7,072; 1952, 6,463; 1953, 5,105; 1954, 6,307; 1955, 8,004. It was also know n from some w ork done by S outhern & W atson (1941) th at in an area where rabbits were num erous, som e 50 per cent o f the diet o f foxes consisted o f rabbits. One w ould have thought then th at if rabbits were taken away foxes would be adversely affected. It was natural, therefore, to step u p w ork on the control o f the fox, and this was done. In 1955, 8,004 foxes were destroyed by Fox D estruction Societies in W ales, but this figure is lower than 8,321 foxes destroyed in 1950. I thin k the reason why we have not had large num bers o f hungry foxes and serious depredations on dom estic anim als is the fact th at the fox is a m ost om nivorous anim al, and I think when rabbits are available it will feed on rabbits, when rabbits are not available it can still fend for itself. F o r instance, in som e prelim inary w ork we have done on the fox diet, there had been a considerable increase in the num bers o f the short-tailed vole an d the brow n ra t eaten, and the am ount o f vegetable m atter had also increased. Indeed som e vegetable m atter was found in 57 per cent o f the stom achs exam ined. T he effect o f increased grow th o f wild herbage has been studied in detail by D r. A. S. T hom as o f the N atu re Conservancy. But an incidental effect o f this NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 141 increased herbage will probably be a large increase in the population o f voles (M icrotits species). U p to 1956 this had not occurred, b u t I think it is very likely th at if the rab b it population is m aintained say at ab o u t a q u arter o f what it was before, we shall then have periodic increases o f the vole population with a flare-up o f dam age to young forest trees. This history o f virus diseases such as m yxom atosis generally follows a set pattern. T he virus itself becomes attenuated, and the host builds up its resistance. We all imagine th a t this will also happen in the case o f m yxom atosis and there is evidence th a t it is taking place in A ustralia. W hat are the rem aining factors th a t tend to check the rab b it p o p u latio n ? A natural population regulation factor o f som e im portance was discovered by Bram bell& Mills (1947, 1948), who found in C aernarvonshire th a t in the early part o f the season som e 60 per cent o f all the litters conceived were resorbed. B\it it is likely th a t this factor becomes econom ically significant only when the num bers o f rabbits are quite beyond those which can be tolerated by good farming. O f the diseases o f the rabbit, liver-fluke is probably one o f the m ost im ­ portant, not altogether because o f its effect on the rab b it but because it parasitises dom estic anim als, including sheep and cattle. Only occasionally does the rab b it population itself suffer and then only in wet habitats where the interm ediate host, the m ud snail Limnaea truncatula, is able to exist in sufficient num bers to be a reservoir. Both nem atodes and cestodes also occur in the rabbit and, here again, these parasites are o f significance because the rabbit is an alternative host. This is especially true o f the larval stages o f Taenia pisiformis and T. serialis. O ther diseases ju st w orthy o f m ention are coccidiosis, which probably exercises some degree o f control, necrosis o f the liver, rabbit syphilis, toxo­ plasmosis and tularaem ia. There rem ains for me to m ention a few artificial m ethods o f control. R abbitp ro o f fences can be o f value only in confining rabbits to small limited areas or keeping them out o f small areas— on a large scale they break dow n because o f the im possibility o f supervising adequately every yard o f fence as frequently as necessary. This has been proved up to the hilt in A ustralia where the enorm ous barrier fences failed to check the advance o f the rabbit. Then there is shooting and ferreting, which are both useful adjuncts to other methods, and repellents, which at best are palliatives. G assing is perhaps the m ost efficient m ethod for use in G reat Britain but it needs to be done with great care and thoroughness. Best o f all is good farm ing and avoidance o f the tem ptation to com bine farm ing with game preservation to the extent th at the latter becomes as im p o rtan t as farm ing itself. The W ood-Pigeon W here rabbits have been seriously reduced, wood-pigeons are now perhaps the farm ers’ greatest vertebrate pest. But as w ith rabbits it is probably true to say th a t m an has created ju st those conditions which have allowed pigeons to flourish and m ultiply. In the course o f hundreds o f years and intense cultivation, m an has not only changed the character o f the countryside but in some in­ stances he has produced in profusion the food required by certain anim al and bird species. In the case o f the pigeon he has recently increased the breeding habitat preferred by the species. Forest an d w oodlands have been planted on a large scale and although the pigeon does not favour building nests deep in forests, it relishes the conditions produced along the periphery. M an has planted— and this w ithin com paratively recent years— enorm ous acreages o f 142 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION the foodstuffs preferred by pigeons, th a t is, brassicas and— perhaps in a m ore restricted area— peas. In the E astern C ounties peas have becom e a m ost im p o rtan t and lucrative crop for th e farm er. T he gross returns from some pea crops m ay be as m uch as £140 per acre. A farm er is therefore prepared to pay quite large sum s o f m oney to ensure th at such a crop is harvested and naturally he brings all the pressure he can to bear on the scientist who is w orking on the control o f such a pest. The farm er is usually p repared to co-operate fully and enthusiastically w ith the research w orker, but he is usually a bit w orried ab o u t w hat his neighbours will think if there is only ju st a small possibility o f gam e birds being accidentally killed in the process o f trying to find measures for com bating the pigeon pest. The annual m ortality o f adults o f m ost birds is very high and varies from 30 to 60 per cent, and th a t o f eggs and young is higher, being in the region o f 70 per cent in the w ood-pigeon. Any control measure, therefore, which has ^s its aim the killing o f eggs or young, is likely to leave little im pression unless it is very efficient and, to a lesser extent, the same applies to the killing o f adults. F o r instance, in the year ending D ecem ber 31, 1955, over 2 i million w oodpigeons were said to be killed by shooting, and in the first q u arter o f 1956 it is estim ated th at as m any as 445,000 pigeons were killed in England and Wales. A dm ittedly these are estim ates, but even if half this num ber were killed, it is, indeed, very large. In this q u arter the expenditure on cartridges alone was probably over £28,000 and the subsidy on these is about 50 per cent. In a few years, therefore, it is easy to see th at w ood-pigeons have cost the country large sums o f m oney. It is not yet possible to assess the dam age with accuracy but sam pling experim ents are now being m ade. O ther m ethods o f dealing w ith the pigeon are by scaring and by the use of narcotics; nearly all birds learn so quickly th at any m ethod o f scaring has to be very frequently changed in order to stand any chance o f being successful even very locally for short periods. As to the use o f narcotics I can only say that we are a t the stage where we know we will have to learn far more about the habits o f the pigeon before this m ethod is likely to be successful. O f the diseases o f pigeons the m ost com m on are pseudotuberculosis, caused by a Pasteurella, pigeon pox, coccidiosis and avian tuberculosis (M cD iarm id, 1948). A lthough locally a num ber o f pigeons may be killed by one or m ore o f these causes, I do not think any o f them is likely to become an im portant factor in the control o f the species. H ere then the choice before us is: (1) to revert to the old balance whereby there were fewer breeding sites; (2) to disperse far more widely the crops which are attractive to the species; (3) to control the bird by artificial m eans. I suppose this is a case o f H obson’s choice, but it is certain th at any artificial means that are devised will have to be drastic and large num bers o f birds will have to be killed if farm ers are to see the benefit in reduced losses to crops. W ith insects, for instance, it is possible to control a pest on one particular field. Even with rabbits it is possible to control a pest on one particular estate, but with pigeons the whole o f the pigeon population o f the country probably has to be affected before a beneficial result is obtained. T he them e o f my talk seems to have been th at m an has him self induced, or at least created, the conditions for changes in the balance o f nature. As T aylor p u t it, ‘T here can be no d o u b t th at the arrival o f m an was one o f the w orst calam ities th a t ever happened to all the creatures o f this lovely ea rth ’. It is, therefore, u p to m an to look, ahead and to foresee and avoid the consequences o f some o f his actions instead o f wasting his substance in vain attem pts to rem edy dangerous situations o f his own creating. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 143 R EFE R EN C ES (1909): The Balance o f Nature. L ondon: R outledge. B r a m b e l l , F. W. R o g e r s & M i l l s , I. H . (1947): ‘Studies on sterility and prenatal m ortality in wild rabbits. III. T he loss o f ova before im p lan tatio n ’, F. exp. Biol. 24, 192-210. B r a m b e l l , F. W. R o g e r s & M i l l s , I. H. (1948): ‘Studies on sterility an d p renatal m ortality in wild rabbits. IV. T he loss o f em bryos after im ­ p la n ta tio n ’, F. exp. Biol. 25, 24-69. K i r k m a n , A. H. B. (1934): M an versus Rabbit. L ondon: Ufaws M onographs N o. 4b. L a r g e . E. C. (1956): Dawn in Andromeda. L on d on: Constable. M c D i ar m i d , A . (1948): ‘The occurrence o f tuberculosis in the wild w oodpigeon’, F. comp. Path. 58, 128-33. M a t t h e w s , L. H a r r i s o n . (1952): British M am m als. L ondon: C o llin s,New N at. S o u t h e r n , H. N . & W a t s o n , J. S. (1941): ‘Sum m er food o f the red fox ( Vulpes vuipes) in G reat B ritain: A prelim inary re p o rt’, F. anim. Ecol. 10, 1-11. T a y l o r , E. L. (1955): ‘Adverse effects on anim al health brought a b o u t by m a n ’s interference with n a tu re ’, Vet. Rec. 67, 1036. T h o m p s o n , H. V. & W o r d e n , A. N . (1956): The Rabbit. L ondon: Collins, Veiv Nat. A bbey. G eorge T H E W O O D -P IG E O N P R O B L E M By D A V ID R O B E R T SO N The North o f Scotland College o f Agriculture, Aberdeen Reproduced, by kin d permission, fro m Scottish Agriculture One o f the m ost interesting an d controversial problem s connected w ith the w ood-pigeon is the huge w inter flocks which m any believe are reinforced by m igrants or ‘foreigners’ from abroad. In order to get som e up-to-date inform ation on the w inter m ovem ent o f wood-pigeons in the north-east o f Scotland, I enlisted the help o f M r. F. S. A. Oliver. C onservator, E ast Conservancy, Forestry Com m ission. H is area stretches from M oray to Fife an d com prises a to tal o f 125,000 acres o f w ood­ land. o f w hich 40,000 acres are spruce a t a suitable age and density fo r w oodpigeons breeding. It is divided into 54 forests each w ith a forester and a trapper. Frequently the blam e for excessive num bers o f w ood-pigeons is laid at the door o f th e Forestry C om m ission so th a t a questionnaire to their foresters could hardly fail to arouse interest. Such, in fact, was the case for o u t o f a total o f 54 questionnaires dispatched on 29th N ovem ber, 1955, all were com ­ pleted and retu rn ed w ithin a m onth. In addition, three replies were received from a forester in Fife who had handed copies o f his questionnaire to the m em bers o f a shooting syndicate. I am greatly indebted to M r. Oliver and his staff for the in form atio n they have p u t at m y disposal. The first question addressed to th e foresters w a s: “ Do you consider the woodpigeon to be on the increase or decrease ?” Fifty-three per cent, said they were on the increase, nine per cent, on th e decrease an d 36 per cent, no difference. Slightly m ore than h a lf are therefore o f the opinion th a t the w ood-pigeon is on the increase. 144 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION The second question was: “ When do you notice large flo c ks o f woodpigeons?” Eighty-tw o per cent, said late N ovem ber-beginning o f D ecem ber; 18 per cent, said in late N ovem ber and also again in the spring. T here appears to be general agreem ent, therefore, on w hen large flocks are seen. T he spring increase is an interesting observation an d I intend to discuss it later. The th ird question to which an answ er was invited was: “ Do you believe that your area suffers fr o m an influx o f fo reig n ' wood-pigeons and i f so when does the influx occur?” F orty-three per cent, said there was an influx o f ‘foreigners’, 44 per cent, said no influx and 13 per cent, were n o t prepared to express an opinion. All o f the 43 per cent, who stated there was an influx o f ‘foreigners’ stated th a t it to o k place in N ovem ber-D ecem ber. The fo u rth question w as: “The so-called fo reign wood-pigeon is said to be smaller, darker in colour and without the distinct 'bloom' o f a home-bred pigeon. Do you believe this to be the case ?” F orty-three per cent, answ ered this question in the affirmative, 20 per cent, said there was no difference and 37 per cent, did not know an d were n o t p repared to pass an opinion. Two foresters an d one shooting tenant o f a forest sent in specimens o f ‘foreign’ w ood-pigeons. In the first case the bird was a young w ood-pigeon; in the second case tw o birds were sent, one a young w ood-pigeon and the other a stock dove; in the th ird case two birds were sent, both young wood-pigeons. In the past, I have had several ‘foreign’ w ood-pigeons sent to me, all o f which had the typical feathering o f a young w ood-pigeon, namely, absence o f white neck m arks, d ark slate grey and brow n-tipped wing feathers. It should be noted th a t a young w ood-pigeon, especially if it is late hatched, may take a year to develop the typical plum age o f an adult bird. This question o f the identity o f the ‘foreign’ w ood-pigeon is a leading one, because there are m any sportsm en who insist th a t they know the difference between a hom e-bred and a ‘foreign’ w ood-pigeon. T he fact is, however, th a t there is none, as both are the sam e species an d are identical in plum age. The explanation for the smaller and d ark er birds in the w inter flocks would ap p ear to be the presence o f young birds. A severe winter, when the birds find the only available food in the form o f kale, Brussels sprouts and tu rn ip tops, can also produce a darker bird. The sudden loss in body weight and o f ‘b loom ’ in the feathers gives a sm aller and d ark er bird w ith a different look from the well-fed sum m er bird. A dult birds, however, still retain the white patch on the neck. Flocking A w ord ab o u t flocking. Flocking is a natural habit o f the bird and in the north-east o f Scotland begins ab o u t the last week o f October. N o d o ubt storm y w eather and the colder conditions have m uch to do with this, but the birds’ congregation at a source o f food m ight also be a factor o f im portance. For instance, birds this autum n were observed to flock in large num bers as soon as the beechm ast was ripe, com paratively few having been seen on the stubbles. T he presence o f ab u n d an t food in low land areas will draw the birds in from the colder and less favourable upland regions and, in a m atter o f days, a flock o f several hundreds o f wood-pigeons m ay suddenly appear where only a few were previously seen. These flocks generally m ove from north to south in search o f food, and it is not unlikely th a t along the east coast o f Scotland m any will move into E ngland if conditions are favourable. T he m ovem ent sou th in winter appears to be followed by a m ovem ent north in spring. In n orth-east Scotland this occurs about the first week o f M arch, and it is interesting to note th a t a considerable p ro p o rtio n o f the birds are NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 145 young. F o r instance, on 2nd M arch, 1956, I shot 42 w ood-pigeons com ing to rOost, o f which 13 were young birds. P rio r to 24th F ebruary birds were scarce, but, by the end o f F ebruary-beginning o f M arch, they were in very large flocks. Three o f th e birds shot from this flock (plate 21) show the plum age o f two young birds, B an d C, contrasted w ith an ad u lt bird, A. Bird C is obviously a late-hatched bird, having no w hite spot on the neck and pronounced bufftipped secondary wing feathers. Bird B, although showing the com m encem ent o f the white spot on th e neck, still has th e secondaries tipped w ith a fawncoloured edge. Birds B an d C show all the characteristics o f the so-called ‘foreign’ w ood-pigeon, being smaller, d ark er and w ithout the distinct white patch on the neck, b u t the fact rem ains th a t they are simply young w oodpigeons which have not yet attain ed adult plum age. Control by Shooting In concluding this article I should like to give my own opinion on the best m ethods o f keeping the num bers o f w ood-pigeons in check. M y experience covers a period o f 35 years, during which tim e m ost o f my shooting has been directed against the w ood-pigeon, chiefly because it is the finest sporting bird in Britain. In the first place, I should like to stress th at I am n o t in favour o f any m ethod o f baiting the birds w ith a narcotic, which renders them incapable of flight so th at they can be knocked on the head. N o r do I favour a virus or any disease-producing organism . Such drastic m easures are unw arranted. The answ er to the w ood-pigeon problem is, in my opinion, shooting by those who understan d and are prepared to u ndertake the job. Shooting over decoys on the birds’ feeding ground is the m ost effective m ethod. W ith the advent o f the m odern seed drill fewer wood-pigeons are being killed at sowing time but, during harvest, on lodged grain or in the stook, som e phenom enal bags can be obtained. The m ost favoured cereal is wheat, followed by barley and then oats. Peas are also greatly favoured but the acreage grow n in Scotland is com paratively small. It is true to say th a t wheat, w hether lodged or in the stook, will draw w ood-pigeons for miles and excessive num bers in any district can be greatly reduced by a single gun. In one day I have m any times exceeded a total o f a hundred, b u t this figure is poor com pared with th a t o f M r. H am pton o f W olver­ ham pton, who shoots w ood-pigeons as a hobby. His bag for one day on A ugust Bank H oliday 1955 was 470, a record for G reat Britain. To quote his own words, “ th a t bag cam e in the m iddle o f a glorious week w hen everything seemed to go right and in eight consecutive days I killed 1,006 w ood-pigeons’’. 1 m ention this incident because it does show th at an experienced shot am ongst the pigeons at the right place and at the right tim e will have m uch m oreeffect th a n a dozen doubtful shots bangingaw ay at birds com ing to roost. 146 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION W I N T E R R O O S T I N G OF S T A R L I N G S AT H A L V A N A , WILSEY D O W N FOREST By J. K E L L IE D istrict Officer, South W est England General T he influx o f foreign birds is said to m ake the starling the m ost num erous bird in B ritain during the w inter m onths. These m igrants which so conspicuously augm ent th e native popu latio n com e largely from Scandinavia, H olland, and those countries which bord er the Baltic Sea. O utside the large cities, where the mass flocking o f starlings in w inter has attracted so m uch publicity in recent years, their typical roosting grounds include: thicket w oodland, especially conifers scrub thicket— frequently laurel and rh o d odendron reed-beds an d osier beds. Shelter and w arm th are obviously the m ost im p o rtan t considerations in the selection o f a ro o st and the m ost favoured w oodland sites are those where young conifers, especially Sitka spruce, have com pletely joined thicket, so th a t there is a m inim um o f air m ovem ent w ithin the stand. It is ap p aren t th a t there has been a considerable increase in the starling popu latio n at large during the last ten to twelve years, and their w inter roosting activities in w oodland have consequently becom e m uch m ore conspicuous. This increase in pop u latio n has been particularly in evidence in Cornw all and, in the H alvana Block o f W ilsey D ow n F orest there has been a recurring infestation each w inter for the past six years, on such a scale th at the bird has become a serious pest. The Halvana Block This block o f plantations, m ainly pure S itka spruce extending to som e 500 acres, is situated tow ard the east side o f Bodm in M oor ab o u t ten miles n o rth ­ east o f th e tow n o f Bodm in. T he bulk o f the area lies between elevations o f 800 an d 1,000 feet w here the terrain is no m ore th an gently undulating. The edges o f the block are fully exposed b u t effective shelter is quickly built up and adequate p rotection is available, so far as roosting birds are concerned, only a few yards in from the edges. M ost o f the crops are in the thicket stage, P32 and P42, so th a t a wide choice o f roosting sites is available. History of Infestations at Halvana Starlings first appeared on a large scale at H alvana in October, 1951 and they roosted there th ro u g h o u t th a t winter. T he brief history o f the infestations is as follow s:—■ Winter 1951/52. T he area selected covered ab o u t 6 acres in C15, SS.P32 at an elevation o f ab o u t 800 feet. A lthough p a rt o f the crop had been brashed about a year before the starlings arrived, certain groups o f trees which were em erging from check rem ained unbrashed, so th a t there was adequate shelter and w arm th for the birds. Winter 1952/53. The birds returned to roughly the same area in C l 5, but there was a slight overspill into Cs.16 and 17 where th e crops were also Sitka spruce, in the advanced thicket stage. T he area, affected extended to som e 8 to 10 acres. Winter 1953/54. T he roosting area was changed to C27, SS.P38 at an elevation o f 960 feet. T he crop was in the advanced thicket stage and unbrashed except NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 147 for inspection racks at intervals o f one chain. T he area affected was 15 to 16 acres. Winter 1954/55. T he birds returned to m uch the same area o f C27 but there was also some overspill into Cs.28, 29 and 30 an d in all, 20 to 25 acres o f p la n ­ tation were affected. W inter 1955/56. The roosting site was m oved entirely into Cs.29 and 30, aro u n d SS.P40 where the average elevation was 1,000 feet. The crops were again in the thicket stage: in places inspection racks h ad been brashed at one chain intervals. T he area affected was again in the region o f 20 to 25 acres. Winter 1956/57. A new roosting ground was again selected in C20, SS.P39, at an elevation o f 950 feet. T he crop was in the advanced thicket stage. Inspection rackways only had been brashed in certain sections o f the crop. Period of Infestation The birds start flocking during O ctober and the population gradually builds up to a peak by m id-N ovem ber. D ispersal is m ore rap id and usually occurs in early M arch. Starlings may therefore, occupy their w inter roost for a period o f from eighteen to tw enty-four weeks. D uring the roosting period, the birds retu rn from their feeding grounds imm ediately before sunset, and rem ain until th e first light o f m orning, so th a t they may spend twelve to fourteen hours each day on the roosting area. Extent of Infestation It is evident from the history o f events th a t there was a large increase in the num ber o f starlings roosting at H alvana from the tim e o f the first infestation, in the w inter o f 1951/52, until the w inter o f 1954/55. This increase was pre­ sumably related both to the general popu latio n trend and to the abandonm ent o f less favourable roosting sites in the neighbourhood for H alvana. N o t only did the earlier infestation affect a m uch sm aller acreage th a n now, but the concentration o f birds o n the roosting area was also m uch less, so th a t while relatively little dam age resulted to the 6 acres o f C15, which were affected in the first two years, the dam age, which has extended to som e 20 acres o r m ore annually in the last three years, is o f a serious nature. The indications are th at the num ber o f birds roosting at H alvana during the last three w inters has been fairly static, so it is possible th a t th e pop u latio n peak, from the biological stan d ­ point, has been reached. However, there are no signs th a t a reduction in num bers is likely to tak e place in th e near future, and while the population o f starlings rem ains a t its present level this bird will probably continue to be a serious pest o f young plantations in C ornw all. W hile the problem o f starlings roosting in plantations is n o t a new one, the present infestation a t H alvana has perhaps assum ed m ore serious p roportions th an any other on record. Estimate of Number of Birds Any attem p t to give an estim ate o f the num bers o f birds involved m ust be som ew hat speculative, b u t there is no d o u b t th a t the birds which have roosted at H alvana over the last three years can be num bered in hundreds o f thousands. If only 25 birds ro o st on each tree, assum ing 1,200 trees per acre are available for roosting, then the total num ber o f birds roosting on 20 acres would be 600,000. O n the oth er h and if as well m ay be the case 250 birds roost on each tree (400 trees per acre available) then there will be 2,000,000 on 20 acres. W orking on the assum ption th a t starlings will fly up to thirty miles to their feeding grounds—the figure generally quo ted by ornithologists—a population 148 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION o f 2,000,000 gives a density o f 2,850 birds per square mile. This figure appears very high, b u t it is probable th at the birds fly an even greater distance than thirty miles to their feeding grounds. The Damage Caused The m ain dam age to the tree results from the heavy coating o f excrem ent which is deposited all over its branches and leaves: the leaves in p articular are badly affected and they frequently discolour and fall. In cases where defoliation is severe, the tree rarely recovers and death is fairly rapid. A ctual m echanical breakage due to the weight o f birds is negligible. It is n o t yet know n w hether the accum ulation o f the excrem ent on the forest floor gives rise to any toxic or harm ful effects as far as the trees are concerned, b u t it seems there m ust certainly be a strong concentration o f nitrogen in the surface layers. It is proposed to have soil sam ples m ade before the end o f the 1956-7 winter. (a) to exam ine soil currently affected, and (b) to exam ine the residual effect, if any, from infestations o f previous years. T he dam age which resulted in the first two winters i.e. 1951/52 and 1952/53, in Cs.15, 16 and 17 was n o t o f a serious nature. Some individual trees and small groups were killed, but the crops have now had a first thinning and the effects are barely visible. On the other hand, the effects in C27 where a very large concentration o f birds roosted during 1953/54 and 1954/55 were severe, and the crop has been virtually destroyed over an area o f som e 20 acres. In the w orst areas well over 90 per cent o f the crop was destroyed. The height o f the trees killed varied from 15 to 25 feet as a general rule, but trees up to 30 feet in height have been killed. The effects o f course, are particularly severe when a large concentration o f birds uses the same roost in two successive winters, as happened in C27. In subsequent winters, w ith the exception o f certain areas in C29 and 30, the birds have changed their roost each year so that, although the dam age resulting is still o f a serious nature, it has been less severe than in C27. N ever­ theless a large num ber o f trees have been killed in Cs.29 and 30 and others are still dying there. It is anticipated, however, th a t even on the w orst affected areas, sufficient trees will survive to form a crop. The current year’s (1956-7) roosting ground in C20 is carrying a heavy concentration o f birds, and the trees are heavily coated with droppings. T here will obviously be a p ro p o rtio n o f trees killed, but if the birds can be m ade to change their roost next w inter (it m ust be assumed they will return) the dam age again should not reach the proportions it did in C27. Other Effects D uring the day, the first indication o f a near-by starling roost is the objectionable, all-pervading smell from the great accum ulations o f droppings, and once starlings have been roosting in an area for a few m onths, the trees and ground become so coated in excrem ent, and the smell can be so nauseating, as to m ake w ork in the area virtually impossible. Starlings also deposit a large num ber o f weed seeds onto the forestfloor, and on areas where they have roosted such plants as chickweed, groundsel, docks, nettles and elder grow in profusion. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 149 Examples of other Starling Roosts in Cornwall and Devon O ther roosting sites which have been o r are being used include: In Cornw all: (a) B am boo thicket at Lanivet, near Bodm in. (b) T hicket w oodland, laurel an d rh o d o d en d ro n , etc., at C arn an to n Estate, near N ew quay. (c) T hicket Sitka spruce a t R o u g h to r Farm , on the n o rth side o f Bodm in M oor. (C ertain birds shot here in 1946 had been ringed in N orw ay.) (d) Thicket Sitka spruce at Grogley, Bodm in Forest, and in D evon: (e) Thicket Sitka spruce a t H alwill Forest. (f) Reed-beds at Slapton Leigh, South D evon. It is o f interest to note th a t while the two sites quoted from D evon are still in use, all the C ornish ones have been deserted. O rnithologists seem to agree th at, as a general rule, starlings do n o t roost at elevations above 600 feet and m ost o f the sites listed above are a t low eleva­ tions. All the roosting sites at H alvana, however, have been well above this elevation, varying from 800 to 1,000 feet. W hile the incidence o f strong winds on Bodmin m o o r is adm ittedly high, the relatively m ilder clim ate o f C ornw all in other respects is apparently an influence in so far as the selection o f this area is concerned. Efforts to Evict the Birds Starlings seem to be resourceful and tenacious in every way, and once they have selected their w inter roost they are notoriously difficult to evict. In dealing with a light infestation in a small wood it m ay be possible to drive them away by concerted shooting and noise over a period o f ab o u t a fortnight although, even on a small scale, such efforts have often been unavailing. It has also been claimed th a t sulphur burning has been used successfully to evict starlings from an eight acre p lan tatio n and also from scrub thickets. The problem assumes new pro p o rtio n s when an infestation on the scale o f that at H alvana has to be dealt with. There, with such a large choice o f suitable roosting sites available over a wide area, eviction would in all probability simply m ean a m ovem ent o f the bird flock from one com partm ent to another. It is evident, therefore, th a t nothing less th an a drastic reduction in the num ber o f birds is likely to relieve the problem a t H alvana. Failing that, or until such time as it can be achieved, the object m ust be to force the birds to m ove their roosting quarters at least annually so as to keep dam age w ithin m anageable proportions. So far, however, attem pt to m ove the birds from their selected roosting quarters, using the m ore conventional m ethods, has m et w ith little success. M ethods which have been given a trial include: (a) Shooting The norm al routine has been to shoot up the successive flocks o f birds as they com e into roost in the evening an d later,o n ce the birds had settled, to drive th ro u g h the roost w ith the guns. This had a m arked unsettling effect on the birds while the shooting and drive were in progress, but the only result was to drive the birds tem porarily to neighbouring com partm ents and they usually returned to their regular roost as soon as the noise had stopped. W hen this shooting was kept u p on successive evenings the birds 150 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION becam e very wary on returning to their ro ost: the flocks usually flew in higher and alighted in adjoining com partm ents, from which they flew to their regular ro o st ju st before daylight failed completely. It can be readily seen th a t shooting as a control m easure would be p ro ­ hibitive in cost. If, for exam ple, an average o f four birds were killed with every shot it would cost in the region o f £13,000 for cartridges alone to elim inate 2,000,000 birds. (b) Noise and Lights N oise, by way o f fireworks, blank am m unition, rattles, whistles, etc., and lights have usually been used in conjunction with shooting and have achieved sim ilar results. O nce starlings have settled in their ro o st the effect o f noisy shooting etc.. is surprisingly local, and one difficulty when dealing with a mass con­ gregation o f birds extending to som e 20 acres is to assemble a large enough party to unsettle the m ajority o f th e birds at one time. (c) Smoke and Sulphur Burning T he use o f sm oke has n o t been tested, as efforts to obtain sm oke canisters o f the type used by th e arm y were n o t successful. Sulphur burning was given a trial a t the beginning o f the current w inter’s infestation b u t it was in no way an exhaustive trial and the fact th at it m et with no success can n o t be regarded as a conclusive result. The trial was restricted by unsuitable w eather, an d as a decision was then m ade to brash as m uch o f the crop as possible in order to allow m ore air m ovem ent in th e roosting area, conditions were rendered rath er unsuitable for further sulphur burning. I t was evident th a t while this m ight be an effective m ethod o f dealing with a sm aller infestation, it is n o t a simple m atter to achieve the necessary concentration o f sulphur dioxide over an area approaching 20 acres. The technique em ployed was to distribute five-gallon oil drum s through th e area, roughly a t intervals o f a chain: they were filled with twigs and coal dust and the fires were lit during the afternoon. A large handful o f sulphur was placed on to p o f each fire when the birds began to arrive. As they cam e in, the birds spotted the sm oke from the fires immediately, and they alighted first o f all in the trees adjoining the regular roosting ground. They m ade their way back to the roost gradually, however, as darkness fell, and the sulphur dioxide appeared to have little effect on them . In order to achieve a sufficient co n centration o f sulphur dioxide very still, dry conditions are m ost essential, while it w ould appear the fires should be placed no m ore th a n h a lf a chain apart. (d) Brashing Brashing, as a m eans o f m oving the birds from their regular roost, was not tested until the present winter. (The theory is th at the additional air m ovem ent in the stand following brashing will m ake the roost colder and less acceptable to the birds.) C20 is on the east edge o f H alvana Block and it was felt th a t if the forest edge was opened up, and as m uch o f the crop brashed as possible, an appreciable m ovem ent o f cold air w ithin the stand m ight be achieved. A decision was therefore m ade to brash where possible,and inall eight acres, m ost o f which were in the centre o f the roosting area, were com pleted: the NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 151 rem ainder o f the crop was too sm all to brash. This operation however, has no visible effects on the birds so far, and it can only be hoped now th a t the brashing will induce the birds to go elsewhere next winter. Control A lthough the starling was black-listed by the P rotection o f Birds A ct 1954, it is evident th at farm ers and countrym en a t large have shown little interest in taking control m easures against it. T he bird is frequently seen feeding in fields behind live-stock and for th a t reason it is a suspected carrier o f foot and m outh disease, but so far as Cornw all is concerned, the bird has apparently emerged as a m uch m ore serious th reat to our young plantations th an to live-stock. It may therefore be th a t the forester will have to give a lead in the initiation of control measures against the starling unless some effective biological control brings a dow nw ard trend in the population. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN F O R E S T R Y O P E R A T I O N S By M ajor-G eneral H. P. W. H U T S O N C hief Engineer Ploughing M ost o f the afforestation in this country is on land where it would be uneconom ic to raise livestock or grow farm crops. M oorland, h eath and poor dow nland are typically th e sites used for planting. They are com m only hilly, often boggy and n o t infrequently strew n w ith rocks. T heir rugged n ature calls for m ore rob u st im plem ents th a n are com m only used in agriculture. D rainage and ploughing for planting are the usual forms o f ground p rep aratio n in forestry, but on som e sites there m ay be the additional prelim inary task o f clearing the existing vegetational covering. Ploughing can assist tree grow th in the following ways: (1) By im proving drainage. (2) By checking weed grow th by burying the existing vegetational covering under the up-turned turfs: and (3) By im proving rooting; this is either by cultivating the soil and breaking through the hard pan, or by providing a favourable planting place in the furrow (on dry sites) or on or near the ridge (in wet situations). Decisions as to which o f these objectives is required have o f course to be m ade on silvicultural grounds, as also such questions as the acceptable thickness o f the tu rf for effective weed suppression, or to give satisfactory planting positions, and the d ep th o f cultivation desired. Once these points are decided, it is the engineer’s jo b to produce the requisite equipm ent. He has to do this broadly speaking for four categories o f soil condition, each sufficiently particu lar to call for special features in the design o f implements which are to operate successfully: (1) W et sites, com m only peat, where drainage is the m ost im portant need, but where it is also necessary to provide turfs in which to plant the young trees. 152 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (2) H ard heavy lands where the surface p eat layer has to be broken up to im prove the drainage and then the h ard pan o r com pact layer lower dow n broken th ro u g h ; (3) Light soil heather lands, dow n and gorse lands where freedom from com peting vegetation is the first requirem ent, but where it is also advisable to keep the ploughing shallow so as to expose the m inim um am o u n t o f soil to wind erosion: (4) C ertain types o f old w oodlands where the ploughing has to be done am ongst stum ps. T he first attem pt at m echanical ploughing seems to have been in 1928 and 1929 on the heather m oorlands a t A llerston, Y orkshire. W heeled tractors and light agricultural ploughs were used. They were not very successful in achieving the principal objective, which was to break the hard pan and mix and aerate the packed soil from below. But in the following years, when the experi­ ments were continued with heavier equipm ent— a Craw ler C aterpillar 20 and several different ploughs—the practicability o f m echanical ploughing for forestry was established. It was however clear th a t the ploughs, which had all been agricultural types, would need considerable developm ent. The first plough for m echanical use to be produced specifically for forestry was probably the R .L .R ., built some tw enty years ago by a Y orkshire engineering firm. The R .L .R . is still one o f the best ploughs in really rank heather, but it has been very costly to m aintain, and silvicultural opinion has com e to believe that in m any sites the upheaval m ade by its deep ploughing does not give any better cultivation effects than could be achieved by deep sub-soiling with a tine, at m uch less strain to the equipm ent. This has led to w hat is now called the C lark-R oss plough, which was started by m odifying a R ipper Tine to m ake it tu rn over a shallow screef along th e sub-soil cut, and fitting it to the beam o f a C uthbertson hill drainage plough. As a next step, the C uthbertson plough carriage, which had been designed for w ork on soft ground and suffered considerable dam age from the boulders and stum ps m et w ith on m oorlands, was replaced by a specially designed carriage. Tine ploughing is equivalent to shallow ploughing with sub-soiling, and is preferred to deep ploughing in low rainfall areas where w ater conservation is im portant, and where the upturned tu rf would n o t form a good planting site. Tine ploughing gives good vertical drainage and, especially if it is done along the contour, reduces run-off and erosion. T he dual requirem ent— drainage and tu rf for planting— m entioned for wet sites is being m et by tw o ploughs, namely the C uthbertson single m ouldboard (Type F) an d the C uthbertson double m ouldboard (Type P). Both are m odi­ fications o f a m achine o f the sam e nam e designed for cutting hill drains. The Type F plough is prim arily a drainage tool, cutting a furrow 24 inches wide at the top, 15 inches deep, and 10 inches wide a t the bottom . The tu rf ridge can be planted, or else the tu rf can be cut into single pieces which are then spread by hand. This hand spreading is costly, b u t the Type F plough is not a good m achine for ploughing a t the close spacing needed for planting. This is better done by the Type P plough which has a centre disc which splits the furrow slice into tw o sections; th e double m ouldboard then lifts these and spreads them on either side at 5 foot centres. N orm ally this plough is set to cut a furrow 6 to 9 inches deep, which would be too shallow for a perm anent drain. O n the light soil heath and dow nlands, shallow single furrow ploughing for planting in the furrow b o tto m has often proved adequate, and has been done satisfactorily w ith agricultural type machines. Recently the silviculturists have asked for better suppression o f the vegetation, com bined with ridge side planting. This has led to the developm ent o f a light double m ouldboard plough w ith an NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 153 adjustable sub-soiler. This m achine ploughs a shallow furrow , throw ing a half slice to either side, with a subsoil p ath along the centre o f the furrow. W here old w oodland has to be cultivated, there is need for a plough which will ride over old stum ps and not miss to o m uch ground in doing so. If the cultivation does n o t have to be deep, a plough such as the N ew lands m ounted disc, which was designed for surface cultivation in a standing crop, will give a satisfactory perform ance. F o r deeper cultivation, and w ork in heavy ground, a wholly suitable m achine has still to be found. W hether it will be w orth special developm ent will depend upon the am o u n t o f w ork there would be for a plough of this sort. Tractors A lthough m ost o f o u r ploughing can be done with standard m akes o f tractor, either wheeled tracto rs on the drier sites or crawlers o f 40-50 horse power on the rougher w etter areas, the going in m any o f the “ craw ler areas” is too soft for the narrow w idth tracks which are generally fitted. I t has been found necessary therefore to use tracks wider th an the norm al in order to keep the ground pressure low. In some cases it has been possible to increase the soft-going perform ance o f the wheeled tractors by an addition o f half-track conversion and large diam eter front wheels, the aim being a tra c to r approaching the craw ler in perform ance, b u t w ith lower operating costs. F or ploughing on really boggy land, tracto r ground pressures have to be kept down to 2 lb. per square foot and under. This has been done by fitting special track blades 30 inches wide to the C ounty tracto r and, as an additional m odification where the m achine is to be used for cross drainage over land already ploughed, by increasing the length o f the track on the ground. The C uthbertson Buffalo is an o th er tracto r which perform s excellently in boggy conditions. Clearance In clearance work, the other m ain form o f ground preparation, the engineer does not find the requirem ents so clear-cut as in ploughing. The acreages involved in a particular area are usually sm all and the clearance required is comm only not the com plete rem oval we see w hen w oodland is turned over to farm land but is selective, leaving belts or individual trees to grow on w ith the new crop. Such conditions are against the econom ical use o f the heavier equipm ent which the clearance o f any substantial w oodland grow th requires. It has been established th a t w here the cover is dense and the stems to be removed reach 1^ inches in diam eter, craw ler tractors o f 100 horse pow er or thereabouts have to be used. The actual clearance can be done by equipm ents such as heavy discs, large rotovators or a heavy chain, which are pulled, the last nam e requiring two tracto rs (one at each end); or else by front-end equip­ ment. The latter include the ordinary bull-dozer blade, the grubber blade w hich, has p rotruding tines, and a ‘V’ blade, shaped in plan as its nam e implies and having a cutting edge on the bottom , so th a t its action is chiselling or planing rather than rooting. Except w ith the discs and rotovators, there is always the problem o f disposing o f the uprooted m aterial. It w ould take a very long tim e in our clim ate to ro t dow n, and there are m any reasons why it should n o t be left in windrows. M ore often th an not therefore it has to be burnt, and this may be a tedious process. It can be said however th at with one or other o f the equipm ents obtainable now, alm ost any type o f vegetation—coppice, scrub, thorn, rhododendron, gorse, or broom —including trees up to ab o u t 8 inches diam eter— can be cleared, though not always at an econom ic price. Nursery W ork In Britain the m echanisation o f nursery w ork has been limited hitherto to the actual cultivation o f the ground, an d has em ployed processes and m achinery 154 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION com m on to agriculture. Overseas, especially in the U nited States, it has p ro ­ ceeded further, em bracing nearly the whole range o f nursery operations and em ploying specialist equipm ent. T he conditions which m ake possible this greater degree o f m echanisation are n o t com m only found in Britain. O ur existing nurseries, which were laid o u t before m echanisation was th o ught of, were intended in th e m ain for local requirem ents and are consequently small in area. Only a sm all p ro p o rtio n exceed fifty acres and n o t one reaches 100. They have been m anaged very m uch o n individual lines and show little uniform ity either in bed dim ensions or in general layout. M oreover m any o f the sites are uneven an d stony. Before m echanisation can m ake m uch progress, therefore, m ajor changes are necessary, in p articular a redistribution o f nursery w ork into fewer b u t larger units on sites sufficiently level and free from stones to perm it the effective o peration o f the m achines. A dequate size is im p o rtan t to o b tain the volum e o f w ork to justify the new equipm ent and to allow the beds to be o f such length—probably ab o u t 100 yards— th at tim e is not unduly wasted on turns. Since plants from these larger nurseries w ould be distributed over wide areas, m ore elaborate arrangem ents th a n a t present would be wanted for packaging and despatch; these operations too give scope for m echanisation. E quipm ents for furth er advances in m echanisation are already available o r are being developed. W e have the tracto r-m ounted Ledm ore seed-sower designed to sow six drills at six-inch spacing along a three foot seed bed and the Forestry C om m ission self-propelled inter-row cultivator whose five sets o f rotatin g blades will cover the spaces betw een six rows o f plants at a w orking speed o f 100 yards in five m inutes. F o r lining-out, there are the Ledm ore liningout plough an d the H olland transplanter. T he form er is designed to fill and level one lining-out trench, and to cut and prepare the next sim ultaneously. It does n o t do aw ay w ith the filling and placing o f lining-out boards, but its costs are proving considerably less th a n those o f the w ork done entirely by hand. The H olland tran sp lan ter is available either as a self-steering tracto r carrying a tool bar, on which tw o planting units are m ounted, or with a greater num ber o f units draw n as a battery by a single tractor. U ndoubtedly there is room for further developm ent w ork on nursery equipm ent. I t has been suggested for instance th a t lining-out boards could be replaced by som e form o f paper strip container which could be fed into the ground and left there. This possibility has still to be exam ined. T here are also the various practices connected w ith the storing, packaging and handling o f seedlings: none o f these have as yet been considered for m echanisation, but will have to be if th e size o f the nursery units is m aterially increased. Planting T he prospects for the m echanical planting out o f young trees in the forest are n o t so bright. In the U nited States m echanical planting is used widely, but the process requires extensive level areas o f light alm ost stone-free soil, and such conditions do n o t occur com m only in Britain. O n our heavier soils it would be difficult to achieve the pro p er firming o f the plants, and on heather and old w oodland sites th e m echanical trenchers w ould n o t operate successrully. The best possibilities for a m echanical planting m achine such as the Pilling o r the A m erican Low ther, would be on fully-ploughed land and possibly on grassland, and it is doubtful w hether th e available acreages o f this type o f land would be large enough for the w ork to be econom ical. However, the last w ord on the m atter has still to be said, and it is conceivable th a t the developm ent o f a means for effectively clearing heather cover m ight open up other areas where m echanical planting w ould be practicable. Tending of Woods D uring the period o f fifteen years or so when the young trees are growing, NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 155 and before thinning starts, weed grow ths have to be kept down, drains cleared and protection provided against fire and disease. U nw anted grow ths along rides and roadsides have to be dealt with, an d such m atters as brashing and pruning call for attention. M ost o f these operations are susceptible to m echanisa­ tion although, where the m achines are o f the one-m an type, there m ay n o t be much econom y in the change. T he m ost difficult, technically, is the cleaning o f drains through plantations. R oots, often rocks, and lack o f space between trees, have m ade it difficult to develop a satisfactory m achine, and the w ork is still com m only done m ore cheaply by hand. It is hoped th at this particular problem will be m ade a dim inishing one, by keeping the trees in future p la n ta­ tions sufficiently back from m ain drainage channels. F or the clearance o f vegetation there are a variety o f m achines on the m arket. Some, like the F o u r Seasons Scrub C utter, are hand-propelled, and can be used for weeding betw een young plants. O thers, which are m ounted upon, or are tow ed by, tractors an d will deal w ith bracken, bram bles, heather, gorse and oth er sm all w oody-stem m ed grow ths, are suitable for keeping ride and roadsides free o f tall vegetation. M ost o f these m achines chop up the vegetation so that it can be left as a m ulch, an d there is no disposal problem . The larger types such as the W ilder R ainthorpe C hopper and the Roadless Brush C utter, will deal with stems up to 11 inches diam eter: they do their clearing by m eans o f hinged revolving tines or knives, which swing or fold back on striking an obstacle an d recover their position after it has been passed. The W olseley Swipe, a m uch sm aller m achine, operating w ith three flailing chains attached to a disc on a vertically m ounted shaft, was originally designed for the destruction of potato haulm s, but has proved successful on bram bles and other vegetation, and can deal w ith stems up to h alf an inch in diam eter. F or grass cutting on verges an d the like, there are various m akes o f grass cutter such as the A llen A uto-scythe and the H ayter G rass-cutter w hich are effective. H ow advantageous any o f these m achines will be, depends to a great extent upon the cost o f their m aintenance and upon the num ber o f passes needed to reduce the vegetation satisfactorily. Fire Protection Effective fire protection is as m uch a m atter o f organisation as o f equipm ent. There has to be an efficient system o f look-outs an d patrols, backed by adequate arrangem ents for p ro m p t action to deal w ith any outbreaks, the whole linked by a reliable intercom m unication system. Once the general pattern o f the fire protection set-up has been settled, the engineer should have no great difficulty in finding suitable equipm ent and, where necessary, adapting it to meet particular requirem ents. T he basis o f all successful fire fighting is speed o f com ing into action, and this m ust be provided for by an ad equate system o f roads in the first instance, and secondly by the m obility o f the fire fighting vehicles and of their equipm ents. Forest fire plans will o f course take into account the assistance which the county fire fighting services w ould render, b u t our concern now is only w ith the resources to be provided for the forest. There are, broadly speaking, four lines o r aspects o f fire fighting, each o f which calls for m echanical equ ip m en t:— (a) First aid, i.e. m eans o f getting to and dealing with a fire in its earliest stages, w hilst it is still small an d so can be suppressed w ith relatively simple an d sm all-scale resources; (b) Fighting by th e forest staff w ith the forest equipm ent; (®) M obile reserve located to serve several forests; and 156 (d) JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Special reserve for cases where it is necessary to hold, on wheels, a con­ siderable supply o f water. The basis o f first aid is the equipm ent o f those vehicles, norm ally L an d rovers, which are com m only used by the forester or others o f their staff for patrolling, w ith small simply operated pum ps an d w ater tanks. A pum p giving ab o u t four gallons a m inute, and a tan k o f tw enty gallons capacity, are consid­ ered adequate. The H athaw ay Langdon pum p, driven off the fan belt o f the vehicle, and the A llm an pum p operated from the pow er take-off, have both proved satisfactory. The form er is started u p from the dashboard, and is co n tro l­ led by a pistol action nozzle, the user being able to w alk round his vehicle and direct the w ater as he wishes. F o r the next phase—fire fighting by the forest staff—a larger pum p able to deliver som e ten gallons a m inute against a ninety foot head is w anted. This requirem ent is being m et by the H athaw ay M ark II pum p, one o f which at least is held by every forest and would be sent out to the site o f the fire in any vehicle available. A rrangem ents for w ater would vary with the circum stances, but m ight be from natural sources, from specially m ade static tanks, or be held ready in a tank for sending out in lorry or trailer. T he mobile reserve, sometimes called the mobile dam unit, is a specially equipped four-wheel drive lorry carrying a dual purpose pum p such as the H athaw ay 6060, capable o f delivering ten gallons a m inute against 120 foot head when fire fighting, or 2,000 gallons per h o u r at low pressure when replen­ ishing its w ater supply; a tank o f ab o u t 400 gallon capacity; a supply o f hose (two 60-foot reels), fire beaters, and pack pum ps. The special reserve requirem ent is m et by tan k wagons o f 1,000 or 2,000 gallons capacity according to circumstances. Logging Logging is mainly a tran sp o rtatio n problem . One p art o f it, the haul o f the produce away from the forest, has been m echanised for m any years, but the rest o f the m ovem ent, from stum p to roadside, and also im portant elements o f the m ain haul itself such as bundling and loading, are lagging behind in m echani­ sation. The tendency m oreover, w ith such m echanical m ethods as have been introduced, has been to concentrate on individual steps in the logging, and to forget th a t these need to be integrated into a single extraction system w orking as a whole. T he objective in logging is to get the produce from the forest to the mill or other destination at an econom ical cost. The process com prises four m ain steps or stages:— (a) Felling, which includes topping and lim bing; (b) D rag from stum p to point where the m ain haul begins; (c) Loading on to the main haul tra n sp o rt; and (d) M ain haul from the forest. These four steps, together w ith other operations such as peeling and propping which m ay be done in the forest, should form one extraction system which, to be fully efficient, should be operated as such w ith each step w orking at full capacity under optim um conditions for output, and w ith all the separate opera­ tions in balance so th a t th e flow through the system is steady. In practice unfortunately there always seem to be conflicting factors upsetting this picture o f perfection. N o t always will the sam e agency be responsible over the whole system, and m ore often th an not, rather than having the equipm ent best suited NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 157 to the jo b , it is a case o f m aking the best use o f w hat happens to be to hand. These however are practical difficulties which the engineer should know how to meet, with as little dep artu re as possible from the basic tran sp o rtatio n principles. M ost d om inant o f all the elements determ ining logging efficiency, and therefore costs, is the forest ro ad netw ork. W hilst the m ovem ent o f produce by road can be reckoned in pence per ton-m ile, th a t from the stum p to the roadside has, with the m eans we now possess, to be figured in pounds. Except in the case o f the extraction o f p arkland tim ber, there m ust always be som e initial movem ent to reach a m otorable road. U nder the conditions which persist in G reat Britain, and w ith a silvicultural practice which will m ean th at nearly h alf the total crop is harvested in a series o f periodic thinnings, it does not pay to have the drag from the stum p m uch longer th a n 150 yards. It follows th a t where the roads can be fed from both sides their spacing should be about 300 yards apart, which gives a density o f one mile o f road per eighty acres o f forest. The provision o f roads on this scale is a m ajor operation, especially so in view o f the progressively increasing capacity o f logging vehicles. R oad construction has to be highly mechanised, not only to keep the expenditure on the netw ork economic, but also to reduce the call on the available labour supply. The responsibility is a civil, not a m echanical, engineering one, b u t cannot be om itted from any consideration o f logging, for it has o f course its m echanical im pli­ cations. In Britain, where the forest roads are typically being built by tipping a layer of gravel, stone or oth er available m aterial on to a shaped form ation, virtually the whole o f the w ork, with the exception o f building bridges and culverts, can be mechanised. F urther, with this type o f construction, the subsequent m aintenance, a p a rt from the clearance o f w ater channels, can be a m echanical process too, done by a drag or by a pow ered grader. Given the netw ork o f forest roads m otorable by the same vehicles which carry the tim ber on the national road system, and suitably connected to the latter, the full m echanisation o f the m ain haul becomes practicable. The weakest link in our extraction system, and the one which w ould m ost repay attention, is th e drag from the stum p. N o m ethod universally preferable to the traditional horse-drag has as yet been found. But, both horses and horsemen are m uch less plentiful than they were, and in m any areas are p racti­ cally unobtainable. The tracto r is the obvious alternative to the horse, ju st as it has been for ploughing, and there are stan dard tractors available which, suitably equipped, perform very satisfactorily, except with the earliest thinnings when the trees are too close together for the m achines to m anoeuvre. This lim itation is not a serious one, since these small thinnings can be m an-handled. However both in the m atter o f accessory fittings, and in techniques o f operation, there is much to be done with tractor-drag before the m ethod is as efficient as it should be. We do not know, for instance, w hat is the optim um load and how it can be best picked up and put down. T hese are the first questions of tracto r drag which ought to be studied. M ost o f the small tractors suitable for logging have the power to tra n sp o rt loads considerably in excess o f the am ount a horse com m only drags. It has to be determ ined how much, if any, o f this additional power it will pay to us?. Over the short distances which the trac to r will be operating on, the term inal tim es, i.e. for picking up and for discharging the load, will have a determ ining influence on the am ount which can be carried economically. These term inal times, in their turn, will depend upon the equip­ m ents and the techniques used w ith the tractor. A nd these again cannot be considered in isolation, since the unloading at the end o f the drag should be 158 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION done in such a fashion as to facilitate the next step, which is the loading on to the m ain haul transport. A lthough a start has been m ade with the design o f tractor-m ounted grabs, which the driver can attach w ithout leaving his seat, the problem o f tractor drag rem ains today one which has still to be tackled seriously. Prim arily the m atter is one o f securing a quick turn-ro u n d . T here m ay be no gain at all in raising the load-to-pow er ratio. Perhaps a sm aller tracto r ought to be looked for, although adequate perform ance across drainage ditches may be difficult to achieve. The question o f the unit or units in which the produce is handled is another problem o f im portance. W ith so m uch o f the tim ber com ing out as relatively small-sized thinnings and being left, at the end o f the drag from the stum p, distributed alongside the forest roads, the lifts for loading on to the m ain haul vehicles tend to be light. This favours the use o f truck-m ounted loading equip­ m ents such as the H iab hydraulic hoist, rath er than the em ploym ent o f a higher capacity crane which under the circum stances w ould not only spend to o high a p ro p o rtio n o f its tim e travelling between heaps o f produce, or else would w ant these concentrated or bundled to form reasonable lifts. N ow even the light truck-m ounted hoists, when fitted to a fleet o f tran sp o rt vehicles, m ay m ean a considerable expenditure; and where the trips per day are few, and the off-loading is done by the consignee as is com m on practice, the usage o f the hoist will be very low. This shows the im portance, here, in the m ain haul, ju st as m uch as in the initial drag, o f assessing the optim um load; but in this case it m eans also choosing vehicles o f the proper capacity in relation to the length o f the trip. W here the tim ber is being m oved in the length, and the loading is being done by truck-m ounted hoist, it is a simple m atter for the operator to pick up from the roadside pile one or m ore pieces at a tim e, as he thinks fit. N o question o f bundling arises. So long as the lengths have been reasonably laid in position, the hoist o p erato r can load efficiently. W here however the produce is in short lengths, such as pitw ood and pulpw ood, some form o f bundling will be needed; this m ust be done w ith reference n o t only to the lift desired but also to the dim ensions necessary to obtain good packing in the lorry. The whole question o f bundling—where it should be done, at the stum p or at the roadside, the size o f the bundle, how it should be secured and how picked up— is still in its in­ fancy. I f a “ fo rm er” is used which is left behind in the forest, then there is no bundle to pick up a t the unloading end; if the bundle with its securing rings or other m eans o f fastening is left on until the load reaches its destination, there are problem s connected w ith its quick release and return to the forest; unless the fastenings are regarded as expendable, when m eans o f cutting them m ust be provided which will com e into action as the bundle is lowered on to the stock­ pile. N o n e o f these bundling problem s can be considered w ithout taking into account th e design o f the tran sp o rt vehicles. Felling Felling, which we have left alm ost to the end although it is the first step in logging, is still m ostly done with the bow-saw or the axe. Pow er saws have not show n m uch econom ic advantage w ith trees whose b u tt diam eter is less th an twelve inches, although w oodsm en are to be m et who use them because they find th a t whilst their earnings m ay be no higher, their w ork is rendered less ardu o u s— ‘one h o u r sw eat instead o f three’. F o r trees o f diam eters exceeding twelve inches, and for cross cutting, power saws are becom ing increasingly popular. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 159 The lightest B ritish-m ade pow er saw weighs a b o u t 34 pounds, and this weight is the real factor against its wider use. C ould it be m ade 9 or 10 pounds lighter—and there is a possibility o f this—th en the range o f the pow er saw w ould be extended. Its m ore general ado p tio n will call for a fresh study o f felling techniques, especially where thinnings are concerned. Instead o f the fellers working singly or in pairs, as m ost o f them do now, a m ore profitable procedure might be to have one m an operating the pow er saw in a team , w ith two o r m ore others who do the lim bing an d topping as well as positioning for the drag. It may be found th at the strain o f using a m echanical saw will p u t a lim it to the time one m an can w ork continuously with it. If this is so there w ould have to be an interchange o f tasks w ithin the team . Peeling There now rem ains only peeling to discuss. Its successful m echanisation depends m ore th a n anything else upon the volum e o f the throughput. So long as the peeling is done in small packets by the roadside in the forest, the peeling machine is unlikely to give m aterial savings in cost over hand peeling. B ut there is an advantage w ith the cutter type m echanical peeler, in th a t it can m ake w hat would otherw ise be an unm arketable p rop a saleable one. T he large peeling machine, from which m aterial reductions in peeling costs could be expected, would have to operate in some fixed centre, with an assured regular flow o f timber for barking. A lm ost certainly this w ould imply a depot set-up w ith cross-cutting and other processes carried o u t as well, and som e system o f mechanical handling. O pportunities for the concentration o f a sufficient volum e of work to justify the capital expenditure involved in such an installation seem more likely to arise as p art o f the m illing business, th an in the logging w hich we are discussing. WATERWAYS FOR CULVERTS IN BO R D ER FO R EST AREAS By V. B L A N K E N B U R G S Surveyor, N orth-East England A lthough in constructing forest roads m any thousands o f culverts m ust be built in G reat B ritain every year, it has n o t been established quite satisfactorily how to co-relate the sizes o f the culverts w ith the varying sizes o f stream s. If the w aterw ay o f the culvert should be to o small, during high w ater the road m ay becom e flooded, causing considerable dam age to the ro ad and, in some cases, to the culvert itself. (See Plates 22 and 23.) O n the oth er h an d if, for exam ple, a culvert o f 36 inch diam eter pipes is built in a stream where one o f 24 inch diam eter is sufficient, approxim ately half o f the m oney spent will be wasted. H ow then can the w aterw ay ap p ro p riate to different stream s be estim ated? Sometimes, but only in a very few cases, evidence given by the local in­ habitants, or grass or sand deposited by the flood w ater on the bank and in bushes, provide d ata to indicate the highest w ater level in ditches, sikes and rivers. F ro m such traces can be obtained th e m axim um cross-section o f the stream when the w ater level is at its highest. 160 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION U sually this kind o f evidence or d ata cannot be found and the necessary w aterw ay m ust be calculated by special form ulae which are given in various handbooks. Difficulties however still exist, because different form ulae give widely different results. W hich is the right one? To illustrate this, I would like to m ention som e o f the form ulae which I think are m ost popular in G reat Britain today. T albot a = C 4/ a 3 M yer a = C F anning a = 0 .2 3 V /V - r n , n C. B. & Q. a = 0.46875 A 3 + 0 .0 7 9 / A W here a = necessary w aterw ay for culvert in sq. ft., C in T alb o t’s form ula, according to the terrain, form o f the catchm ent area and any snow accum ulating in the area = 0.15 — 1.0 C in M yer’s form ula, according to the terrain = 1 (flat areas) to 4 (m oun­ tainous areas) A = C atchm ent area in acres. Using the appropriate coefficients o f C for the K id d er area, the waterw ay in sq. ft. has been calculated for areas o f 25 acres, 250 acres and 2,500 acres. The results are shown below in Table A: Table A T albot M yer Fanning C. B. & Q. 25 acres 5.6 10.0 3.4 2.8 250 acres 31.4 31.6 22.9 16.3 2,500 acr 176 100 156 62.5 The question regarding estim ation o f waterways o f culverts in the Border Forest districts was raised as a m atter o f urgency some five years ago, when after the very heavy rainfall on A pril 21st and 22nd 1952, many culverts on forest roads were flooded over, causing considerable dam age to the roads in som e places. T o obtain inform ation on extrem e floods in the Border area, A ssistant Engineer S. Perkins, instructed me to com m ence some research w ork in this m atter, using the m arks o f the extrem e high w ater levels left on the banks o f the stream s. This w ork has since been sym pathetically assisted by A ssistant Engineer T. Bassey and C onservancy Engineer G. W. Preston. U p to the present, some 200 m easurem ents have been taken on m ore th an 130 different stream s, and although the research w ork is still in progress some interesting d ata can already be obtained. A Short Description of the Research Area and Research Work M ost o f the research has been done on stream s in the Kielder and W ark Forests (99 and 33 stream s respectively), less in the forests o f Redesdale (3 stream s) and H arw ood (2 stream s). NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 161 The catchm ent areas vary greatly regarding the gradients, altitude, soil and vegetation. In som e areas the slopes to the stream s are m ore th an 1 in 8 (K ielder) but in W ark there are som e having slopes o f less than 1 in 50. T he altitudes vary between nearly 2,000 feet (K ielder) and 700 feet (W ark); the soil varies from rocky areas to clay or sandy clay and deep beds o f peat. Also, the vegetation in the different w atersheds varies considerably— from a thin covering o f heather on rocky and stony ground to vigorously grow ing grass on rich clay soil. Some, but not m any, o f the areas are fully covered w ith established, thick, coniferous forests. The num ber and condition o f the existing drains differ greatly in each watershed area; from only a few badly kept ‘sheep drains’ on hill grazing areas to a very well kept extensive drainage system in the newly planted forests. The yearly rainfall in the area is ab o u t 50 inches (the average, near K ielder Castle, for 1945-56 was 48.5 inches). T he m axim um rainfall for a period o f 24 hours was 2.0 inches (actually this was during approxim ately 13 hours) when one o f the highest flood levels in the area was recorded. There are no figures available for the intensity o f rainfall, as the first rain intensity recorder near K ielder C astle has only been installed a year and a half. M ost o f the w orst flooding in the area has been caused by heavy and p ro ­ longed rainfall, but som e also by snow m elting very quickly, usually in the spring. T here is also evidence o f flooding in small areas caused by local ‘cloud bursts’— rain m easured in inches o f rainfall, not actually very heavy, b u t com ing down in a very short period. A ltogether, in the period 1952-1956, som e six extremely high floods have been observed caused by rainfall, and tw o floods in spring 1953 and spring 1954 caused by quick snow melting. In addition some 20 m easurem ents have been taken o f extremely high w ater levels using some p ro o f signs left by w ater on the stream banks. In these latter cases the cause o f the flooding could not be established. In the field w ork stage, a total o f 137 stream s ranging from 44 acres to 23,340 acres in the catchm ent area have been subjected to this research. In 40 streams m easurem ents have been taken, at the same place, o f two or m ore extreme flood levels at various times. A ltogether 191 m easurem ents o f extrem e high flood w aterw ay have been taken. Method of Research Work A fter a case o f extrem ely high flooding, to obtain the m axim um w aterway of drains, sikes and rivers, a characteristic spot o f the stream was chosen. Taking into account the traces o f the highest w ater level during the flooding, the maximum cross-section was established and m easured. F o r large-size stream s a level has been used, but in small stream s direct m easurem ents have been taken. In the office stage o f the research w ork, w ith the help o f a 6 inch forest m ap and other sources o f inform ation, the following d ata have been calculated and obtained for each site o f the stream where research has been carried out. In particular the contours show n on the 6 inch m ap, when intelligently interpreted, provide m uch invaluable inform ation : (1) Acreage o f catchm ent area. (2) The m axim um w ater flow in sq. ft. (3) The am ount o f w ater in sq. ft. per 100 acres in the catchm ent area. (4) The average gradient o f the stream expressed as percentage. (5) The average gradient o f the slopes to the main stream expressed as percentage. 162 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (6) (7) (8) (9) T he average height o f the w atershed area. T he form (shape) o f the w atershed area, i.e. length divided by width. T he quality o f the drainage o f th e area (poor, m oderate, good or very good). T he am o u n t o f established forests in the w atershed area (less th an b o f the area, b, | an d m ore th a n £. T he influence o f each factor on the highest waterflow was calculated, dividing the obtained w aterw ay figures (sq. ft. per 100 acres) into groups, according to the above characteristics. Deductions As is generally know n, the controlling factor for the extrem e flood w ater­ way is the acreage in the catchm ent area. H ow ever, the am ount o f w ater from every 100 acres decreases sharply as the area o f the w atershed increases. T he figures are show n in T able B below: Table B W atershed area (1) U n d er 100 acres (A verage 89 acres) (2) 100-300 acres .... (A verage 209 acres) (3) 301-950 acres (A verage 569 acres) (4) 951-2,925 acres (A verage 1,895 acres) (5) 2,926-10,000 acres (A verage 5,310 acres) (6) O ver 10,000 acres (A verage 22,900 acres) E xtrem e W aterw ay in square feet p e r 100 acres N o. o f m easurem ents used as base for calculations 7.52 13 5.23 34 4.17 42 3.05 25 2.66 13 2.13 2 Terrain of the Catchment Area In m any o f th e run-off form ulae, also in the T albot and M yer form ulae already m entioned, terrain is regarded as a very im p o rtan t factor o f influence in extrem e flood level. U sually, however, there is little or no explanation in figures regarding w hat are ‘flat’, ‘hilly’ or ‘m o untainous’ areas, and therefore for the sam e area, very different answers could be obtained according to the form ula users. I f th e terrain really has a great influence on the flood level, it is interesting to know why. Gradient of the stream T here is a w idespread belief th a t the extrem e flood w ater in hilly areas is greater th an in flat areas, because o f the higher gradient o f the stream s. T o test this, all the areas have been divided into six groups, according to the acreage o f the catchm ent area and the average gradient o f the stream . The obtained average figures o f the extrem e flood w ater in square feet per 100 acres are show n in T able C following. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 163 Table C Area groups G ra d ien t o f S tream F lo o d W aterw ay in square feet A verage per 100 acres acreage N o. o f m easurem ents taken (1) Small areas (2) Small areas 0 . 7 % - 5.7% Av. 3.7% 6.3% — 22% Av. 9.8% 5.58 5.68 181 179 17 17 (3) M oderately sized (4) M oderately sized 2.1% — 4.4% Av. 3.3% 4 .4 % — 16.8% Av. 7.7% 4.11 4.39 520 522 21 20 (5) Large areas (6) Large areas I .I % — 3.5% Av. 2.5% 3 . 5 % - 7.7% Av. 4.5% 2.96 2.93 2,870 2,830 20 19 The above figures show th a t there is very little difference between extrem e high waterflow from stream s o f high an d low gradient, if other conditions are similar. The Average G radient of the Slopes to the M ain Stream Since the gradients o f the slopes to the stream s are extremely varied in dilferent parts o f the stream s, an d a t different distances from the stream s.it is not possible to o btain fair figures w ithout solid levelling on the spot. As this was not possible w ith the tim e available, to obtain at least approxim ate figures, a simplified m ethod has been developed, using the contours o f a 6 inch m ap. For calculations o f the slopes to the m ain stream s, 43 characteristic stream s with 100-1,000 acres in the catchm ent area have been selected. The results are show n in T able D below: Table D G radient o f Slope to Stream (1 ) Low 0.3% — 4.3% Av. 3 % (Less th a n 1 :30) (2) Moderate 4 .6 % — 6.2% Av. 5.5% (A pprox. 1 :20) (3) High 6.3% — 18% Av. 10.2% (A pprox. 1; 10) Av. W aterw ay in square feet per 100 acres Av. acreage o f catchm ent area N o. o f Stream s 4.55 352 16 4.54 358 12 4.92 362 15 There is only a very slight (approx. 8 per cent) increase in the w aterw ay o f high gradient slopes. F o r practical calculations also, th a t can be ignored. The Average Elevation of the C atchm ent Area It can be assum ed th a t in m ountainous areas the extrem e flood w ater may be increased for the higher altitudes o f the area w ith different clim ate (tem ­ perature, hum idity, rainfall, etc.) to com pare w ith nearby low altitude areas. To check o n this p o in t for th e Border area an d for com parison, useful waterway figures have been divided into tw o g roups:— C atchm ent areas w ith average elevation 660 to 1,000 feet. (36 m easurem ents) C atchm ent areas w ith average elevation 1,010 to 1,505 feet. (49 m easurem ents) The increase in the high altitude group was only 21 per cent (4.71 sq. ft. and 4.83 sq. ft. from 100 acres respectively). 164 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION The Form of the C atchm ent A rea T here is a firm ly established fact which is also indicated in som e form ulae (including T alb o t’s) th a t th e extrem e flood w aterw ay o f long an d narrow areas is less th a n th a t o f areas o f the sam e size b u t o f a m ore concentrated shape, if other conditions are similar. T he results obtained from the calculations for the Border area are shown in Table E below:-— {Note: The form o f figure = the length o f the area in the direction o f the m ain w ater stream , divided by th e average w idth o f the area. T he latter has n o t been obtained from direct m easurem ents on m ap, b u t by dividing the catchm ent area by the length o f th e area. L2 F o r practical calculations it m eans th a t the form figure = where a L = the length o f the area in the direction o f the m ain stream , in miles, and a = the catchm ent area in square miles.) Table E F o rm o f the C atchm ent area 1 W aterw ay in square j feet p e r 100 acres (1) C o n cen trated areas F o rm figure 0.65 i ............................................1 — 2.0 (2) N o t very elongated. F o rm figure ! 2.1— 3.0 ................. ' ................. (3) In elongated areas. F o rm figure I 3.1—4 .0 ............................................! (4) In very elongated areas. F o rm figure | .... 4.1 a n d o v e r ................. Av. A rea in the W atershed 4.42 4.23 3.97 3.56 N o. o f Stream s 955 32 957 39 957 23 960 12 The Influence of D rains This influence is generally recognised an d pointed out also in various form ulae for calculating the extrem e m axim um w aterw ay, but how great is it in th e B order area? T o prove this, all the different areas have been divided into tw o groups: areas w ith p o o r or m oderate drainage systems and areas w ith good or very good drainage. T he results are as show n in T able F following: Table F D rainage G ro u p S quare feet per 100 acres Av. o f a rea in acres N o. o f stream s on w hich m easure­ m ents based (1) P o o r o r M o d erate drainage. .. (2) G o o d o r very g o o d ................. 3.53 3.85 1,569 1,555 43 71 NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 165 1957 The Influence o f the Forest There are still varying opinions on this m atter. A lthough the previously m entioned form ulae a n d m any other ‘ru n -o ff’ form ulae do n o t consider forest as a factor which influences the flood levels, m any sylviculturists— especially on the C ontinent, share a view contrary to that. Also som e newly established ‘run-off’ form ulae, sim ilar to those in th e State Forests in Latvia, include forest as an im p o rtan t factor in w aterw ay calculations. A dditional research w ork done in K ielder forest ab o u t “ waterway capacity” o f spruce crowns, an d observations on the covering o f snow and rate o f the melting o f th e snow in the forest an d open spaces can prove, I think, the follow ­ ing conclusions:— There are, in the B order area, tw o causes which lead to extrem e flooding and in each case the influence o f th e forest is quite different. (a) Floods caused by heavy an d prolonged rainfall or cloudbursts. (b) Floods caused by rapidly m elting snow, usually in spring time. The figures in T able G below refer to (a) above. Table G D escription o f a rea groups W aterw ay square feet p e r 100 acres A verage acreage N o. of Stream s (1) A reas w ith 100 per cent established forest (Spruce stands) ................. 4.46 540 23 (2) A reas w ithout F orest 5.14 539 39 The figures show th a t an established spruce forest may decrease the flood waterway in the B order area by som e 13 per cent o f th a t in areas w ithout forest, if the flooding is caused by heavy, prolonged rain—this figure appears to be very small but, I think, is easily explained. Daily rainfall m easurem ents for a year under a very thick and well estab­ lished N orw ay Spruce p lan tatio n n ear K ielder Castle, have show n th a t the ‘water capacity’ o f the tree crow ns—th e m axim um am ount o f w ater th a t can be absorbed by th e tree crow ns—does n o t exceed 0.25-0.30 inches o f rain. T here­ fore, even 100 per cent th ick coniferous forest cannot absorb m ore th a n som e 20 per cent o f a rainfall heavy enough to cause flooding ( l i t0 2 inches during 24 h our period). T he actual difference reaching the soil in forest and open spaces will be less. In an open space a rem arkable p art o f the rainfall will be absorbed by grass an d other grow th covering the soil, but in thick forests such grow th is n o t usually present, and all the rain falling through the crowns reaches the soil. A lthough n o t enough d a ta has been gathered to produce definite figures regarding the influence o f the forest o n extrem e flooding caused by quick snow melting, some general conclusions can already be draw n. Such flooding can be caused only in regions where snow can accum ulate over a great extent an d in deep layers. This occurs in the Border area usually only a t altitudes above 1,000 feet. Some observations have clearly show n th at when severe flooding has occurred in elevated altitude regions which are o f the open m oorland type, in sim ilarly situated, b u t forest-covered areas little o r no flooding has occurred. T he explanation for this is simple— the accum ulation of snow in a thick coniferous forest is very m uch less th an in open country, while the m elting rate is m uch slower due to the snow deposit being shielded from the effect o f rain, w ind an d sun by th e trees. 166 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A lthough only research w ork can prove it, I am o f the opinion th a t quick snow m elting cannot cause extrem e flooding in the Border region, in catchm ent areas covered by established coniferous forest. Replying to the question o f w hether prolonged rain or quick m elting snow m akes the greater contribution tow ards increasing the w ater levels, calculations based on 92 floodings caused by rain and 41 by quick snow m elting have show n th a t the flood heights are very nearly the sam e (actually the latter flood figure was 2 per cent higher). Practical uses of the Research Material U sing the calculated figures ab o u t the influence o f the forest, drainage system an d form o f the catchm ent area, on the extrem e flood level, all the collected d ata on w aterw ay has been b ro u g h t to a ‘stan d ard ’ catchm ent area possessing the following features: (a) L ength o f the catchm ent area— n o t m ore th an three tim es the w idth. (b) Very good drainage system. (c) N o forest in the catchm ent area. T he catchm ent area p lo tted against th e corresponding p o in t o f the w ater­ way produces a num ber o f scattered points. Ignoring som e extrem e m axim um points, a curve can be draw n over the points which can be used to find the m axim um cross-sectional area o f the extrem e flood w ater in natural stream beds. EXTREME FLOOD WATER WAY IN BORDER FOREST DISTRICTS C O ND I T I O NS J I S U M S I D Y C* I C H N I N I » » l * WI THOUT 1ST* SLi SHI D TO»I STS. Vl «Y WILL 0 1 a INI o L I N C ' M OF TMl t l | < IS 2 • J Tl Hl S C 8 t » T t « THAN WI DTH 500 A_, ^ X : * s'+* ■> 00 IO O / '' X Ax < ” s I oO oz o IT X ' ® > . *><» + / ■ ; * ° T^ IO A •" 9 / tfc 0„* 0 *+ e 0 o + v o - ♦ + + 0 * . •f + f * *«■ of 0 ° o 0 + 0 e + A 2 5 floods ■ • c a u s i o by iain • • Q U l C I S NOW MIL T INC CA Ut l NOT I N O W N 1 IO 40 100 1, 000 CATCHMENT AREA IN 10,0 0 0 2 5 ,0 0 0 ACRES ( L o q o n l h m i c Sc o le ) Fig. 5. R elationship betw een C atchm ent A rea and E xtrem e F lood W aterw ay. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 167 A dditional sim ultaneous m easurem ents o f the extrem e flood waterw ay in stream beds an d in existing culverts on the sam e stream , have show n th a t the actual area o f the culvert can be safely m ade 75 to 85 per cent o f the particular stream flood w aterw ay. This is due to the flow o f w ater being m uch faster in the straight an d sm ooth culvert, th an in th e corresponding section o f the stream , where the speed o f the w ater is influenced an d slowed dow n by the uneven bed, bends and other obstructions. Table H EXTREM E F L O O D W A T E R W A Y IN B O R D E R FO R E S T STREA M B ED S A N D IN C U L V E R T S Form o f the catchm ent area 2.1- 3.0 Very well drained; w ithout forest. W aterw ay in square feet W atershed area acres In n a tu ra l stream beds 40 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000 20,000 25,000 2.8 3.8 4.8 6.2 8.6 10.8 12.7 16.9 20.7 24.7 31.5 38.5 44.5 53.5 66.0 78.5 91.5 109.0 128.0 144.0 174.0 202.0 225.0 257.0 306.0 354.0 396.0 468.0 509.0 F o r culverts 2.1 2.8 3.6 4.7 6.5 8.2 9.6 12.8 15.9 19.0 24.6 30.0 35.0 42.5 53.5 64.5 76.0 91.5 109.0 — — — — — — — — — ------- The extrem e flood figures for stream beds draining various areas draw n from the curve and p roposed w aterw ay for culverts are show n above in Table H . It m ust be rem em bered th a t th e figures relate to a catchm ent area w ith the ‘standard’ features already m entioned. If the catchm ent area is different, the obtained figures m ust be m ultiplied by the constant show n below. ; (a) I f the area is poorly drained an d there is every likelihood th a t it will stay so in the d istan t future = 0.90 (6) If the form o f the catchm ent area is betw een 3.1 and 4.0 = .95 168 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (c) Tf the established coniferous forest is covering approxim ately: i o f the area = .95 4 o f the area = .90 ^ or m ore o f the area = .85 A n example is given below to illustrate the above passage. W hat is the necessary w aterw ay for a culvert in the B order Forest area if:— The acreage o f the catchm ent area is 150 acres; the length o f the area is m ore than four times th e w idth; the area is 100 per cent covered by coniferous forest and the drainage is, an d will be m oderate ? The ‘stan d ard ’ w aterw ay for 150 acres is 9.6 sq. ft. (Page 1 6 7 )b u tfo rth e area in question it will be:— 9 .6 X .9 0 ( m o d e r a t e d r a in a g e ) x .8 5 ( fo r m fig u r e m o r e t h a n 4 ) X .8 5 (fo r e s t c o v e r in g J o r m o r e o f t h e a r e a ). = 6.2 sq. ft. A Critical review of the Research Methods and value of results The very large distribution o f points in the diagram casts som e doubts on the efficiency and correctness o f the m easurem ents, and the general approach o f the research m ethod itself. However, th e great variations o f the m axim um flood w ater flow for tw o or m ore sim ilar catchm ent areas can be explained in several w ay s: 1. The extrem e flood w aterw ay figures have been obtained from not less th a n eight floods a t various tim es, an d it is m ost probable th a t all these floods did not reach the sam e level. 2. F o r the sam e am ount in cu. ft. o f w ater, the w aterw ay in sq. ft. can be different, since the speed o f the w ater is affected by conditions o f the stream tied (obstacles, bends, etc.). 3. M any m ore factors can have m inor influences on the extrem e flood level, but have n o t been, or cannot be, taken into account. To m ention som e: (a) Soil consistency. (b) D irection o f orientation o f the catchm ent area. (A rea facing South has a larger evaporation rate th a n one facing N orth.) (c) Speed an d direction o f wind during rainfall responsible for the flood. (d) State o f soil during rainfall o r ju st before it (w hether frozen, saturated w ith water, o r dry). 4. T he m ost im p o rtan t factor which causes variations in m axim um flood levels for otherw ise sim ilar areas is th e very unevenly distributed rain­ fall, even in closely situated areas. T he figures given opposite su p p o rt this statem ent. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 169 1957 W aterw ay in square feet p e r 100 acres o f W atershed Stream N o. a n d Beat No. No. No. N o. No. No. 4— K ielder 12—K ielder 4—K ielder 31— Plashetts 41— Plashetts 26—Plashetts Note', (a) (b) F lo o d o r 2.4.52 Rainfall 2 inches in 13 hours 8.10 5.73 5.77 2.59 3.29 6.63 | F lo o d o f 16.8.56 R ainfall 1.38 inches in 15 hours 2.75 2.48 2.73 3.06 4.19 10.00 T he rainfall figures were obtained from rain gauge reports at K ielder Castle. The utm o st distance betw een the above w atersheds does not exceed five miles and in the period 1952-1956 there were no im portant changes in the affected areas. 5. D raw ing the curve on the g raph (page 166) some 5 per cent o f all the points, regarded as extrem e, have been left above the line. F rom th a t we can assum e th a t som e 5 per cent o f the culverts, if based on the curve, will be liable to overflooding, but such small risk is econom ically and technically justified for th e following reasons: (a) Experience shows th a t a slight and brief forest ro ad overflooding does n o t affect traffic or silvicultural operations, and does n o t cause any o r only very slight dam age to the road. (b) O n the whole, th e expense saved by m aking all the rem aining (95 per cent) culverts ab o u t 20 per cent sm aller, will give a great saving against the cost o f repairing the dam age to the roads and culverts o f the 5 per cent th a t get overflooded. Conclusions I. ‘R un-off’ form ulae for extrem e flood waterway, which do n o t reflect local rainfall, tem perature, etc. can n o t suit equally well for all clim atic regions. It will therefore be very useful for practical engineering w ork if the F orestry C om m ission, or oth er R esearch Institutions, could produce the necessary adjustm ents for existing ‘R un -o ff’ form ulae, or develop new form ulae suitable for all p arts o f G reat Britain. II. A lthough the catchm ent area is the m ain factor which influences the extrem e flood w aterw ay, to achieve d ata for m ost econom ical planning, the form o f the catchm ent, existing drainage system and am ount o f established forests m ust be taken into account. III. T he research w ork on extrem e flood w aterw ay in the Border Forest region has been done on a com paratively sm all and very local scale. Therefore, the figures produced m ust be regarded as provisional, and can be applied in the B order area only. 170 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION I M P R E S S IO N S O F F O R E S T W O R K IN S W E D E N A R E P O R T O F AN IN S T R U C T IO N A L T O U R By M. E. S. D IC K E N S O N D istrict Officer, Education Branch T he C ourse was arranged for the Forestry Com m ission by Sandvikens Jernverks A ktiebolag o f Sandviken, Sweden, and was attended by six A ssistant Foresters und er the leadership o f myself. Scholarships were aw arded to the six A ssistant Foresters by the Intern atio n al L abour Office; they had previously received instruction in to o l m aintenance in B ritain and visited factories in Britain m anufacturing saws and edge tools, and had spent a period o f m onths instructing in to o l m aintenance in the field, thus obtaining a general picture o f the standards o f tool m anufacture, m aintenance and use, on which they could base com parisons o f Swedish standards. PART I Sandvikens Jernverks Aktiebolag Sandvik Iron W orks Company The steel w orks was founded rath er less th a n a century ago, and by inter­ national standards is n o t very large. The raw m aterials used com prise iron ore from the C om pany’s own mine, mill waste from the steelworks, and com m ercial waste bought outside. F rom them are produced strip and tubular steels, both alloyed and unalloyed, an d to differing specifications, by m ethods general th ro u g h o u t the steel industry. T he aim is to produce high grade steels o f uniform quality, so th a t they m ay be guaranteed within tight specifications. W ithin recent years a factory has been set up to m anufacture certain finished products from the steel, though the m ajority o f this continues to be sold in an unm anufactured state. The principle finished products are saws, springs, tungsten carbide tipped tools (particularly rock drills), and m achine knives. N o-one on th e course was qualified to com m ent critically on the m anu­ facturing processes or m ethods, b u t certain im pressions stand out when com ­ paring w hat was seen w ith sim ilar w orks in Britain. First, an im pression of cleanliness; no pall o f sm oke hung over the w orks, and inside, except in the smelting furnace buildings, floors, m achines and air were all rem arkably free from d irt an d dust. This is p a rt o f a definite policy, since n o t only are w orking conditions im proved, but th e quality o f the products can be adversely affected even by dust. This cleanliness is greatly assisted by the alm ost com plete electrification o f the works. Secondly, we gained an im pression o f a great deal m ore autom ation. The suprem e exam ple was a large h o t rolling mill for strip steel which was run, on shifts, entirely by seventeen m en. A t the tim e o f our visit only four were seen, one o f w hom was eating his lunch. M any o f the m achine operators sit dow n at their w ork in specially designed chairs which give support to their backs, since the chief occupational m alady a t the w orks is back-ache. In the saw factory m any processes, such as tensioning, sharpening an d setting were carried o u t by m achine, giving m uch greater precision and uniform ity th an is possible by hand, and this is one o f the o utstanding points o f superiority o f Swedish saws— the condition in which they are received by the user. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 171 The th ird im pression was o f repeated testing, the m anufacture o f the article being controlled at each stage. A percentage are tested at every stage and any variation from the perm itted tolerances results in a m uch higher percentage check, and, should this also show variations, the rejection o f the w hole batch. This control can be m aintained after despatch o f the finished article, since the m anufacturing history o f th at article can be traced back should any com plaint be received. Finally, it was very obvious th a t the m anufacturers knew w hat the user wanted, and also w hat would best do the jo b . T here was continual research to find som ething th a t w ould do the jo b better, an d to educate users to the uses and care o f particu lar products, and continual contact with the users and the conditions under which the products were used. Saw Manufacture All saw blades are m anufactured from high grade cold rolled strip steel. This steel is hard, to ensure long life an d retain an edge well, but n o t so hard that it is brittle and liable to ru p tu re in norm al, careful work. A fter the blades have been cut from the strip all felling, cross-cut and hand saws are ground, tapering to the back, and in the case o f one-m an saws, from handle to point. They are ground so th at, provided the original saw shape is m aintained, all the teeth will be o f the sam e thickness. The tooth-shape is then stam ped o u t and the saw tensioned by rollers, w ith a final touching up by hand, th o u g h the machine operators appear sufficiently skilled to reduce this to a m atter o f one or two taps with a ham m er. There follows m achine filing and setting, which ensures th at all teeth are sharpened and set to the sam e degree. Bow saw blades are not ground, b u t otherw ise undergo the sam e treatm ent, and N os. 21 and 51, in addition, undergo a tip-hardening process. In this the top l/3 2 n d o f an inch o f each to o th is subjected to high frequency electrical currents for a sh o rt period, which gives the extrem e tip o f the tooth, which alone is concerned w ith cutting, the hardness o f a good file. Saw Frames and Handles The C om pany m anufacture their own bow saw fram es from tu b u lar steel. The tube is oval in section and incorporates a tensioning lever which enables a tension o f 400 lb. to be p u t on the blade. This tension is essential if the saw is to w ork efficiently, particularly w ith th e narrow tip-hardened blades. W hen the blade is under tension it should n o t be possible to distort the blade m ore th an 15° in either direction when gripped between the knuckles o f the first and second finger. T he tensioning lever also enables th e tension to be taken off easily, which should be done when the saw is n o t in use. Two types o f fram e are m anufactured, th e N o. 8 which is o f fixed sizes from 24 to 42 inches, and the No. 25 which is adjustable either for 36 and 42 inch blades, or for 42 and 48 inch blades. B oth these fram es are tested to a tension o f 1,000 lb. so th a t there is no likelihood o f th e 400 lb. pressure exerted when a blade is inserted distorting the frame. O ne-m an saw handles for cross-cut an d felling saws, and jo iners’saws o f all kinds, are supplied either in plastic or lam inated w ood as required. T he advan­ tage o f these over the older solid w ood handles is th a t under norm al conditions they are unbreakable. T he plastic handle is cold to the hand in low tem peratures, and a t tem peratures o f ab o u t 12°F. an d below becom e brittle and easily broken; the lam inated w ood handle is superior in these respects, b u t m ust be kept varnished to exclude m oisture, which w ould cause distortion. 172 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Uses of Various Types of Sandvik Saws There are tw o basic types o f dentatio n in saws, the peg-tooth type and the raker type, and though to o th shape an d arrangem ent may vary in each for different conditions, tw o basic principles apply: 1 Peg-tooth types are m ore suitable for h ard or frozen wood, and raker types for soft, fast-grow n, green wood. 2 Peg-tooth types are m ore difficult to m aintain, and quickly become inefficient if n o t properly m aintained. F ro m these tw o principles it m ay be seen th at in the m ajority o f Forestry Com m ission plantations o f fast-grow n conifers, and with semi-skilled, or even unskilled labour, the raker type saws are likely to be m ore efficient th a n pegto o th types. B oth types o f d entation are supplied in each type o f saw. Two-men Cross-cut Saw This is the m ost fam iliar type o f saw to British woodsm en, particularly that with a to o th arrangem ent o f four lance cutting teeth to one raker tooth. It is m anufactured by Sandviks (N o. 915) with a curved to o th line— so th a t only a few teeth are w orking a t any time, m aking for sm ooth and efficient cutting— and hollow back— to reduce friction and perm it the driving o f wedges behind the saw if necessary. It is supplied in lengths from 4 to 8 feet. This type is m ost suitable for felling large, unfrozen conifers, though w ith adjustm ents to the to o th shape and set it m ay also be used for large hardw oods. It is considered, in Sweden, to be inefficient to use a tw o-m an saw on trees less th a n 20 inch diam eter a t the butt, an d this type o f saw is rapidly being superseded by the one-m an pow er saw. It is also supplied w ith two curved cutting teeth to one raker, and this is considered to be the m ost efficient cutting instrum ent. However, it has the serious disadvantage th a t if one cutting to o th is n o t w orking, through fracture or poor m aintenance, there is a large gap between cutting teeth at th at point, as may be seen from the diagram . (Figure 6.) Fig. 6. R a k e r cross-cut saw w ith cutting teeth in pairs. F o r cross-cutting, th e use o f a straight-backed saw is preferable since this gives greater rigidity, and there is no occasion for using wedges. T he peg-toothed types o f this saw are unlikely to have any general applica­ tion in Britain, but m ight well be used by skilled fellers in hardw ood areas. It is unlikely, even in N o rth Scotland, th a t conifers will be as slow grow n o r as frozen as in the N o rth ern p a rt o f Sweden, where this type o f saw is found to be the m ost satisfactory, though it is n o t greatly used even there, as under these conditions few trees reach a sufficient size to justify a tw o-m an saw. One-man Felling Saw This type o f saw is in general use in Sweden for felling trees between 9 and 20 inches diam eter a t the b u tt, the dim ensions w ith which the Swedes and our NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 173 Forestry Com m ission, are chiefly concerned. It is a type o f saw which has never gained favour in B ritain, though the reasons for this do n o t seem to extend beyond ignorance o f use-techniques, and conservatism . Five saws o f this type are m ade by Sandviks: N o. 704 has four lance cutting teeth and one rak er as w ith the tw o-m an N o. 915, breasted, b u t w ith a straight back; it is available in lengths from 39 to 54 inches. N os. 242, 243, 244 and 245 are all peg-tooth types. The 242 Bredby has the teeth at approxim ately 86° to the back o f the saw, is breasted and 38 inches long, tapering from 5 J inches in width at the handle to 2j| inches at the point. T he 243 and 244 Tiger saws are similar except th a t the teeth are at approxim ately 89° to the back o f the saw, for 2/3rds o f the length nearer the handle in th e 243, but th ro u g h o u t the length in the 244. T he 245 K ing Tiger is sim ilar to the 244, but only 3§ inches wide at the handle and 2£ inches at the point, and is not breasted. The greater angles o f the teeth give m ore bite b u t are m ore difficult to use and m aintain, and are therefore only suitable for m ore experienced fellers; the narrow w idth o f the 245 m eans lower friction and therefore faster cutting, b u t at the cost o f rigidity, and therefore are only suitable for the m ost experienced fellers. As it is not breasted the use technique o f this saw differs from the others. F or present British conditions the 704 rak er type w ould seem to have possibilities, and even the 242 for hardw ood thinnings, if prejudice can be overcome. Bow Saws These saws are used for cross cutting and for felling trees up to 9 inch butt diam eter. They are essentially a one-m an saw and even the larger sizes are not intended to be used by tw o men. Blades, b o th ordinary an d hard-point, are m anufactured with peg-tooth and raker dentations. In the peg-tooth types the gullets are o f varying sizes to prevent vibration or ‘ch atter’ when the saw is in use. The raker type have a tooth arrangem ent o f tw o cutters to one rak er— w ith the m uch sm aller teeth the gap caused by th e non-w orking o f a cutter is n o t so significant. Also breakage is less likely, and bad m aintenance is elim inated in the case o f h ard-point blades. The argum ents in favour o f hard-tipped blades are very strong. They are guaranteed to rem ain sharp at least three times as long as an unhardened blade, so th at provided a new h ard-point blade costs less th an a m an’s tim e to carry out two sharpenings o f an ordinary blade it is m ore econom ic, and there is no doubt that this is so. Secondly it is not easy to sharpen bow saw blades well because of the small size o f the teeth— this is particularly so in the case o f the peg-tooth type— so th a t for unskilled m en there is no d o u b t th a t they would w ork m ore efficiently w ith hard-tip blades and their increased production w ould justify some additional cost, even if this should exist. Finally there is a saving on the provision o f equipm ent and tools for the sharpening o f bow saws. F or efficiency, bow saw blades m ust be kept at sufficient tension, and the use o f p oor quality frames, or ones which have becom e strained in any way, will make them p oor tools. O ther points th a t m ust be observed in using bow saws are, first, th a t as there is no breast on the blade the saw m ust be rocked slightly in use so th a t only a few teeth are biting at one time, and secondly, both hands should be used on the saw, the right h a n d as close as possible to the blade, supplying the m otive pow er for the saw, and the left ju st in front o f the rear curve o f the fram e, steadying the saw and providing a slight dow nw ard pressure. 174 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Two m en using a bow saw are unlikely to produce twice as m uch as one m an using the sam e saw, an d all “ non-saw ing” tim e is im m ediately doubled. W ith this proviso there is no d o u b t th a t bow saws could be used m uch m ore in Britain in early thinnings, using N o. 21 h ard-tipped blades, with advantage. Pruning Saw T he Sandvik 339 pruning saw, while generally sim ilar to the G recian type com m only in use in Britain, has tw o innovations which w ould seem to be o f distinct advantage, particularly when used on a pole for high pruning. There is a “ buffer” a t the poin t which prevents the saw com ing out o f the cut, and at the base there is a chisel edge which, as the saw is pushed up, cuts th ro u g h the bark and bast, thus preventing tearing w hen the branch snaps off. However, the socket on this saw seems rath er weak for high pruning in plantations. As despatched from the factory this saw is sharpened for cross-cutting. In practise branches are frequently at an angle other th an a right angle to the bole and therefore pruning is not cross-cutting, but is an action interm ediate betw een cross-cutting an d ripping, and it w ould be better if the teeth were sharpened as fo r the general-purpose hand-saw . M aintenance of Saws It is im portant, when sharpening a saw, to know why a to o th is a p articu lar shape; it is then m uch m ore likely th at the right shape will be obtained. T hree actions m ust be perform ed by a cross-cut saw, which is the type norm ally required in forest operatio n s; these three actions are: (a) To cut the fibres across a t two points; (b) T o break or chisel off the fibres from the th ird side between the two cuts; (c) T o push th e saw dust thus form ed o u t o f the cut. T he tw o types o f d entation— peg-tooth an d raker— perform these actions differently an d m ust be sharpened accordingly. Raker Type Saws In these saws the fibres are cut by approxim ately l/32nd o f an inch a t the side o f the tip. T he cutting is n o t done by the p o int and the saw will w ork even if the teeth are n o t sharpened to a point, th o u g h this will form an extra small breast an d result in additional friction. T he m ain breast o f the to o th perform s no function an d should be rem oved to reduce friction (see Figure 7(a) below). chisel breast ■aiter cutting -•-flat (a) (b) (c) Fig. 7. Sharpening rak ers a n d rak er saw cutting teeth. A fter the fibres are cut they are chiselled out by the chisel edge o f the rakers, and the saw dust is pushed out by the flat side o f the raker (Figure 7(b)). The chisel edge m ay be swaged or not, b u t m ust be slightly lower than the cutting teeth. W hen sighted along the saw it should appear as in Figure 7 (c). NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 175 1957 The principles o f sharpening this type o f saw are well know n in Britain. Peg-Tooth Type Saws In this type o f saw there is only one shape o f to o th — which m ay vary in different saws— and this to o th m ust therefore perform all three operations. The cutting is done by the edge o f the tip as w ith the lance tooth, the fibre is broken off by the breast o f the tooth, which m ust n o t be rem oved, and the saw dust is pushed out by the “ flat” below the cutting edge. This m eans th a t the tooth m ust not be sharpened to the base o f the gullet, and it is in this th a t peg-tooth saws are so often incorrectly sharpened, particularly where the teeth are small, as in bow saws. (See Figure 8.) filed , edqeX^^ edq< n0 flaF>*^ / ^breast ^reast -flat flat b. Riqht Fig. 8. S h a rp e n in g p eg te e th . In cross-cut and felling saws o f either type the gullet should not be low ered more than one inch o r the tension o f the saw will be affected. Barking Spade The barking spade m anufactured by Sandviks (N o. 975) differs from those in com m on use in Britain in two ways; it has a sharp edge, and a changeable blade. T he blade has a long bevel o n to p and a short bevel below. T he actual anale o f this lower bevel should be varied to suit the individual user. (See Figure 9 -f The tool incorporates a hook a t the side to assist in turning logs and the handle is rath er longer th an used in Britain. All these points are designed to ease the jo b o f peeling and so increase o utput, and the tool would seem to justify field trials. F ig. 9. B a rk in g s p a d e in use. 176 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION General Considerations T here can be no question th a t saw m aintenance has been sadly neglected in the Forestry C om m ission in the past. This is partly the fault o f the system by which saws are issued to w orkers and can be exchanged for another if their condition becomes b a d ; partly due to the fact th a t saw m aintenance is a jo b which can be done indoors and is therefore ‘saved u p ’ for wet w eather; and partly due to the m ore or less com plete absence o f reasonable facilities for proper saw m aintenance. In Sweden all w oodm en own their own tools; they are the tools o f their trade by which they earn their living, a n d th e extent o f their earnings is largely dependent on the condition o f their tools. They know th a t tim e spent on their m aintenance is n o t ju st a useful jo b when they cannot be outside; they also know th a t a saw can n o t be sharpened properly w ithout proper equipm ent and light. Successful sharpening depends on being able to see the reflection o f light on filed surfaces and this m eans th at, if the jo b is to be done indoors, artificial light is alm ost always necessary. O f the equipm ent, the first essential is a steady clam p. T he Sandvik p attern portab le clam p is easily m ade and enables the saw to be clam ped either vertically or at 45°, b u t w ould be im proved by the addition o f a box or shelf for tools required in sharpening. If all m aintenance, other than touching up, is to be done at a central building, perm anent clam ps on fixed benches should be provided. The tools required will vary w ith the type o f saw, bu t m ust include files o f an ap p ro p riate hardness— British files for Swedish saws are o f little use— and instrum ents to ensure precision setting and adjust­ m ent o f rakers. It is obviously desirable th a t all w oodm en should learn to sharpen saws properly, a t any rate those regularly engaged on sawing, but until this can be achieved it m ight be necessary for certain capable men to do all the saw m ain­ tenance. PART n Hults Bracks Aktiebolag This C om pany is prim arily concerned w ith the m anufacture o f paper pulp, with a large pulpm ill at N orkopping. They required further forest land to supply raw m aterial for this mill and to obtain this they purchased the axe factory at Aby an d the considerable forests which it owned. T he m anufacture o f axes is therefore in the nature o f a sideline for this p articular Com pany, though their concern w ith it has resulted in m any im provem ents. Manufacture of Axes The axe heads are hand forged from high grade steel, followed by grinding and annealing. It is, in fact, a sim ilar process to th at em ployed in Britain, and the quality o f the steel alone accounts for any difference. It should be noted, however, th at in Swedish axes the eye is ‘choked’, th at is, smallest in the middle and not at the end. This, is it claimed, m akes the shafting m ore secure, but it also m akes shafting m ore difficult. Shafting is a t present done by hand, though it is proposed to install m achinery for this work. It was surprising to see th a t the m ajority o f the shafts were of birch. The stan d ard o f shafting was n o t high, the m ajority o f heads being too high above the shoulder, and m any o f them underhung. T he wedges used are of Scots pine, which seems inferior to hardw ood. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 177 Axes are produced in weights from 2 lb. to 5 \ lb. w ith shafts from 26 to 36 inches. O n the whole the axes have less shoulder th an those in Britain. Use of Axes in Sweden W oodm en in Sweden use a lighter (2 to 3 lb.), thinner axe on a shorter shaft th an is com m on in B ritain, b u t this difference is largely accounted fo r by the difference in felling technique. T he m ajority o f felling is done in the w inter and is done at snow-level. O n average this m eans th a t trees are felled 12 to 18 inches above g round level, an d this practise continues even in sum m er. C on­ sequently felling is done above any norm al buttress and there is no necessity to axe this off. W hen th e saw is som e 2/3rds th ro u g h the stem, a few cuts w ith an axe, w ithout any effort to cut horizontally, prevent splitting, and if necessary wedges are used to control the fall. T he axe therefore, is used alm ost solely as a snedding tool. Trees are o f three species only, N orw ay spruce, Scots pine and birch, slow grow n and seldom exceed 18 inch q u arter girth at the butt, in fact quite unlike the fast grow n conifers and large hardw oods w ith which fellers are chiefly concerned in Britain. T he w ood is harder and less resilient, p ar­ ticularly in w inter when it is frozen, hence the sm aller shoulder, and being used chiefly for trim m ing, a light axe is adequate for the jo b and m ore easily handled. It is used w ith b o th hands held a t the end o f th e shaft, an d can be swung to left or right. In the different conditions in B ritain an axe o f at least 3 ^lb. w ould seem preferable. Maintenance of Axes F o r sh a rp e n in g . axes a grindstone or file and a sm ooth w hetstone are required. The grindstone should be turned tow ards the axe an d kept w et with clean water. T urning away from the axe results in less ‘bite’ and therefore a longer tim e to achieve the desired result, an d w ater containing particles o f stone will result in scratches in the m etal an d consequent longer honing. In grind­ stones w ith a w ater tank, the w ater should be drained off after use or th a t p a rt of the stone standing in the w ater will becom e softer th an the rest. T here is no reason against filing an axe as long as all the file m arks are honed aw ay w ith the whetstone, and the stone is used to give the final edge— this is ju st as im p o rtan t where a grindstone is used, though less honing will be necessary to obtain a sm ooth finish. The curve o f the edge should be the arc o f a circle whose centre is the point of balance o f the axe head. This will ensure th at the point o f im pact is the centre o f the edge, with the full weight o f the blow behind it, provided the head is properly hung. The shafting o f axes is fully understood in Britain, even though practise does n o t always live up to theory. PART III Korsnas Aktiebolag This C om pany was founded in 1855 w ith a sawmill on Lake R unn, close to Falun, b u t at the beginning o f this century was m oved to the Baltic p o rt o f Gavle. In 1910 a sulphite pulp mill was built, to be followed five years later by a sulphate mill. A n alcohol p lan t an d a p ap er mill followed in 1918 and 1925 respectively. T he sawmill, and pulp and p ap er mills, are on opposite sides o f a small bay into which flows th e log flume from the D al River. This flume carries 75 per cent o f the tim ber com ing to the mills, w ith a capacity o f 100,000 logs a day. 178 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION This tim ber comes partly from th e C om pany’s forests, which extend to 1,050,000 acres o f which 825,000 acres are productive, and partly (40% ) from purchases. It is w orthy o f note th a t the current annual increm ent o f these forests is stated to be only 47 hoppus feet per acre. The mills use 62 m illion gallons o f w ater per day which is obtained through a 55 inch pipe line 6 miles long from the D al River, and pow er consum ption is 25.000 kilow atts. The figures are given as an indication o f the size o f the undertaking. Sawmill The mill was com pletely re-built in 1948 an d so is one o f the m ore m odern mills in Sweden. The logs are stored in the log pond and draw n o u t by conveyor into the barking m achines. T here are three A ndersson barking machines, autom atically fed and w orking on sim ilar principles to the Bezner peeler on a larger scale. They rem ove the bark effectively, though leaving the exterior surface rough. A H illbrom b ark er in which sm aller logs are tum bled in w ater is now only used as a reserve. A fter barking, the logs are sorted and returned to the pond. A further elevator conveyor takes them from the pond to the saw house. A t the to p o f this conveyor they pass under a m etal detector, which, if activated, stops all th e saws until the log has been-rem oved. In the saw house there are four gang saw units, each com prising four gang saws. Three o f these units are in operation a t any one time. The saw yer’s jo b is simplified by having overhead wires lighted from above which cast shadow s on the benches showing where the saw cuts will be. Everything moves on conveyor belts which, after sawing, take the various size tim bers to the prim ary grading shed, where it is graded by dim ensions. T he grader, noting the end dim ensions o f a piece o f tim ber, pulls it out so th a t the end projects a certain distance over the side o f the conveyor belt. D ow n the side o f the belt are a num ber o f trip levers, at different distances from the side. In this way all tim bers o f the sam e end dim ension trip the same lever and are dro p p ed th ro u g h the belt into the same wagon below. These wagons tak e the tim ber to the drying kiln, where it is seasoned for shipm ent. F ro m the kilns it is tak en to the second grading plant where it is graded by quality and length. By a series o f electrical tim ing devices and contacts the grade and length are stam ped on the ends o f each piece o f tim ber, and it is sorted into its ap p ro p riate grading merely by the grader selecting one o f three quality grade levers as the piece o f tim ber passes him. T he tim ber is then stacked in the storage shed. This shed, entirely constructed o f w ood, can accom m odate 10,000 stan­ dards o f tim ber, so th a t all the sawn tim ber can be stored under cover before loading on ship. T he rail track from th e storage shed to the covered quay is also covered, so th a t there is a continuous covered area o f nearly half a mile. Saw m ill waste is chipped and used in the sulphate pulp mill at the rate of 33.000 cords a year, and in addition saw dust, b ark and other waste unsuitable for chipping supplies 40 per cent o f the fuel used in the steam generating plant. T here is a great deal o f autom ation as can be seen from the above notes, but the sawmilling is greatly simplified in th a t the mill is dealing with tim ber o f two species only, and w ithin a very small range o f sizes. W hen Britain is p ro ­ ducing large quantities o f small size conifer saw logs, as will be the case in the foreseeable future, mills o f this kind will be required to handle them . Pulp and Paper Mills T he sulphate and paper mills were visited; the operations concerned were too technical for pro p er com prehension, b u t there appeared to be no fu nda­ m ental differences from the sam e processes in Britain. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 179 Again there were the im pressions o f cleanliness and au to m atio n —such devices as a jet o f water, which when broken by a log passing under it broke an electrical circuit, and in this way the logs com ing into the plant were counted. The sulphite mill uses only spruce, the sulphate mill spruce and pine. Between them they consum e 235,000 cords o f tim ber a year in addition to the sawmill waste. H ere again the products are loaded directly on to ocean-going ships from storage sheds on the quayside. This C om pany is an example o f a com pletely integrated tim ber-utilising concern where virtually nothing o f the log is wasted, but it seems unlikely th at British forestry could sustain a concern o f this kind for a considerable time, though there is equally no d o u b t th at, with our m uch greater grow th rate, th at that time will come. PART IV Kratte Masugn Forestry School The School The background to forestry education in Sweden is the fact th a t the m ajority of the forests are in private hands; practically every farm er owns some w ood­ land since it provides em ploym ent, and income, during the w inter m onths, and the vast m ajority o f forest w ork is done as piecew ork so th at it behoves a w ood­ man to learn his jo b thoroughly. K ratte M asugn School is owned by the p ro ­ vincial governm ent o f Gavleborg, on m uch the same basis as the county farm institutes in Britain. It provides courses for budding woodsm en, farm ers’ sons, and anyone likely to be concerned with the m anagem ent o f small areas o f w ood­ land. A lthough it is not a prerequisite to have attended one o f these schools to obtain entrance to the State Forester Schools, in practice there is little chance o f entry w ithout having done so because com petition is so great. The School provides three courses during a year: (a) A fifteen week course from Septem ber to D ecem ber for boys o f 15 straight from school. T hirty boys attend each course and are selected purely on school record an d headm aster’s recom m endation. It is essentially a practical course dealing w ith the use and m aintenance o f tools and m echanical equipm ent, extraction with horses, m ensuration and p lan ­ ting, etc. A State grant of Kr. 500 (about £35) is available for boys attending the course. (b) A twelve week course from M arch to June for tw enty seventeen-yearold boys which is a follow-up course on the earlier one after the boys have had some experience in the woods. The State grant in this case is Kr. 400 (about £27). (c) A n eight week course from January to M arch for ten or twelve eighteento twenty-year-olds and concerned chiefly with m anagem ent, carrying a State grant o f K r. 300 (about £20). In addition there are a num ber of short courses for w oodsm en and schoolteachers. The School is eleven years old, and very m odern by British standards. Two students share a bed-study and there are com m unal dining room , recreation room , library and show er room . T here is one general lecture room , equipped with sound film projector, and room s for instruction in tool m aintenance. The 180 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION latter are very well equipped with work benches as shown in Plate 24, at which four students, all facing the same direction, can work. O verhead strip lighting and individual adjustable lam ps ensure adequate light. T he teaching technique here is interesting. W hile the students are practising saw m aintenance, the particular operation they are practising is show n continuously on a screen at the end o f the room . This is done by having a silent projector at the side o f the screen, projecting, through m irrors on to the back o f the screen, film loops illustrating the operation. The projector is thus easily accessible to the in­ structor, and the same operation continues to be shown on the screen until he changes the film loop for the next operation. Each student is issued with a set o f tools which he keeps in a special locker and for which he is responsible while on the course. Forest Tree Breeding A t the School there is a forest tree breeding station and grafting from plus trees in the province is carried out. T hree distinct areas in the province are recognised; the low land, highland in the south, and highland in the north, and plants for use in each area are raised from seed from plus trees in th at area. Tree seed orchards have been form ed and are producing seed. The techniques involved appear sim ilar to those used in Britain, and the general principles applied are those given in Professor L indquist’s “ Genetics in Swedish Forestry Practice” . Nursery Practice Also attached to the School is a nursery o f some 20 acres, where plants are raised for the expanding planting program m e in Sweden. T he reasons for this increase in artificial regeneration are th a t stocking from natural regeneration is inadequate, and th at, by planting, the quality o f the crop can be im proved. The norm al ages o f stock used are N orw ay spruce tw'o-plus-one tra n s­ plants and Scots pine tw o-year seedlings. N o other species are being used ap art from some experim ental planting o f E uropean larch in attem pts to raise the tree fine. The tim ing o f nursery operations is necessarily quite different from B ritish practise because o f the severity o f the winter. T hus lifting starts as soon as the snow has gone— probably late April except in the south where it is rather earlier— followed by lining-out and sowing as soon as the ground can be prepared. A t the School nursery, although it is on a light soil, only inorganic fertilisers are used, an d no sprays are used for weed suppression. The ground is prepared w ith a tractor-draw n rotary tiller, an d sowing is done w ith a m echanical drill developed by the nursery officer on the lines o f an agricultural drill, also tractor draw n. Plants lifted for lining-out are placed in small boxes o f local design and taken direct to the lining-out site. The lining-out is done by several women working individually on the sam e area. Two side boards are placed 3 m etres ( 9 | feet) a p a rt and parallel. These boards are drilled at 20 cm. (8 inch) intervals. Cross boards, drilled at each end, are placed a t intervals so th at these holes coincide w ith the holes in the side boards, and they are then fixed with steel ‘pins’ ab o u t 1 m etre (3 feet) long. The ground between two cross boards is one w om an’s stint. T he cross boards are notched at 5 cm. (2 inches). This layout is illustrated in Figure 10 facing. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 181 side board Fig. 10. L a y o u t o f L in in g -o u t b o a rd s in S w eden. A trench is cut in the norm al m anner using the cross board as a guide, and plants placed in the notches and held there w ith a handful o f soil as in norm al hand lining-out. W hen ab o u t 20 plants are in position, th a t p a rt o f the trench is filled in and firmed. W hen the row is finished the b o ard is m oved back to the next hole and the process repeated. O ne row betw een each w om an’s stint is left blank as an alley and when the section is finished the right-hand side b o ard is lifted an d placed 3 m etres (9^ feet) to the left o f the left-hand side board, and a new section lined out. In this way long lines o f transplants in beds o f any desired num ber o f rows are obtained. (See Figures 11 and 12.) T he m ethod seems complicated, but the fact rem ains th at each w om an lines out 10-12,000 plants a day, and there is very little danger o f roots drying out. The spade used for cutting the trench is unusual in th a t it is heart-shaped and has a swan neck. The shape would n o t be suitable for use w ith larger plants where a deeper trench is needed, but the swan neck certainly helps in obtaining a vertical face to the trench. Fig. 11. L in in g -o u t: G e n e ra l view a n d e q u ip m e n t used. 182 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Even allow ing for the shorter grow ing season, the plants were o f poor quality— small an d with p o o r ro o t systems. The size is less im portant than in B ritain since there is not the weed problem on planting sites, but better roots could give better results. F/y. 12. L in in g -o u t: D e ta ils o f o p e ra tio n . Planting Practice A t the School we were given a d em onstration o f three m ethods o f planting used, the m ethod depending on the depth and type o f soil. G reat care is taken with th e planting so th a t 400 a day is a good d ay ’s work. N o d o ubt the type of plants used necessitates care in planting to ensure survival, but it w ould appear to be overdone. In all m ethods the plants are carried in a w ooden “ basket” which contains ab o u t 200 small plants— half-a-day’s w ork— and which is kept covered. This, o f course, has to be p u t dow n and picked up a t each planting site. The three m ethods really only vary w ith the tool used. 1. Semi-circular Spade. This is sim ilar to the same type o f tool in Britain, but w ith a shorter handle. N o divot is rem oved, but a curved notch is m ade, into which the p lan t is planted. A n elaborate technique has been evolved for this, but the net result appears to be no different from ordinary no tch planting as practised in Britain. (See Figure 13.) 2. Trowel Mattock. This tool is like a large trow el set at right angles to a pick-shaft type handle. It is used in the same way as a m attock in Britain. 3. Spike. This is a ro u n d iron spike on the end o f a heavy handle sim ilar to th a t on a cant hook. In shallow stony soils it is driven vertically into the ground, m aking a circular hole some 3 inches in diam eter. W hen the plan t is in position th e hole is filled up with soil which the planter carries w ith him in a bucket. This is a tw o-m an m ethod and m ust be extremely expensive. In view o f the am ount o f study th a t appears to have gone into the correct m ethod o f use o f these tools, the m ethods o f planting seem to be a long way behind those ado p ted in Britain. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 183 Fig. 13. S w edish se m i-c irc u la r sp a d e in u se: n o te c a rry in g b o x f o r tre e s. PART V Felling and Extraction Felling The m ethod o f felling has been discussed already in P art II but certain general points were noted during an afternoon spent at a felling site in the H ults Bruks forests. It has always been the practice in Sweden when felling an area to leave a few of the best stems per acre standing. This is, o f course, in the hope th a t gaps in the n atu ral regeneration will be filled by seed from these trees. However, this practice has becom e traditional, and even where the area is to be replanted artificially such trees are still left by the fellers, and they are reluctant to remove them even when instructed to do so. In fact, the leaving o f standards for a second ro tatio n to produce some larger prim e tim ber m ight well be w orthw hile as the virgin areas are w orked over, where there is no indication o f b u tt ro t in the crop. Both the m en concerned w ith felling and those on extraction, although employees o f the Com pany, are m ore in the nature o f contractors, since they are paid on a piecew ork basis, and provide all their ow n tools and equipm ent. The feller fells, trim s out and, in the case o f small poles, stacks in “ V ” tushes, or with larger tim ber cross cuts it to specified lengths for tim ber, pulpw ood, or pitwood for export. He also peels if this is required. 184 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Extraction Virtually all extraction to a hard ro ad is by horse, which is m ost suitable for the rough, trackless terrain. U ntil recently this, as with the felling, was confined to the w inter m onths. This m eant th at there was practically no em ­ ploym ent for w oodsm en during the sum m er so th at forestry was a part-tim e occupation. The reason for this was th a t forestry w ork could be done in w inter, w hereas little agricultural w ork was possible, while extraction by sledge was very m uch easier while snow was on the ground. In recent years developm ent o f extraction m ethods w ithout snow have been studied so th at forest w ork could continue th ro u g h o u t the year. One o f the developm ents which we saw was a small-wheeled w agon o f welded tu b u lar steel construction. T he m ethod by which the shafts are connected to the steering m echanism is designed to enable the wagon to travel over rough ground w ithout discom fort to the horse, and to reduce the turning circle. Using this wagon a horse is able to draw loads o f over one ton over very rough ground. T he horses used are rather bigger anim als th an norm ally used in Britain, m ore like a Percheron. T he use o f small wheels, while less suitable on m any sites in Britain, assists considerably tow ards the ease o f loading the wagon, and, as always, the em phasis in Sweden is on reducing fatigue to the w oodsm an. PA R T VI General Conclusions T here can be no d o u b t th at in m atters concerned w ith the utilisation o f tim ber Sweden is considerably in advance o f Britain. This is not surprising since the forests have provided a large p art o f the national incom e for a very long time. This is particularly so in the case o f the tools used in exploiting the forests. N o t only is there a desire to produce tools which are good in themselves, but also tools which will do the jo b best. This requires experim ent on the tools b o th in the factory and the forest, an d a study o f the techniques o f using each tool. H aving produced w hat is considered the best tool for the jo b — until an even better one can be developed— the next im portant stage is seeing th a t it is kept in the best possible condition for perform ing its function. W hile we in B ritain m ust m ake up our own m inds as to which tools are m ost suitable for our own conditions, on this question o f m aintenance we can learn directly from Sweden. A good tool, well m aintained, m ust be an econom ic proposition unless the initial cost is out o f p ro p o rtio n to the am ount o f work to be done. On establishm ent w ork, except in the field o f genetics, the boot would seem to be on the other leg. N ursery work and planting m ethods used in Britain are greatly superior to anything we saw in Sweden. W ork study in foresty is well established, but Swedish w oodsm en are as suspicious o f new m ethods as are their British counterparts, and only when they see th at bigger earnings are possible are they prepared to change. This is reasonable enough since the criterion o f a new m ethod m ust be its effect on o u tp u t—b o th qualitative and quantitative,— b u t it is difficult to test new m ethods in the field in these circumstances. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 185 H andling and conversion are both simplified by a small range o f both species and sizes,— a uniform ity o f prod u ct—an d by the large quantities avail­ able, a state o f affairs which we shall m ore nearly approach in the future, though our wider range o f conditions will prevent com plete achievement. Finally, it was agreed by all who attended the course, th a t the Swedish m anufacturers, particularly saw m anufacturers, study the m arket very closely so that they can produce a high quality tool suitable for the conditions in which it is to be used, and for the work it is to do. The results o f this policy are apparent in the outstanding efficiency o f the tools they produce. N O R W E G IA N ID E A S O N F O R E S T W O R K IN G T E C H N IQ U E S By C. P. K IR K L A N D Forester, W ork Study Section The follow ing notes were compiled in the course at a visit to the Sonsterrud Training Centre, near Flisa in Norway, during November and December, 1956. The w ord “ techniques” , as used in N orw ay, covers all training designed to obtain the best use o f forest tools, and o f the w orkers’ muscles and limbs. It is expected to m inim ise fatigue, cut dow n accident rates, and elim inate dam age to muscles like strained ligam ents, slipped discs, etc. “ Techniques” , as one o f our m em bers, A. H artley, w rote “ is the m ain them e round which N orw egian Forest W orkers’ Courses are built” . . . it is concerned with the correct holding o f tools, and the correct posture o f the body,” such positioning being designed to bring into use the best muscles for the job. The theory o f “ techniques” seems to have been developed by D r. Tvet, built up from anatom y, study of circulation, respiration, his experience in supervision o f training o f athletes, and in studies o f w orkers in action. D r. Tvet has a practice in Oslo. H e is, I believe, a consultant in a hospital, and I gathered had specialised a t one tim e in diseases o f bones. Practical instructors have been trained in his theory, and have been trained in his practices as well. They are full o f enthusiasm , as far as the efficacy o f his m ethod is concerned, while adm itting th a t it may yet be modified, and may not suit everybody. The idea is put over largely through a day and a half o f lectures by D r. Tvet. He is an able lecturer, and d em onstrator o f the aw kw ard use o f limbs. D em on­ strations o f the right way to do the operations m et with in felling are given by the practical instructors before com m encem ent o f work. They then stay with the men for the entire period o f the outside work, advising and if necessary dem onstrating. A few individuals are ap t at picking up the m ethod, m ost w ant at least some individual tuition. They w ould like to train young individuals, from 15 years to a m axim um of thirty years old. It is considered doubtful if the ways o f the norm al forest w orker can be m uch changed after the age o f thirty. In addition to the above instruction, d em onstration and practice is given by a forest official, trained at a medical school for about 9 m onths. 186 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION D r. Tvets m ain thfeory is th a t contraction o f muscles also contracts blood vessels. As muscles are fed th ro u g h the blood vessels, and waste rem oved the same way, reduced circulation leads to tiredness. M uscles should therefore be used in such a way th a t m axim um relaxation is m aintained. This is done by avoiding cram ped postures, and avoiding taxing too m uch certain muscles, especially the sm aller ones, when bigger muscles can be used with less effort and contraction. The use o f bigger muscles, such as legs, thighs, shoulders, and back, will provide an easier and m ore free-moving action; rhythm is built up and m aintained. It is said th a t each muscle should be used to its full capacity each day, otherwise the fibres nearer the bone lack tone, and extra effort may lead to a “ pulled” muscle. The “ stan d ard ” o f an easy and free m ovem ent is th a t em ployed in walking correctly. The nearer the posture o f the body, and m ovem ent o f the limbs, in any operation, approxim ates to the posture o f the body, and m ovem ent o f the limbs in walking, the better will be the m ethod o f work. All limbs or muscles n o t in active use should be relaxed. All the practical instructors, including the m otorsaw instructor, are im bued with these ideas. Instead o f relying, say, mainly on the biceps to provide pow er for peeling, the m ovem ent should be from the feet upw ards. If a m an is very powerfully built, they say, alright, for him it may be right to use his muscles that way. But the average forest w orker is not o f big build. In addition, it is pointed out that the sm aller muscles should be trained first until good aim with the tool has been achieved, after that the bigger ones should be used to provide m ore power. M ovements, though rhythm ic and sm ooth, should be o f good acceleration, this gives a better and brighter m ental approach, and the w orker with this attitude will develop less fatigue. Exercises for developing quick response o f muscles, and for developing abdom inal and back muscles, are recom m ended. It is said that m ost people do not walk properly, having from early training largely lost m obility o f the base o f the spine. In com m encing w ork for the day, do not start on too heavy work. Tim e should be given for loosening the muscles. Some m ore precise points o f instruction, to illustrate, are given below: In w inter peeling, a change o f grip on the handle may be required after the initial contact w ith the bark. W hen peeling, both feet should point in the direction o f travel up the tree. W eight on the rear foot should not be on the side o f the foot, but on the ball o f the foot. Knees should always bend in the direction one is facing, as in walking. M any people w ork in such a position as to m ake them bend at odd angles. All such positions involve unnecessary strain. Body should half face direction of walk. T hrust comes from all muscles, using a swivelling o f the hips to reinforce thrust. A good high swing from the shoulders is used, with the leading arm not bent too much. M ethod study is taught as the necessity to think where each tool should be placed, so as to be where it is w anted next. W alking should be reduced to a minim um , though when a w orker is tired this may be increased to a certain extent. Snedding m ust not be done with a peeler. The edge o f the peeler is not designed for it, requires to be very sharp, and would soon get blunted. (Certainly on the frozen trees we were w orking on.) NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 187 G rips on tools should not be too tight. Use o f their small axe, is in such a way th a t though the m ovem ent com ­ mences over the shoulder, the action is rath er one o f throw ing the axe head at the point o f contact, holding the wrists at one position, as in serving a tennis ball. Finally, they were very loathe to lay dow n any particular laws either as to technique, or m ethod o f w ork. Both, they say, will vary with the individual, after definitely w rong practices have been elim inated. One o f the lecturers on technique had done 4 years’ practical forest w ork, 18 m onths a t a forestry school, and 8 m onths at a m edical school, and is now a forester. Summary Judging from the keenness on this subject am ongst students, it is a very popular one. A knowledge o f how the body works, an d o f the position and function o f every muscle, is necessary if intelligent m ethods o f w orking are to be taught. Especially for clum sy w orkers, consideration o f posture and correctness of defects, brings ab o u t a great reduction in w asted energy. M ovem ent-consciousness also leads on to consciousness o f other details, such as positioning o f tools. T raining o f men should be given as early as possible. R E P O R T ON SO N ST E R R U D FO R E ST W ORKERS CO U RSE, NORW AY By C. P. K IR K L A N D Forester, W ork Study Section Introduction The following is a report on a course held at Sonsterrud, near Flisa, N o r­ way. Flisa is approxim ately 75 miles north-east o f Oslo, and 13 miles from the Swedish border. It is situated in a bro ad valley, through which runs a tributary of the G om a river, used extensively for floating o f tim ber. Surrounding country consists o f low hills, covered with forest. Such forest is mainly o f N orw ay spruce, but some very fine stands o f Scots pine occur here and there, and generally there is a tendency to convert the low-lying areas to Scots pine. The C ourse lasted from the 15th N ovem ber to 19th D ecem ber. 1956. A ttendance o f foreign students was organised under the auspices o f the Inter­ national L abour O rganisation, G eneva. A gran t o f about £12 per student for expenses on the course, and the cost o f the student’s passage from Newcastle to Flisa, was m et by the I.L.O . T uition and accom m odation at the School were free. Five m em bers o f the Forestry C om m ission staff attended the course. A rrangem ents for the course were m ade at a tim e when the School had, on its staff, an Instructor who spoke fluent English. However, when we were there, there was no tuition in English, owing to this In structor having gone to w ork in Sweden. 188 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A certain am o u n t o f literature was b rought back. R eports o f the Forest Research Station, w ith short sum m aries in English, and including som e W ork Study data, were provided by Professor Samset. S hort treatises on M ethod of W orking an d on Technique o f Felling by Broch, were obtained from the School, together w ith a small Text Book for Forest W orkers. An effective rubber sheath for protection o f the blade o f Peeling spades was also brought back. Conversion of Produce F o r b o th Scots pine and N orw ay spruce, m inim um top diam eter is 1 cmD iam eters o f 2 cm. or over go for mill tim ber, if straight enough and if not taperin g too m uch. M inim um length for mill tim ber is 4 m. and m axim um length 12 m ., but if the volum e o f the sm aller pieces is over 40 litres m inim um length m ay be 2 m. Sm aller stems th an the above m ay be used for firewood. These are usually stacked in the w ood, in units o f 1 m. high and ab o u t 2£m. long. In the Flisa area, trees are converted when felled, by the feller. Each feller carries w ith him a graduated stick o f som e 2^ m. in length. In his hip pocket he carries a pair o f calipers. These tw o items, together with a table o f produce sizes and value, enable him to m easure and select the m ost profitable conversion lengths into which to cut his tree. Peeling o f every tree is the practice ro u n d Flisa. It is said to be general practice at the m om ent, except where logs are conveyed away by road o r rail. Present trends as regards the peeling are to accept the greater loss o f logs by sinking due to flotation dow n river w ith th e b ark on, as the cost o f subsequent peeling by m achine a t the pulp-m ills w ould be very m uch less th an hand peeling. Recovery o f sunk stems is considered feasible. The School Since its inception in 1946, 2,531 m en have been through the school at Sonsterrud, the only one o f its kind in N orw ay. It is now being decided w hether to open other sim ilar schools in different regions. Some anxiety is felt by the school staff ab o u t the ages o f workers who should benefit m ost from attendance. The longest course held at the school during the year is the 5-week course we were on; this course had only two or three older forest w orkers, all the rest appeared to be very recently out o f the ordinary educational schools, w ith perhaps a few m onths to a year or so o f experience in the woods. All had their N ational Service still before them. A fair proportion o f the students w ould be going on to higher forest occupations than th at o f a forest w orker; som e were hoping to becom e graduates. It is considered very doubtful if the ways o f a forest w orker can be changed much, if he is over the age o f thirty years. Fifteen to thirty years o f age was nevertheless stated to be the ages they w anted a t the school. T he C hief Instructor however was more keen on concentrating on the younger m en, and was hoping some apprentice scheme could be started to encourage boys o f the 15 to 18 age group to come into forestry and be trained, as w orkers. T here are, at the present, courses of 10 weeks duration, in the sum m er, devoted to boys o f 15 to 18 years. F or forest w ork a m an was said to be at his best at the age o f 35; they com ­ pare this w ith the average age o f m arathon runners, which is said to be 36, whereas the best age for sprinters is 24 years. This interest in athletics in its com parison with forestry is rath er typical o f their attitude at the m om ent, in stressing training and the proper use o f muscles, possibly because I believe the d o c to r who has advised on technique has h ad som ething to do with the training o f athletes. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 189 1957 The num ber o f students on the course was 40, split into perm anent groups o r classes o f eight for instruction purposes. The School has courses during a t least 28 weeks o f the year. Two courses are run in sum m er, tw o in winter. O ne o f each lasts 5 weeks, the other 4 weeks. In addition, there is the 10 weeks’ sum m er course for younger men, and a 2 weeks course on pow er saws only. T here is also a 4 w eeks’ course on m otor saws and hand tools, b u t tool m aintenance is said to be unpopular, whereas power saw courses are very well attended. The Course This C ourse o f 5 weeks is split up as follows: Lectures ............................. H and-T ool M aintenance M o to r saw M aintenance and use Felling, peeling 50 hours 65 „ 39 „ 58 .. 21.2°/, 27.5% 16.5% 24.8% 90% o f total time T he rem aining 10 per cent o f the tim e was spent on two excursions (one to a pulp-m ill, one to a stand o f big N orw ay spruce), and on three w hole-day lectures on technique o f felling and peeling. T otal num ber o f hours o f instruc­ tion, lectures and excursions was 236. Only three com plete days are allotted to lectures, but 101 hours o f lectures with and w ithout films o r slides on various subjects are given between the hours o f 4.30 and 6.30 each day. Practical instruction therefore occupied from 8 a.m . to 3 p.m . each day, including Saturday. D uring this period there was a threequarter h our break for lunch. The day’s routine at the School started with breakfast at 7.30 a.m ., work com m enced a t 8 a.m . ‘Second breakfast’ was from 11.15 a.m . to noon. The afternoon session was from noon to 3 p.m . ‘D inner’ was at 3 p.m . there was then a break o f H hours, followed by supper at 6.30 p.m . Instructors Tw o o f the Instructors were mostly on adm inistrative duties. M ost o f the instruction was given by a staff o f five, w ith perm anent accom m odation at the School. Two o f the five were teaching tool m aintenance in the School, one instructed b o th m aintenance and outside use o f power saws, and the rem aining two instructed in practical w ork outside, mainly the proper technique o f felling, trim m ing and peeling. N o Instructor could speak m uch English. All Instructors were extremely good a t their jobs. They were very patient, nothing was hurried, and their m ethod o f instruction was very good. All were well qualified for their jobs. The in structor on pow er saws had spent at least one year w orking a t the factory th a t m akes the Jo-Bu pow er saws used at the school; the tool m aintenance instructors h a d started their instruction before the war, and were trained by Swedish experts, in Oslo, and since then have been on refresher courses. Teachers o f techniques o f felling, etc. were trained a t forestry schools, and then by D r. Tvet. It was difficult to ascertain precisely how they got their training. They were outstanding m en to start with, I think. 190 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION First Aid and General Health Three w ell-planned and ably executed lectures by a m edical orderly dem on­ strated bandaging o f cuts, application o f tourniquets, artificial respiration, and m ethods o f tran sp o rt o f the injured. D em onstration was followed by a trial by the students. Supplem enting these lectures, a film was show n em phasising the m anner of occurrence o f the m ore com m on accidents in the forest, and coloured posters are displayed in the class-room s showing typical danger-fraught incidents. Prevention o f injury was also touched on by D r. Tvet in his technique lectures, where the pro p er use o f muscles and way o f doing w ork is show n to decrease the incidence o f pulled muscles and strained backs. A nything de­ creasing fatigue will lessen the accident rate. They quote the following table o f accident distribution: f 66% f ell in g I Felling Trim m ing Peeling 16% 38% 12% 27% EXTRACTION 7% OTHER Ten per cent o f the workers are said to injure themselves per year. Accidents occur mainly when w orkers first start w ork in the m ornings, when muscles are not properly loosened up, and ju st before rest periods when men are becoming tired. Skilled men suffer less accidents th a n unskilled. Films and lectures were also given showing im provem ent in living conditions in w orkers’ quarters th at are being im plem ented now, and an Estate Officer has been appointed to see th a t accom m odation provided by the firms for their w orkers is up to certain standards. Such im provem ents are taking the form in the m ost advanced areas o f new and better houses replacing the old cabins, attention to the sanitation and feeding o f the workers, and training o f some female staff in dietetics. It is said a forest w orker should have between 6,000 and 7,000 calories per day. Tool Maintenance Instruction Type of Tools R ange of tools used in the forest at this School is small. Sawing during felling operations is done alm ost exclusively with the Sandvik “ Tiger" one-m an saw. Bow saws were not used. Broch said they are used quite a lot in other parts, but he doesn’t know which is best. He said the bow saw is better for smaller trees, owing to its thin blade, but th a t the position o f the operator when felling with it is n o t so favorable as the position o f the operator felling with the onem an cross cut saw. The Tiger saw is used for trees o f 7in. to 20 in. b u tt diam eter. A sm aller but sim ilar saw, the “ V edsvan” or firewood saw, is used for smaller trees, and pow er saws for larger trees. If power saws are not available, a twom an cross cut saw would be used. In N orw ay the Tiger saw costs ab o u t 44/-. Length o f blade is 36 inches. It is very effective in sawing through their slow-grown, mostly frozen softwood. The saw has a straight back, and a curved tooth-line. N o pressure is necessary. The Tiger saw is said to be the m ost popular saw for medium-sized trees, and is asserted to have been proved by the Swedes to be the best saw for this class of tree. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 191 Pow er saws will be dealt w ith later, but they are in use in large and increas­ ing num bers, bought often by the w orkers. Using a power saw, the operator also usually carries a bow saw. Axes used are o f a variety o f makes, som e Swedish, some N orw egian. They vary in weight from 24 to 3+ lb. The heavier ones are used mainly on the west coast o f N orw ay, where trees are bigger or m ore branchy. Length o f edge o f blade is ab o u t 4 inches. H andle length is a b o u t 24 inches. Bark spades were also o f a variety o f m ake, including the EIA spade. They are all straight-edged. W eight for h ard and frozen w ood is about 24 lb. and for thin and soft bark 14 to 2} lb. H andle length is ab o u t 40 inches. Sum m er felling em ploys the lighter peeling spades. If bow saws are used, blades in sum m er have m ore room for saw dust than w inter blades, i.e. the blades with rakers or larger gullets between the teeth, as opposed to the blades used in winter o f m axim um num ber o f teeth, and no rakers. Tool maintenance O n this course o f 236 w orking hours, tool m aintenance instruction occupies 58 hours, or 24 per cent o f the time. O f this time, ab o u t one q u arter is devoted to axes and peeling spades. As m entioned earlier, the Tool M aintenance instructor had been a forest w orker for m any years, and was then trained by Swedish experts at Oslo, with subsequent shorter courses. Facilities a t Sonsterrud were excellent. Saw sharpening was given priority o f accom m odation, and occupied a large light room o f a b o u t 50ft. long and 20ft. b road. The whole o f one side was w indow space, and in addition each sharpening space (of which there were eight) h ad an individual adjustable light. In addition, there was ceiling lighting. Tools necessary were plentiful. Saw vices were well m ade, m ade so th at two positions o f the saw were possible, i.e. upright and at an angle o f ab o u t 30 degrees. Files used were m ade by Oberg & Co. o f Sweden. C ut o f files was F IN E , except those used for gulletting. Instruction in saw -sharpening was given in a very unhurried m anner. Such a m ethod is the only one possible, where the m ain requirem ent is the attainm ent o f facility in handling files, obtained only th ro u g h practice. The tw o days on axe and peeling spade m aintenance were spent in shafting an axe, and grinding and sharpening axes and spades. Facilities here, though not nearly so spacious as for saw -sharpening, were adequate. Two jo iners’ benches, and four pow ered grindstones, com prised the equipm ent. Very great care is taken to tu rn o u t a perfectly sharpened edge tool. F o r use in the forest, saws were carried backw ard and forw ard each day in boxes. A t the end o f the day, blades were dried w ith a rag, and then cleaned w ith cotto n waste and a m ixture o f petrol and oil. All saw blades were m ain­ tained bright and polished. General Tool Maintenance by Forest Workers C onditions o f service in the forests o f N orw ay appear to vary very much. State forests, com m unal forests, and forests owned by private firms have different arrangem ents as regards to tools and their m aintenance. G enerally, workers own their own tools. They always pay for them themselves, even if not personally 192 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION owned. Some o f the big firms hire tools, and also m aintain them in their own well-equipped w orkshops. In some such cases w orkers may be charged say 3/- to have a saw sharpened, this would com pare with an am ount o f ab o u t 5/if the w orker took his saw to the local village ‘saw -doctor’, which seems to be a system in use in some places. I got the im pression th a t w ith the bigger firms it is becom ing increasingly com m on for them to provide sharpening service, and to m ake a charge to the worker. M ore than one set o f tools is then required per w orker, and it was stated th a t three sets p er w orker was best. Techniques W e now come to the subject the N orw egians call ‘techniques'. It covers all training designed to o btain the best use o f forest tools, and o f the w orkers’ muscles and lim bs; it is expected to m inim ise fatigue, cut down accident rates, and elim inate dam age to muscles through im proper m ethods o f w ork, and to increase production. ‘Techniques’ is the m ain them e round w hich N orw egian Forest W orkers’ Courses are built . . . it is concerned w ith the correct holding o f tools, and the correct posture o f the body, such positioning being designed to bring into use the best muscles for the job. The theory seems to have been developed by Dr. Tvet, built up from anatom y, study o f circulation o f the blood, respiration, his experience o f training of athletes and studies o f w orkers in operation. Practical instructors have been trained in his way. They are full o f enthusiasm while adm itting th at it m ay not be the only way. D r. Tvet is him self a very able lecturer and dem onstrator o f his m ethods. D em onstration o f the right w'ay o f doing operations are given by the instructor before com m encem ent o f w ork. He then stays w ith the men for the entire period o f the outside w ork, advising and if necessary dem onstrating again. A few individuals are a p t at picking up the m ethod, m ost w ant a t least some individual tuition. The theory is th a t contractio n o f muscles also contracts blood vessels. As muscles are fed th ro u g h the blood vessels, and waste rem oved the sam e way, reduced circulation leads to tiredness. Muscles should therefore be used in such a way th a t m axim um relaxation is m aintained. This is done by avoiding cram ped postures, and avoiding taxing muscles too m uch. Therefore the bigger muscles should be employed, rath er th a n straining sm aller ones. The stan d ard o f an easy and free m ovem ent is th at em ployed in walking. The nearer the posture o f the body and the w orker’s m ovem ents, in any opera­ tion, approxim ate to the posture and m ovem ent o f w alking, the better will be the m ethod o f w ork. All limbs and muscles n o t in active use should be relaxed. M ovem ents, though rhythm ic and sm ooth, should be o f good acceleration, this gives a better and brighter m ental approach, and the w orker with this attitude will develop less fatigue. Exercises for developing quick response o f muscles, and for developing abdom inal and back muscles, are recom m ended. It is said th a t m ost people do not walk correctly, having from early training largely lost m obility o f the base of the spine. In com m encing w ork for the day, do n o t start on too heavy work. Time should be given for loosening o f the muscles. M ethod study is taught as the necessity to think where each tool should be placed, so as to be where it is w anted next. W alking should be reduced to a m inim um . G rips on tools should n o t be too tight. The small axe used, is used NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 193 in such a way th a t though the m ovem ent com m ences over the shoulder, the action is rath er one o f throw ing the axe head a t the p o int o f contact, holding the wrists at one position, as in serving a tennis ball. W ith the peeling spade, the m ovem ent should com m ence well up w ith a good swing from the shoulders, the leading arm should be nearly straight, and additional th ru st obtained by a swivelling from the hips. Finally they are very loathe to lay dow n any p articular laws either as to technique, or m ethod o f w ork. Both, they say, will vary w ith the individual, even after w rong practices have been elim inated. As far as choice o f tools is concerned, the light axe they say is ideal, and they point out th at this has not always been the axe used in N orw ay. In form er times, heavier axes were used. As far as saws are concerned, they seem to think the “ Tiger” one-m an cross cut saw is the best, ap a rt from pow er saws. They point out th at in certain areas o f N orw ay however, the bow saw is the m ost popular saw for felling, and th a t in Finland the bow saw is exclusively used. In considering tools, w orking position o f the o p erato r should always be borne in mind. From this point o f view the “ T iger” m ay have some advantage over the bow saw. Motor saws The m o to r saw instru cto r had spent one year w orking at the Jo-B u factory. He was an extrem ely good instructor, b o th inside on m aintenance, and outside on felling trees. Thirty-nine hours, or 16% o f the time, was allotted to power saws. The saw m ost used was the Jo-Bu Junior. Three and a h alf hours were taken on stripping, re-assem bling and cleaning the “ starter-pulley” m echanism . Two and a h a lf hours were taken by the instructor in dem onstrating stripping and re-assem bling the carburettor. A t the end o f the day the instru cto r assem bled a saw (in an o th er room ) w ith as many m istakes as possible. Students had to locate and rectify the faults. Conclusion In conclusion, I like to p u t on record how rem arkably friendly, and helpful, were b o th Instructors and students a t the School, in trying to satisfy the needs of these five students, who knew none o f their language. I do not think their willing and pleased acceptance o f strangers could be surpassed. The H ead o f the School had p u t the three N orw egians who spoke the best English into o u r class. This was an invaluable aid for us. Summary C are and m aintenance o f tools, w orking in such a way as to use the body’s m uscular and energy resources in the best w ay; co n stan t attention to planning of one’s w ork system, so as to have a m inim um o f non-productive w alking tim e, and so as to find the right tools in the right place at the right tim e; these were the subjects the Instructors held patiently and constantly before the students. A great deal o f time and professional advice seems to have flowered into their present teaching o f tool use, aim ing a t m aking w ork both less fatiguing and m ore efficient. Such m ethods, o f course, apply to the tools used at the School, and under the conditions m et w ith in N orw ay. These differ from our tools and forest conditions, mainly in o u r use o f bigger axes, and our m ore prevalent use o f the tw o-m an cross cut saw. T heir conditions differ from ours mainly in the greater branchiness and coarseness o f our trees, and in the fact that our trees are rarely frozen, whereas m uch o f their felling w ork is done when the w ood is frozen. 194 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A D IS C U S S IO N O N T O O L M A IN T E N A N C E I N S T R U C T IO N C O U R S E S This record o f a meeting held in the Village hall, Ae, nr. Dumfries, on 27th and 28th M arch, 1957 was com piled by Forester C. P. K irkland, o f the W ork Study Section P re se n t: W. P. Thom son E. R. Lewis J. W. L. Zehetm ayr C. P. K irkland W est Scotland Conservancy, Chairman H eadquarters W ork Study Section W ork Study Section Instructors: D. W. Lawson D. T. Patterson D. J. Snellgrove W. J. Stevens I. T oulm in-R othe A. H. Weir Scotland, N orth and East England, East and South-east Dean, New, and England, South-west Wales, N o rth and South Scotland, South and West England, N orth-east and N orth-w est O bject: 1. To exchange experiences from the tool courses, and to review the equipm ent necessary for tool m aintenance. Report of Tool Instructors Conditions under which courses held There was a lack o f adequate accom m odation for the courses. m od atio n failed in the following: Light Protection from cold A ccom ­ To escape the dungeon-like conditions o f some accom m odation, the course had to be taken outside. This m ade attention, sharpening, etc. difficult, owing to the cold. F o r the same reason the open-ended sheds used in m any places were hopeless. H olding the courses in the w inter added to the difficulties o f instructing either w ithout artificial light, or w ithout cover. Inside, it was often too dark to sharpen saws by 2 p.m . Exceptionally, accom m odation was better in W ales, in N orthum berland (at K ielder an d K ershope artificial light was available), and at Thetford, where on occasions the B randon Seed Store could be used, which, well-lit and heated, was ideal. W here the instruction centres had to he changed between courses, two such courses per week was the best num ber, allowing tim e for travelling, arran g ­ ing accom m odation, etc. Interest in courses M en were keen to learn. The tools displayed aroused enthusiasm , and envy. The simple ‘d rifts’, used for extracting broken shafts from axe heads, were welcomed. W ith the following exception, ignorance o f tool m aintenance was com plete—in areas visited by the L ightm oor ‘saw -doctor’ standards were higher, but instruction in re-shafting was necessary. C o-operation from foresters was satisfactory. In some areas, even the old ‘die-hard’ foresters welcomed the courses. Elsewhere, courses were occasionally looked on as a waste o f time. In such cases the best w orkers were not ‘spared’ for the course. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 195 In n o rth and east Scotland, m any D istrict Officers attended the courses, in addition to the foresters. If m ore th an a few such people come, they tend to distract the atten tio n o f the w orkers, and separate courses should be run for them . O n the other hand, in some areas no D istrict Officers and very few foresters attended. General condition of tools G enerally, the state o f tools was atrocious. N o forest in Wales had a raker gauge for adjusting cross-cuts. In the D ean, there was not one saw vice. W ith the exception o f South W ales, there was a general lack o f shafts. E quip­ ment for tool m aintenance had not been available until recently. F o r instance, nails were com m only used instead o f rivets. Supply of tools (a) Shafts. The lack o f shafts is aggravated by the m ultiplicity o f tools doing the sam e job. F or instance, spades o f at least four makes are in use—all doing the same jo b , but some requiring different shafts. (Spades having split straps are easier to re-shaft than the closed socket type). Shafts are supplied to South Wales from T intern. In N o rth W ales there are no spare shafts. One aspect o f supply o f shafts, namely the in tro d u ction o f short shafts for axes, is being dealt w ith by W ork Study. (b) Crosscuts. Preference for the Sandvik tw o-m an crosscut N o. 915 is growing. We know w orkers who bought their own Sandvik crosscut (price over £4). D issatisfaction w ith the state o f som e o f the new Slack, Sellars & Co. crosscuts was expressed by the T ool Instructors. R eduction o f the excessive set o f these saws has led to breaking teeth. The set has sometimes been nearly five times th a t required. Such saws com m only have to be sharpened also. M r. Lewis said he would arrange strictly com parable tests o f 4ft. an d /o r 4£ ft. rak er to o th crosscuts o f Sandvik an d o f Slack, Sellars & Co. G ood quality Slack Sellars would be chosen. T he test is o f quality o f the saw, not o f its state of readiness for sawing. The tw o m akes are therefore both to be brought to the best state o f sharpness and adjustm ent, p rio r to testing. M any o f the C om m ission's saws are to o long. For m uch o f the thinning work 4ft. is sufficient. (c) Bowsaws. The Sandvik bowsaw is the best for one-m an work. T he N o. 8 frame is recom m ended by W ork Study. Length used by them is 36 inches. The correct blade for conifers norm ally is the Sandvik N o. 21 hardpoint raker to o th bowsaw blade. This blade, which has been discarded in the T hetford area, has n o t been tried in N o rth W ales. M r. Lewis said he w ould arrange a supply o f these blades to N o rth W ales, who have been supplied w ith the litera­ ture on these blades like everyone else. As regards the T hetford area, M r. Lewis prom ised to obtain for trial a few Sandvik N o. 704 one-m an raker-tooth cross­ cuts. It is thought th a t the sandiness o f the area is responsible for the short life o f hard-point blades. However, blade N o. 129 is proving satisfactory. (d) Axes. W eight o f axes supplied is often excessive. In N orthum berland men issued w ith 7 lb. axes for thinning, preferred to buy their own lighter axes. In the T hetford area M r. P atterson w ould like to see some lighter axes tried. He will be sent one or two 34 lb. axes w ith sh o rt shafts, when these are received by W ork Study. 196 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Ordering of Tools. Some o f the useless tools in forest stores are those sent to foresters as substitutes for items dem anded. M r. Lewis pointed o u t th a t such substitutes should be returned if unsatisfactory. Such action is rare, the general attitude is th a t ‘they may come in h andy’. M r. Lewis said th a t a com plem ent o f good tools should be established, covering type and num ber. This will be a developm ent o f the future. The system o f ordering tools requires revision. Foresters should estim ate a year’s requirem ent, and the C onservancy order quarterly. This would reduce clerical work and assist m anufacturers. Some o f the present lack o f tool m aintenance equipm ent is, in some areas, due to foresters n o t ordering items available. Tool storage. G ood storage o f tools is rare. C om m only tools are heaped too closely together. Stocks o f useless tools are too big. taking up space available. Exceptionally, on one unit (a small one w ith only 9 men) there was a tool box for each m an. O n another there was a system o f tagging each tool, on rem oval the tag was handed in to the Office. New units found it difficult to get any storage space. W ithout efficient tool m aintenance tools deteriorate, storage becomes a dum p for broken tools. W e think first class p roduction w orkers’ tools (crosscuts, axes, peelers) should be stored in the Tool M aintenance room s, when these are available. They will be segregated from accepted dow n-graded tools (axes and saws used casually or for drain m aintenance, etc.). W riting-off tools. The space th a t should be allotted to good tools is shared w ith useless stuff th a t needs writing-off. A ttem pts at doing this are com m only fru stra­ ted by over-caution. F or instance, a forester may want to write off an axe. His D istrict Officer m ay say ‘there's a bit o f use in it still’. The axe is kept as a wedge, or for use in cutting drains. But the num ber o f such tools is too great. M r. Thom son suggested a directive to D istrict Officers m ight facilitate the process o f writing-off. M r. Lewis said there should be periodic inspection o f tools in use for quality, as well as for writing-off. Surplus stock. A nother aspect o f the lack o f storage for good tools is the surplus stock on forests. At Ae there are ab o ut 200 pickaxes left by Roads Branch. These take up space and become progressively more rusty. Much surplus stock exists from the war years. It was suggested th at lorries should be used to collect surplus, for sale or disposal. M r. Lewis pointed out that, from his experience o f M inistry o f Supply sales, such surplus would be w orth nothing, since valuable pieces o f equipm ent (such as the Clinom eters he had recently purchased, which are proving so useful) go for alm ost nothing. It is therefore best to cut o u r losses and get this old stuff swept away. On the subject o f salvage, M r. Lewis pointed out the danger o f perpetuating out-of-date design. In addi­ tion, the recipient o f reconditioned tools is never keen on receiving them in place o f m ore m odern, new, equipm ent. New items. Samples o f the following three items were taken by M r. Lewis from W ork Study. (a) A small wedge, brought from N orw ay, also obtainable in plastic. (b) An alum inium and fibreboard axe sheath brought from Sweden. (c) A rubber guard for peeling spades, b rought from N orw ay. These can be obtained fro m : Jo-B u Sales (L ondon) Ltd., 150 Fleet St., London. E.C.4. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 197 2. Tool Maintenance Equipment E quipm ent issued to In structors was reviewed. Decisions were taken as follows: (a) Sandvik Raker Adjusting tool or Burki raker adjusting tool The Sandvik has these advantages: Built-in file holder, for stripping saw teeth. Units are tenths o f a m illimetre. A djustm ent is continuous from zero upw ards. This tool is described in a useful printed pam phlet on saw sharpening by Sandvik. It is already in use in some areas. Some Instructors find th a t the platform files away m ore easily th an the Burki. but this should not occur as m en becom e experienced. The Burki System R aker low ering device has these advantages: It is light, com pact, an d easy to adjust. Does n o t require such a depth o f saw above the vice. The disadvantage th at stops the ad o p tio n o f the Burki is th a t its sm allest adjustm ent is rath er large. P robably too large for all conditions. T he decision was m ade to allow both to com pete. The Burki is n o t recom ­ mended for areas dealing w ith hardw oods. In addition, it should be m ade clear that the units on the Sandvik and on the Burki differ, a setting o f 3 on the Burki is equivalent to ab o u t 5 on the Sandvik. (b) Saw Setting Pliers The Eclipse N o. 77 pliers are not entirely suitable for bowsaws. They will be retained for handsaw s. The six T ool Instructors will be sent two different Sandvik Setting pliers for bowsaws each, by W ork Study, for trial. (c) Saw vice Provision o f a good pattern o f saw vice is essential. M r. W eir will forw ard a sample o f th a t used by him, to W ork Study. M r. T hom son prom ised to obtain a sam ple o f a Swiss saw clam p, to forw ard to W ork Study. W hen these are received, a final p attern probably based on the satisfactory m odel now used by W ork Study, will be forw arded to M r. Lewis. (d) Pierre Pertuis Set Indicator Two of the six Instructors experienced trouble. This was probably due to dam p affecting the spring. A num ber o f these indicators have been obtained by Mr. Lewis from Switzerland. It is tho u g h t th a t under less rigorous conditions than those o f the T ool Instructors, and if kept relatively free from storage in dam p places, the Pierre Pertuis will prove satisfactory. However, each T ool Instructor will be sent a Sandvik Set Indicator, through W ork Study, for trial. In addition, W ork Study will investigate a new ‘Lasso’ product, for possible issue for trial. (e) Axe drift A very useful tool. Patterns vary, A popular pattern obtained by M r. Patterson will be forw arded to W ork Study, for copy. This will later be for­ warded to M r. Lewis, for consideration as to central supply. 198 (f) JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Rivets A rrangem ents for supply o f rivets th ro u g h Elwells have proved satis­ factory. (g) Axe wedges Lack o f these is m ainly due to foresters’ ignorance o f their existence, or n o t thinking they are w orth while. (h) Files T he T ool In stru cto rs’ dissatisfaction w ith A ustin & D odson files for certain jobs was n o t unexpected, in view o f experience o f preference show n for Swedish files by the w orkers at Slack, Sellars & Co. It does n o t seem to be realised th a t files are consum able stores, and will n o t last indefinitely. Samples o f various O berg files for saw -sharpening are being forw arded to T ool Instructors by W ork Study, for use in saw m aintenance kits. F o r less fine w ork A ustin & D odson files will be retained. (i) Slack Sellars No. 133A Saw S et Key M r. Lewis is to be sent a sam ple o f the neatest key in the possession o f W ork Study, in order that the big variation in batches o f the 133A key supplied m ay be dim inished. (j) Tool M aintenance room W ell-lit accom m odation is essential and, while a certain am ount can be done by im provisation, a possible solution is prefabricated one-, two-, or three-bay units. W ork Study is investigating this. A list o f the equipm ent for a T ool M aintenance room is given below. R E C O M M E N D E D E Q U IP M E N T FO R T O O L M A IN TEN A N C E R O O M G rindstone (preferably pow er-operated). Bench. Engineers’ 6" vice. Engineers’ Breast Drill, w ith ¥ chuck. Twist drills for above, f and f . C old chisels, ¥ and L". W ood Chisel 1". Hacksaw . C entre punch. Punch, 5" x ¥ approx. Slashers: 1" x 1" x f , H " x ¥> I f x i f Spades: I f x f , I f x f , I f x f . W edges, axe. O ak, 4" x 3 f x f to p and -fa" bottom . Elwell 4 lb. club ham m er N o . 4005. Elwell \ \ lb. Ball-Pein ham m er N o. 615. Rivets, Elwell. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 199 The following items are those concerned w ith sharpening, and are w orked out to give the approxim ate m inim um num ber per year for 6 men. Files: A ustin & D odson —d o — —do— —do— — do— 10" rasp 2 10" flat, b astard ............................................ 6 10" round, constant diam eter, 2nd cut 12 8" millsaw, 2nd cut, 2 ro u n d edges 12 6" slim tap er 12 Handles: File handles, Large M edium O ther: Sandvik N o. 118 Setting ham m er —do— 119 Setting anvil .... —do— 120, or a Burki Low ering Device —do— 123 R aker gauge for bowsaw blades —do— 124 Jointing tool Eclipse Saw Set pliers N o. 77 .... Slack, Sellars & Co. N o. 133A saw set key Pierre Pertuis Saw Set Indicator. .. Axe drift (pattern to be supplied later) Saw sharpening vice (pattern to be supplied later) 12 12 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 In addition, the following Oberg files will be issued for trial to the T ool Instru c­ tors, through W ork Study. Some or all may then be added to the above list. 8" Millsaw file, 2— 2 \ mm. (E xtra thin.) 8" C ross-cut file. 6" Knife saw file N o. 629. 6" D ouble saw files o f varying patterns. F O R E S T W O R K E R IN S T R U C T IO N By W. F. S T O D D A R T , H ead Forester, North-East England The success o f all p lantation w ork depends on the skill o f the forest w orker and the way in which forest lab o u r is organised. The best type o f truly rural forest w orker is in the m inority now adays. O ur forest villages are full o f the small tow n and city type o f w orker who has been attracted to forestry for various reasons such as the open air life, the certainty o f obtaining a house, the pos­ sibility o f a secure jo b , etc. This latter type o f w orker is the one who is least skilled o f all in forest operations and requires to be trained in the use o f the various forest tools. W hile it is necessary th a t a forest w orker should be skilled in the use o f various tools and be able to carry out a task satisfactorily, his training should n o t end there. In my opinion forest w orkers should have all forest operations explained to them , e.g.: 200 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Scrub clearing. The various m ethods o f treating scrub and the reasons for not com pletely clearing some forms o f scrub grow th. Draining. The benefits derived by the plants as a result o f lowering the w ater table. Planting. The site requirem ent for each species, how vegetation assists in the choice o f species, care o f transplants, the necessity for screefing and cultivation on sites where close vegetation overlies com pact m ineral soil, (where ploughing has n o t been done). Thinning. H ow a tree grows, the relationship between ro o t and crow n develop­ m ent and increase in girth and height grow th, and so on. It should n o t be difficult for a F orester to explain to his workers, in simple language, the reasons behind all forest operations. The result, I feel sure, would be th at forest employees w ould take an added interest in their w ork, with a consequent increase in o u tp u t and efficiency. S O M E N O T E S O N T IM B E R F E L L IN G By M ajor-G eneral H. P. W. H U T SO N C hief Engineer Direction of Fall. M ake up your m ind which way the tree is likely to fall naturally. If the tree is fairly straight and is uniform in its branching it can usually be dropped in any direction desired. This is done by proper location o f the cuts, by wedging to tip it on the stum p and sometimes by pushing against the tru n k with a long pole. Big trees which are leaning considerably or which have heavy branches on one side can seldom be throw n in the opposite direction, but m ost o f them can be throw n 45 degrees or so to either side o f the direction in which they would naturally fall. W hen w orking on a steep hillside the best way to fell the tree is diagonally up the slope. A tree felled straight up a steep slope may bounce as it strikes the ground and its b u tt kick back over the stum p to strike the unsus­ pecting feller. T here is no way o f telling w hat it is going to do. A tree felled straight dow n a steep slope can be shattered by the fall, particularly if the ground is rough. A tree felled straight across the slope m ay roll downhill in a dangerous fashion. It is equally bad practice to fell across a gully or over a sharp ridge or let a tree d rop across a rock, or stum p, or over another log. O bstructions like these m ay break the stum p and waste good tim ber. Still another hazard to be considered is the chance of your tree lodging in the branches o f ano th er tree. H alf a day can be w asted in getting it down. A nd if the second tree has dead branches these m ay snap off and catapult through the air w ith dangerous speed. Clearing. H aving decided the direction in which the tree is to be felled the next step is to clear away any brush or low branches which could interfere with the use o f the axe or saw at the base o f the tree. See th at there is plenty o f room to swing the axe. The Undercut. This is m ade o n the side to which the tree will fall and as low as possible. Its functions are to provide a fulcrum and hinge point on which to tip th e tree off th e stum p in th e right direction. T he stum p should n o t be m ore th a n three inches above th e ground an d should n o t be lower th an the highest root. Single roots should be cut off so th a t th e stum p is not too high. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 201 A n inexperienced axem an m ay have some trouble in getting the chips to fall out properly. The best m ethod is n o t to let all o f the axe edge be buried in the w ood. If the heel or the nose o f the blade is exposed the chip tends to roll off easily. This can be done by w orking first the nearside, then the farside and then the centre o f the undercut. W hen the und ercut is com pleted its direction should be checked. The crease or angle at th e back should be straight and at right angles to the direction in which the tree is to fall. The Backcut is m ade on the opposite side o f the tree to the undercut and a t the same height or n o t m ore th an tw o inches above the bottom o f the undercut. The backcut is usually m ade w ith the saw. T he cut should be kept parallel with the undercut and should be continued until only an inch or two o f holding wood is left. If the tree does not fall then it should be tipped over by driving in one or tw o wedges behind the saw. D o n o t saw deeper into the holding wood. This is needed to act as a hinge to guide the tree as it falls. W hen a tw o-m an cross-cut saw is used to m ake the backcut, each sawyer should keep his m ate inform ed how m uch is left between his cut and the un d er­ cut, so th a t one side will not be cut off too soon. Leaning Trees. Trees leaning in the direction o f fall can be quite dangerous. They are apt to fall prem aturely, splintering the stem and thrashing the butt around in unpredictable directions. Some valuable leaning trees th a t can be dropped only in the direction o f lean can be cut three-quarters th ro u g h from the leaning side. The saw is then removed and the cut com pleted from the backcut side. A good general rule is ‘the greater the lean the deeper the undercut'. W hen a tree leans slightly away from the direction in which it should be dropped, the direction o f fall can be changed a little by ‘holding the corner’. This is done in the backcut by leaving m ore w ood on the side opposite to the one tow ards which the tree is leaning. This acts as a holdback to twist the tree away from the direction in which it leans. Wedging, either by itself or in com bination with this special backcut, can also be used to alter the direction o f fall. O ne or m ore felling wedges are driven into the backcut on the landing side. This helps to tip the tree into an upright position from which it can be m ade to fall in the desired direction. Small trees can be pushed over in alm ost any direction by hand. Lodged Trees. Even the best o f fellers som etim es lodge the tree they are cutting in a standing one. Dislodging may be easy and safe; it can also be very difficult. As a general rule hang-ups should be dealt w ith immediately. If the tree is lightly lodged, cutting it loose from its stum p and prying it off the ground is sometimes enough. Pushing or twisting it loose is a next step which is frequently successful when only the ends o f the branches are caught. The safest and best way to dislodge a lodged tree is to hitch a tracto r or horse to its butt, and so to pull it away from the other trees. T he last resort and perhaps the m ost dangerous practice o f all is to cut the standing tree in which the first one is lodged. It is difficult to judge the stresses involved, or the wav in which the tw o trees will fall, or the time a t which they will fall. Snedding or Trimming. W hen the tree has been felled and is on the ground the next step is the rem oval o f its side branches. This is usually done with an axe. 202 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A lim b should be cut from its lower or outer side, cutting from the base tow ards the top o f the tree. T he stubs or snags o f the lim b should be left sm ooth w ith the b ark o f the tree. W henever possible the axem an should cut lim bs on the opposite side o f the log to him self and swing the axe away from himself. Cross Cutting. As logging operations becom e m ore m echanized, the operation o f cutting the tree into log lengths has been tending to shift away from the stum p site to th e roadside and latterly to the depot or mill. W here the crosscutting is done by h and in the woods, the narrow -bladed tw o-m an cross-cut saw is the usual tool. Tw o things to avoid in crosscutting are getting the saw blade pinched, and sawing into the ground. In b o th cases the problem is one o f seeing th at the log is properly supported. M easurem ents. Accuracy o f m easurem ent is im portant in crosscutting. Usually a trim m ing allow ance is specified so th a t any irregularity in the ends can be evened off by the trim saws at the mill, leaving square-ended boards o f the full specified length. W edges should be m ade o f untem pered steel. A tem pered steel wedge is liable to spall or splinter when hit with a tem pered sledge-ham m er, and the flying fragm ents can easily p u t o u t an eye. Sometimes these wedges are scored across the face or are grooved. This reduces the chances o f the wedges flying o u t o f a cut as m ay happen, especially with frozen tim ber, due to insufficient friction between the wedge and the wood. C onstant pounding by the sledge-ham m er will m ake the wedge head m ush­ room shaped and in this state it is very dangerous since sm all fragm ents o f m etal may chip off and fly into the eye. The remedy is to keep these m ushroom tops ground or filed away. W ooden wedges should be m ade o f well-seasoned hardw ood, and should be prepared w ith a saw rath er th an hewn. The sawn wedge will have a m ore even taper and a rougher surface which will hold better in the cut. A w ooden wedge, not a m etal one, should be used w ith a chain saw. The danger o f driving a m etal wedge into the m oving chain or o f having the latter ju m p back against the wedge is too great. A large wooden wedge is the right thing to use. I t should be from ten to sixteen inches long so th a t the fingers need never be n ear th e m oving chain when the wedge is being driven into the cut. W ooden wedges are best driven w ith a w ooden maul. Splitting wedges are usually thicker th a n those used in felling and cross­ cutting. They should be o f soft untem pered steel and should be driven w ith a sledge-ham m er o f eight to ten pounds. H it the head o f the wedge centrally so as to reduce ‘m ushroom ing’. H E A V Y T IM B E R F E L L IN G By N O R M A N L. G O O D L A N D Reproduced, by kind permission, fro m the Country Gentlemen s Estate M agazine, M arch, 1957 Spare not th a t tree A m ong tim berm en, there are those who specialize in the felling o f the giants. These specialists are no longer easy to find. This is because, generally speaking, the tru e a rt o f handling th e giants m ust be acquired from the experience an d NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 203 guidance o f men already experts at it. It is no task for the novice. Even tim bermen used to handling norm al w ork realize how difficult and dangerous the giants can be, and often refuse to handle them . A long apprenticeship is needed, therefore, before the expert can fully train a m an in the safe, efficient, and clean way o f taking dow n heavy tim ber. The youths o f the countryside, im patient as are m ost m odern young m en with long apprenticeships, do n o t take kindly to it. The task is alm ost always gruelling in the extreme. Heavy tim berm en do their best to choose the w eather they w ork in; consequently they are always w orking a t great speed, lest adverse conditions set in. However, m en on piece-work, which is the norm al practice am ong these men, are a t times obliged to carry on w orking even in adverse conditions. In damp or snowy w eather, great dangers face even the experts. Footholds are n o t so secure. Twigs are weighted dow n low er and low er by m oisture as w ork proceeds, and m ost accidents occur th ro u g h the axe fouling such twigs during swinging. T he slightest touch will set the precisely balanced axe off its course— very dangerous indeed when striking near the feet, which som etim es has to be done; and in addition to this, a wet axe-handle is not easy to hold. W hen a giant is top-heavy w ith snow, and there is frost in the trunk, the m ost experienced are relieved to see it lying safely upon the spot required o f it, with no great split in the valuable trunk. As in all the best country crafts, the heavy tim berm an’s tools are simpleHe still does his task in w hat he considers to be the only truly safe, efficient way —by hand. He uses nothing m ore th an axes, saws, wedges, and ham m ers. H e is m ost particu lar in his choice o f tools. Axes m ust be perfectly balanced in order that he can have full control over them ; they m ust be able to stand fully to th eir task. A t one time, I was told, 9 lb axes could be obtained, b u t today, 7 lb axes are the general rule, the “ Elwell” being regarded as am ong the finest in the world. “ D isto n ” saws, generally 8 ft. in length, with teeth in the series: four “ cutting” an d one “ ra k e r,” are also a favourite choice. T he “ rak ers” pull o u t the chips taken off by th e cutting teeth, in a surging je t called the “ stream er.” In certain situations, resort m ay be had to a winch, but a p art from th a t the heavy tim ber specialist does n o t recourse to any form o f m echanical aid. H e has sound reasons for his preference for the ancient m ethod o f felling by hand. H e can cut low to the ground, thus ensuring th at there is no loss to himself in the rem aining stum p. He is n o t overfond o f losing tim ber in the wide cut required by m ost m otor-saw s. Since m ost m otor-saw s are unable to cut trees o f m ore th an 4 ft. diam eter w ithout severe “ cutting-in” so th at they can be applied, he dispenses w ith the further loss in tim ber incurred in th a t process. Also, the h and m ethod ensures a m ore certain control over his tree. The wide cut o f the m otor saw can m ake efficient wedging very difficult. The whole art o f guiding the fall o f a heavy tree lies in the wedging. Certainly, for his own particular w ork, the heavy tim ber feller w ould n o t countenance those saws w ith engines beneath the blade, for these m ay force him to start cutting as high as 3 ft. above the ground, and he may also be obliged to m ake a sloping cut rath er than a straight one. In addition, w ith such an im plem ent he w ould alm ost certainly have to fell the tree in its m ost n atu ral direction o f fall— n o t in the direction m ost desirable. T he m o to r saw, he thinks, is an adm irable im plem ent in its place— for sm all tim ber, and for cross-cutting; not for felling the giants. P erhaps the best way in which to give an account o f the w ork o f the heavy tim ber specialist is to relate the felling o f tw o actual examples. 204 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION O n Sir G eorge C ooper's H ursley Park Estate in H am pshire, stood an oak, which according to the estate records, h ad seen at least 500 years, and an elm tree, recorded as 380 years old. They had becom e dangerous, and two fellers o f repute were em ployed to take them d o w n : G o rdon Old o f Braishfield, and H arold Neville o f A lton. The oak was 13 ft. in diam eter, the first limb 24 ft. from the ground, and at a height o f 12 ft. from the ground, the circum ference was 20 ft. The estim ated weight o f the whole tree was 51 tons: the trunk, or “ b u tt” weight, 19 tons. T he elm was a m onster 120 ft. high. A t 12 ft. from the ground, its cir­ cum ference was 18 ft.; the estim ated weight o f the whole tree was 39 tons, and th a t o f the butt, 23 tons. T he oak was a reasonably straightforw ard task, but the elm was a challenge. Its n atu ral incline was tow ards farm buildings. It had to be swung in its fall aw ay from these by means o f correct placing o f the wedges, and it was also decided to leave one “ sp u r” uncut in order to assist this. In the standing tree, as is well know n, the roots can be seen growing o u t­ wards, dow n into the ground. In the tim b erm an’s language, these root-heads expanding from the base are called “ toes” or “ spurs.” First o f all, they have to be taken off; but as explained, in this case, one spur was left uncut to guide the fall. N ext, a very deep bite into the tree was made, facing the required direction o f fall. This is called the “ sink.” The axe-w ork in this operation was wonderful to witness, for it com bined physical strength, balance, and unerring judgm ent, thus com pleting the task in the m inim um o f time. The two men w orked at great speed, striking alternately, and the resultant cut face above the actual sink showed a w onderfully sm ooth plane. The sawing was then begun in such a position th at if the cut through rem ained com pletely level it would stop four to five inches behind the inner m argin o f the sink, but two inches higher than its lowest level. All unspoiled trees have a natural balance. In sawing through them , therefore, they do tend to “ sit back” on the cut. To prevent this happening, the wedges are inserted into the cut behind the saw as soon as possible. They are also placed so that they incline the tree gently tow ards the sink: and here the tim berm an’s experience and judgm ent is utilized to the full. T oo heavy an incline would quite possibly send the tree crashing pre­ m aturely. The result would be an enorm ous split up the middle o f the butt a catastrophe, both to the feller’s and the ow ner’s returns, and to the tim berm an ’s prestige! A similar though not so serious splitting might occur if an error o f judgm ent was m ade in the am ount o f “ h o ld ” left unsawn behind the sink. H aving sawn, therefore, to the position described behind the sink, the saw handles were dism antled and the blade w ithdraw n. All th at rem ained now was to strike in the wedges, and topple the tree. W ith an elm, or any other soft w ood which tends to fit round the wedges as they are driven in, this is the m ost laborious p a rt o f the task. Both tim berm en exhausted themselves driving the wedges into the soggy wood before— as the tim berm en say— it began its protesting “ g ru n t.” It fell w ith appalling speed and suddenness; 380 years o f life brought to a close, 39 tons guided to the exact spot calculated, the farm buildings safe, the neighbouring trees undam aged. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 205 Such is the m ore orthodox m ethod o f felling the large trees, but in certain situations other m ethods m ust be employed. Some trees grow outw ards, tow ards the light; in th at case, no sink is made. The m ethod then is to rem ove the spurs, an d com m ence the sawing and wedging on the side tow ards which the tree is leaning. It will stand until a hold o f three to five inches is reached on the other side. T he saw is th en rem oved, and the axes used on the hold. Should a tree be o f a really aw kw ard shape, and have to be felled in a particular direction, or should it be im possible to judge its natu ral direction of fall, a winch is employed, usually in conjunction w ith a tractor. The m ethod is initially the sam e as in felling a naturally balanced tree; the spurs are cut, the sink made, but during the sawing, in addition to wedging, the winch is used to gradually move the tree in the direction required. Again, the utm ost judgm ent is needed in order to prevent prem ature falling and splitting, b u t a rath er larger hold is left before the full force o f the winch is brought into play, and the tree toppled. W ith the great tree down, the heavy tim b erm an’s work is by no means complete. N ow , o f course, comes the trim m ing. It is not merely a m atter o f knocking off the limbs. Striking in the sam e direction in which they are growing, they have to be planed dow n level w ith the tru nk, otherwise there are com ­ plaints at the mill. Saws are useless here, because they cannot be brought to bear close enough to the trunk. The lim bs an d saleable tim ber are then cut into 4 ft. lengths, an d sold as cordw ood to the m erchant, who turns them into logs for dom estic use. The residue, or “ brushw ood,” is burned, and if fellers o f repute are em ployed, the whole area left neat an d clean. It may n o t be generally know n th at on m any private estates the m easuring o f the tim ber is traditionally left to the feller. H e is usually paid at so m uch per hoppus foot, over-bark measure. Previous to the war, there was a brisk trade in oak bark for the tanneries. Bark stripping was done at the end o f M ay, or at the beginning o f June, when the sap rises. The best was found on the spurs o r toes o f the tree. It was stacked on rails to dry out, tied in bundles, and bought by the ton. T oday there is still a small dem and for such tanbark. All heavy tim berm en are p ro u d o f their m ost notable-achievem ents. A t Bambridge Park, cedars, dating from 17-18th centuries, 7 ft. through, were felled by these men, and since they were using an 8 ft. D iston. m uch cutting-in had to be done so th at the saw could be put to use. The trees had to be quartered for tran sp o rt to London. A t A bingdon Park, the m anager o f M essrs. V itak officially tim ed these two specialists, an d after they had set up a beech o f 4 feet 3 inches diam eter, with spurs rem oved and sink in place, they were through in 13-V m inutes, against the average tim e o f half an hour. They have tak en dow n firs, larches, D ouglas firs, birches, o f 2 feet 6 inches diam eter in ab o u t 4 m inutes after setting-up. 208 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Conclusion and Recommendations The exercise of sending three shipm ents of pit props has been well w orth while and now we know w hat we are up against. As a com parison we have always used the flat railway rate, but this does not give a true picture, particularly in the case o f the Bodm in area where the norm al rate is in the region o f 60/- per ton. On the other hand we have not used as a com parison the road haulage rates to South W ales which are in the neighbourhood o f 52/6d. per to n with only loading at the forest entailed. T o tran sp o rt by sea involves far too m uch handling and is wasteful o f our labour force. A fresh line o f approach has been taken with the shipping com panies in th at they contract to pick up the pitw ood in the forest and deliver to the colliery in South W ales in lots as low as 5 ton. T h a t som ething should be done to revive the coastal traffic is obvious, and there is the added attraction o f taking a certain am ount o f traffic from our far too busy roads. G R A D I N G OF SAWN BRITISH SOFTW OODS Leaflet No. 49 o f the Forest Products Research Laboratory Princes Risborough. Reproduced by permission. Foreword The main purpose o f grading o f tim ber is to enable the raw m aterial, which is inherently of widely varying quality, to be classified into groups best suited for the different purposes for which it may be used. Classification according to quality cannot be exact and any practical scheme o f grading m ust allow for some individual judgem ent and tolerance. On the other hand, whilst grading rules are not in themselves specifications, they may form p art o f a specification and they should therefore be laid down in term s as exact as possible. Such term s assist a grader to develop a standardized judgem ent which enables him to grade quickly whilst perm itting reference to exact rulings in cases o f doubt or dispute. Thus, whilst grading rules may appear to be form idable and detailed on paper, with a little experience they need not be other than simple in operation. These recom m endations for grading British softw oods allow for classification.in to four m ain groups based largely on the likely usage, N o. I grade being joinery and high class structural w ork, N o. II grade for general structural work and carcassing and N os. I ll and IV grades for general purposes where consistent strength properties are not a prim ary requisite. A sub-division o f G rade I perm its o f the selection o f clear m aterial for special uses such as high class joinery, ladder m aking, etc. W hen tim ber is graded in the green condition and subsequently seasoned, defects such as splitting and distortion may develop which necessitate a certain am ount o f re-grading. The grading therefore should be related to the seasoning condition at the time of grading, and any specification should include, in addition to the grade, d ata on the condition o f seasoning, preferably in term s o f m oisture content. Shrinkage, which inevitably occurs during drying, should be recognized and consideration given to changes in dim ension across the grain which take place in tim ber with changes in m oisture content. To allow for shrinkage, mem­ bers should be cut oversize so that the dim ensions when the m aterial is seasoned to a m oisture content o f 20 per cent will not be less than the nom inal dim ensions. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 209 Sawn m aterial enclosing the pith or h eart centre is m ore prone to degrade by splitting on seasoning than m aterial which excludes the pith. D uring conversion, therefore, sawing should as far as possible be such as to include a sawcut down the pith, thus avoiding to a large extent boxed heart and subsequent degrade associated with it. It m ust be realized also th at when tim ber is resaw n its grade may be altered, as the perm issible sizes o f knots are based on their relation to the width or thickness o f the mem ber. The grading rules have taken into account most o f the characteristics which affect the quality o f the tim ber. There may be occasions when unusual defects arise which have not been catered for but such occasions will be rare and can generally be left to the practical judgem ent o f the grader. Definitions and Nomenclature The definitions and term s in this publication are generally in accordance with B.S. 565 “ G lossary o f Term s A pplicable to Tim ber, Plywood and Joinery” , and B.S. 1860 “ S tructural Softw ood: M easurem ent o f C haracteristics Affecting Strength” . The follow ing definitions shall apply: (1) Knots (a) Arris knot. A knot emerging on an arris (see Figs. 14 and 15). (b) Edge knot. A k n o t on an edge other than an “ arris k n o t” or “ splay k n o t” (see Figs. 14 and 16). (c) Face knot. A k n o t on the face oth er than a “ m argin k n o t” , “ arris k n o t” o r “ splay k n o t” (see Figs. 14 and 16). (d) M argin knot. A knot appearing on the face outside the m iddle h a lf o f the depth o f the face near to or breaking through an edge (see Fig. 17). (e) Knot cluster. A group o f two or m ore knots such th at the w ood fibres are deflected round the entire group. (f) Splay knot. A knot cut approxim ately parallel to its long axis so th a t the exposed section is definitely elongated (see Fig. 18). (2) Wane The original rounded surface o f a tree rem aining on a piece o f converted tim ber (see Fig. 19). 210 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (3) Slope of Grain This term is used to indicate the inclination o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the mem ber. (4) Rate of Growth This is com m only expressed as the average num ber o f grow th rings per inch m easured radially on the cross-section o f the tim ber (see Fig. 20). (5) Pitch or Resin Pockets A well defined lens-shaped opening which contains resin in the form of a streak between the grow th rings. (6) Seasoning Defects (a) Checks and splits. A separation o f the fibres along the grain, form ing a crack or fissure in the tim ber. (b) Bow. A curvature o f a piece o f tim ber in the plane o f its edee. (See F ig 21.) (c) Spring. A curvature o f a board or plank in the plane of its face. (.See Fig. 21.) (d) Twist. Spiral distortion. (See Fig. 21). (e) Cup. A curvature occurring in the transverse section o f a board or p lank. (See Fig. 21.) (7) Blue Stain A form o f sap-stain producing a bluish discoloration. Measurement of Defects and Characteristics (1) Knots (a) Arris knots. The size of an arris knot shall be taken as the sum of the w idth o f the knot on the edge, m easured between the arris and a line touching the knot parallel to the arris, and one-third o f its depth on the face (see Fig. 15). (b) Edge knots. The size o f knots on an edge shall be taken as the width between lines touching the k n o t and parallel to the arrises o f the m em ber (see Fig. 16). NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX (c) (d) 1957 211 Face knots. The size o f each k n o t w ithin the m iddle h a lf o f the w idth o f the face shall be taken as the average o f its largest and sm allest diam eters (see Fig. 16). M argin knots. W here these break into the arris o f the piece the size o f k n o t shall be taken as the w idth between the arris and a line touching the k n o t parallel to the arris, otherwise they shall be m easured in the sam e way as face knots (see Fig. 17). IS T H E D I M E N S I O N TO BE M E A S U R E D (e) (f) (g) Knot dusters. Each k n o t in the cluster shall be m easured as in (c) above and the m easurem ent for the k n o t cluster shall be expressed as the sum o f the averages o f the diam eters o f the several knots. Splay knots. W here these extend m ore th an one-fourth the w idth o f the face, the m easurem ent shall be taken on the edge as the w idth between the arris and a line touching the k n o t parallel w ith the arris (see Fig. 18). Knot holes and holes from causes other than knots shall be m easured in the same way as knots. K nots less than £ in. diam eter shall be disregarded. 212 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (2) Wane T he am o u n t o f wane on any surface shall be the sum o f the wanes at the two arrises, an d shall be expressed as a fraction o f the w idth o f the surface on which it occurs (see Fig. 19). AMOUNT OF T H E THE OF WANE ON THE MEMBER R ATIO V, ~ FACE SPECIFIED OR V« + d V3 BY AMOUNT OF THE THE OF W AN E MEMBER RATIO Ki ~b ON THE SPECIFIED OR K2 + EDGE BY K» b Fig. 19. E xtent o f w ane. (3) Slope of Grain T he slope o f grain shall be m easured over a distance o f n o t less th an twice the w idth o f the m em ber, disregarding slight local deviations. It is m easured as the tangent o f the angle o f the inclination o f the fibres to the longitudinal axis o f the m em ber. (4) Rate of Growth R ate o f grow th shall be m easured on b o th ends o f the mem ber, and shall be tak en as the average num ber o f grow th rings per inch intersected by a straight line 3 in. long, norm al to th e grow th rings, com m encing 1 in. from the p ith when this is present. W hen a line 3 in. in length is unobtainable the m easurem ents shall be m ade on the longest possible line norm al to the grow th rings and passing through the centre o f the m em ber (see Fig. 20). Fig. 20. M easurem ent o f ra te o f grow th. NUM BER T W EN T Y -SIX 1957 Bow Spring Fig. 21. Seasoning defects. 214 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (5) Pitch or Resin Pocket D enoted as present or absent. (6) Seasoning Defects (a) The length and width o f checks an d splits shall be m easured on a surface o f the mem ber. (b) Bow. To be m easured over a length o f 10 ft. and expressed as the m axim um deviation o f the face from a straight line joining two points 10 ft. apart. (c) Spring. To be m easured over a length o f 10 ft. and expressed as the m axim um deviation o f the edge from a straight line joining two points 10 ft. apart. (d) Twist. To be m easured as an angular distortion over a length o f 10 ft. and expressed in degrees. (e) Cup. To be m easured over a length o f 6 in. and expressed as the m axim um deviation o f the face from a straight line joining two points 6 in. apart. (7) Blue Stain To be expressed as a percentage o f the area o f either face which is affected by blue stain after light surface planing. PE RM ISSIB LE D EFEC TS A N D C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F D IF F E R E N T G R A D E S Perm issible size o f defect o r characteristic D efect a n d characteristic K nots (a) Edge (b) M argin o f face (c) C entre o f face W ane (a) Edge (b) Face G rade 1 i thickness £ w idth i w idth S ound knots only P itch pockets C hecks a n d splits i thickness S3 i w idth JZ D. u — — — Slope o f grain R a te o f grow th G ra d e 11 1 in 14 N o t less than 8 rings/in. N o t allow ed N ot exceed­ ing 6" in length o O 34 > -*§ Bow Spring Tw ist C up Blue stain i" in 10' i " in 10' 3° in 10' -hs’ >n 6" 5 per cent u g 0) T3 CO u U ^ w idth S ound knots only £ thickness if, w idth i length 1 in 8 N ot less th an 4 rings/in. U nspecified Exceeding 6" long shall not be deeper than i thickness for m ore th an J length ¥ in 10' ¥ in 10' 6° in 10' i " in 6" 15 per cent G rade III :J thickness j w idth X w idth i thickness J width A length Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified Exceeding 6" long shall not be deeper than J thickness for m ore th an } length I" in 10' i" in 10' 6° in 10' ¥ in 6" 25 per cent G rad e IV >• Unspecified J 4 thickness j w idth L ength u n ­ specified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified U nspecified Unspecified Unspecified Unspecified U nspecified U nspecified In a d d itio n to the requirem ents listed in the T able, G rad es I a n d 11 shall be free from fungal decay a n d insect attack. A certain a m o u n t o f fungal decay o f the “ h a rd ro t” type is perm itted in G rades III a n d IV but “ soft r o t” is excluded. L oose, dead a n d decayed knots a n d k not holes shall not be p erm itted in G rad es I a n d II. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 215 These recom m endations for grading have been prepared by the Forest Products R esearch L ab o rato ry w ith th e assistance o f a C om m ittee including representatives o f th e following o rg an izatio n s: English Joinery M anufactu rers’ A ssociation (Incorporated) F ederated H om e T im ber A ssociations Forestry C om m ission H om e T im ber M erchants’ A ssociations o f Scotland N ational F ederation o f Box and P acking Case M anufacturers R oyal In stitute o f B ritish Architects T im ber D evelopm ent A ssociation Lim ited Note— Copies o f Forest P roduct R esearch Leaflets may be obtained free on application to the D irector, F orest Products R esearch Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks. NEW H A R D B O A R D P L A N T O P E N E D The follow ing account is reproduced by kind permission o f the journal T im ber Technology, and M essrs. Celotex, Ltd. M uch o f the raw material used comes fro m Commission Forests. The new H a rd b o ard P lant opened by Celotex Ltd. last m onth at their N o rth C ircular R oad, L ondon factory is one o f the m ost m odern, if n o t the m ost m odern, an d versatile h a rd b o ard plants in the w orld. Costing the greater p art of £ 1 million including certain prep arato ry construction w ork previously under­ taken, this new factory will m ore th a n double the com pany’s hard b o ard output. In actual figures the new p lan t will produce 60 m illion square feet plus o f h a rd ­ board in com parison w ith the previous p ro d u ctio n rate o f 30-40 m illion square feet o f the old plant. Besides the increased p ro d u ction figure the new plan t will enable Celotex to m anufacture som e eleven different types o f b o ard ranging from -j'f, inch m o to r body casing board to inch hard b o ard and tile board. Some o f these products are going to be m anufactured especially to m eet export m arket conditions. Anglo-American Co-operation The new factory which was opened by M r. Otis M ansell, C hairm an o f the Celotex C orp o ratio n o f A m erica, the paren t com pany, is the result o f AngloAm erican co-operation and is an expression o f faith in the British fibreboard industry. The Celotex C orp o ratio n is the w orld’s largest board producer and this new factory will m ake Celotex Ltd., in their turn, the largest board m anu­ facturers in the Com m onw ealth. T he N o rth C ircular R oad factory is the largest o f its kind in Europe. It was built in 1938. It is very possible th at this m ajor increase in o u tp u t from the new plant could have an im portant effect on the country’s econom y because by substantially enlarging the supply o f hardboard produced in this country, im ports o f this m aterial may well be reduced. The Manufacturing Process T im ber from B ritain’s forests, m ostly Scotch pine, in the form o f selected logs, is fed by m echanical conveyor to high speed chippers where it is reduced preparatory to entering a special defibration process. The resultant fibrous mass 216 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION is disc refined to ensure uniform ity o f fibre an d then pum ped to a form ing m achine which turns it into a continuous wet lap. This wet lap is cut into 18-foot lengths an d then fed into a h o t hydraulic press o f special design and technique which applies high pressures and tem peratures to produce a bo ard o f outstanding quality. A fter pressing, the h ard b o ard sheets are subjected to a heat treatm ent process and then they are finally sent th ro u g h a hum idifying stage to stabilise and bring them to the degree o f hum idity required. The m anufacturing operation th rou g h o u t the p lan t is fully mechanised, the large com bination o f production units being controlled by a system o f accurately tim ed and synchronised electrical trip switches. I f one stage o f the produ ctio n happens to break dow n, the whole process is autom atically halted. The Equipment T he equipm ent used in the new p lan t was chosen w ith one simple aim in view; to get the best m achinery for the jo b . As no one firm m anufactured all the equipm ent th a t was required o f the necessary perform ance and standard, the plant was m ade up o f several different m akes o f equipm ent, the whole being intern atio n al in flavour. British, Swedish and G erm an firms all contributed to the impressive list o f equipm ent used in th e plant. The m ajority o f the equip­ m ent though is Swedish. Celotex Ltd. acting on the experience and advice o f their P roduction D irector, M r. Percy W. Porter, chose the equipm ent and carried out the installation. The A m erican parent com pany co-operated at every stage. The Finished Product and its Uses T he finished h ard b o ard after it has gone th rough all the different stages o f p rod u ctio n emerges as a tough, dense, grainless sheet. M ade o f refined wood fibres it has none o f the im perfections o f n atu ral w ood, ft has great strength and rigidity and will not crack, split or splinter. It is suitable for all types o f paint, cellulose and stove finishes. The Export Market Celotex Ltd. announce th a t as a result o f increased production they are going to increase substantially their exports an d they will m ake boards specially suited to overseas conditions. W here the board is intended for use in difficult climates ranging from alm ost bone dry to high sustained hum idities, it will be specially ad apted and treated and m ade highly resistant to term ites, dry rot. m ildew and m ould. A t the m om ent h ard b o ard is being exported by the com ­ pany in the form o f com ponents o f m anufactured goods such as cars and prefabricated houses. GO O D FUEL By E. J. H A L E Clerical Officer, Alice Holt A cynic m ight well say th a t th ere’s n o t so m uch good firewood ab o u t now a­ days since th e builders started to use it. A lthough such rem arks usually raise a smile they contain b u t little tru th , an d th e firew ood trade, although n o t as prosperous as it was during an d im m ediately after the last w ar, is still flourishing NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 217 W ithin a few miles o f my hom e on the borders o f Surrey and H am pshire there are quite a num ber o f sm all sawmills w ith large stacks o f firewood n o r is this to be w ondered a t when perhaps 10 to 15 per cent o f the tim ber felled every year falls into the firew ood category. A lthough there is plenty o f firew ood around it seems a far cry to th e years after the first W orld W ar when huge quantities o f logs, charcoal and kindling wood were exported to France, H olland and Belgium. A cheerful blaze in the h earth is one o f the good things we can look forw ard to in a u tu m n and how m uch better than sm oky coal isa lo g fireforw ith its in ter­ m ittent crackling an d flickering it invites one to draw near and enjoy the delight­ ful sleep-inducing w arm th and cosiness. F o rtu n ate then is anyone who has a cache o f logs to draw from but even m ore richly endow ed with fireside delight is he who has the right w ood to burn. W ood unlike coal has a character o f its own w ith m any degrees o f com bustibility an d fragrance when alight. M any woods b urn brightly w ith a m erry splutter but it is the som etim es indefinable but often rich w oody scent th a t is its greatest attribute. This arom a o f the hearth is a m atter o f taste. Some people never consider the smell and certainly n o t the vague variations o f it but others are alm ost connoisseurs and have m arked preferences for one kind o f wood over an o th er an d can tell by the faintly wafted odour w hat logs we are burning. M ost well know n an d proved is p robably oak for it burns steadily and radiantly for a long tim e w ith few sparks. Yew when properly seasoned (two years) is in my opinion better th an oak fo r it burns slowly, gives out a fierce heat, throw s no sparks an d is clean. A sh, h aw thorn and hazel are all good firewoods and share the peculiarity o f burning well w hen freshly cut and quite green. A sh has a pleasant smell which has been likened to a faint perfum e o f violets. H azel usually com es in kindling w ood size but when large enough for logs it burns w ith a loud hiss. Plane will hardly ever com e our way b u t it was used in large quantities by tow n dwellers on th e C ontinent during the war. It needs well drying and then is as good as any log w ood, burning slowly and with m uch heat. Elm w ants a lot o f drying and is a slow starter but once you get it going it burns well and gives off great heat. Sweet chestnut is hopeless unless it’s well seasoned as it will only sm oulder, b u t dried for a year or preferably two it burns fairly well but is inclined to spark an d spit a lot. A good firewood for steady burning and plenty o f heat and no sparks is beech— m uch used m any years ago in Paris and called bois ci’Andelle. A pple and pear m ake really good wood for the fire an d my own preference above all others for a pleasant scent is apple. F o r fragrance when burning my list w ould be apple, L ebanon cedar, oak, Lawson cypress an d Juniperus virginiana. Sycam ore m akes a good bright fire and lasts as long as any w ood when burning. O f the conifers larch is easily the m ost highly inflam m able and the brightest burner—and the quickest—flaring away as soon as it is piled on, b u t throw ing sparks in all directions. Scots pine m akes a good fire, burning fairly rapidly but slower th an larch; a wide hearth an d frequent attention are needed as it sparks a great deal. T he roots o f this tree are m ore inflam m able th a n the rest o f it an d will flare like a torch. It is generally considered th at spruce, D ouglas fir, silver fir, sweet chestnut, lime, alder, aspen, poplar and willow are all po o r firewoods, but I have found th a t w ith m ost o f them , if they are stacked to dry for a couple o f years, and used on a fire w ith plenty o f bo tto m heat, they will b urn well. 218 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION T H E S O I L S U R V E Y OF S C O T L A N D By R. G L E N T W O R T H The M acaulay Institute fo r S o il Research, Aberdeen Reproduced, by kin d permission, fro m Scottish A griculture T h a t m any different kinds o f soils m ay occur in one district and on one farm is well know n to agriculturalists, and local nam es have som etim es been given to soils. Soils are difficult to describe, and a co n trib u to r to the Old S tatis­ tical Account com plained th a t we did n o t have sufficient w ords to describe the m any shades o f differences between them . W ithin the past fifty years the reasons for the developm ent o f recognisably different soils have been emerging. F o r a century or m ore soils have occupied the atten tio n o f agricultural chemists, but their interest was m ainly concerned with the topsoil. R ussian studies o f vegetation and soil changes occurring in the regions extending from the arctic to the sub-tropics have show n th a t the soils th a t developed were related to the clim ate o f the region. L ater w ork in the U nited States o f A m erica confirm ed this observation. The concept o f soil has changed to include not only the topsoil but the subsoil layers dow n to the lithological paren t m aterial from which the soil is derived. In Britain our soils are generally less th an four feet in depth. In the tropics they are frequently ten feet or more. W ith the gradual realisation th a t the appearance, or m orphological p ro ­ perties, o f soils conveyed positive inform ation which could be related to potential agricultural use, soil surveys were com m enced, notably in U .S.A . In highly-farm ed Britain, w ith its long established agriculture, soil studies con­ tinued to be m ainly concerned with soil fertility and with the topsoil. A bout th irty years ago, however, interest in soil profiles and soil m apping was aroused when A m erican soil surveyors visited Britain, and there was an exchange o f personnel w ith b o th R ussia and the U .S.A . System atic soil surveys were com ­ menced in N o rth W ales under the late G. W. R obinson and in Scotland under (Sir) W. G. Ogg. G. W. R obinson was in 1939 appointed director o f the Soil Survey o f E ngland and Wales. Soil surveys by M uir(‘), K ay(2) and O sm ond (3) had the practical object o f m apping soils and correlating them with forestry or orchard crops. In 1946, the A gricultural R esearch C ouncil created a Soil Survey Research B oard w ith the brief to prosecute a system atic soil survey o f Britain. The Soil Survey o f E ngland and W ales is housed at R otham sted, near H arpenden, H erts., but is distinct in its finances from the R otham sted Experim ental Station. The Soil Survey o f Scotland is an integral section o f the M acaulay Institute for Soil Research. The Soil Survey Research Board publishes an annual report (J) in which accounts are given o f the soils distinguished and o f the progress made in the areas under survey in England and W ales and in Scotland. The Soil Profile Physical exam ination of soils is done by digging a hole ab o u t one foot in diam eter dow n to a depth o f thirty inches to two feet. In Scottish soils the soil auger has n o t proved satisfactory. Use is m ade o f all available exposures. The frequency o f exam ination depends on the com plexity o f the soil pattern and the scale o f m apping. The 2.5 inches to the mile O rdnance Survey m aps are used as base m aps, and selected areas are surveyed when necessary on a scale o f six inches to the mile. This latter scale, and also twenty-five inches to the m ile,are used for special surveys for experim ental farm s, F orestry Com m ission lands, etc. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 219 The lithological com position o f the subsoil is exam ined. In Scotland almost invariably we are dealing w ith glacial till or fluvioglacial deposits. The till may be derived predom inantly from one particular rock type, viz. granite, slate or som e kind o f schist as is com m on in n orth-east Scotland, o r it m ay be a complex m ixture o f C arboniferous Age rocks— shale, sandstone and lava— as is found in m uch o f the central valley and south-w est Scotland. The colour o f the soil is readily ap p aren t an d is usually related to the inherent colour o f the p arent material. W hen excess water, periodic or perm anent, is present, grey and bluegrey colours m ay develop, together w ith grey, orange and blue-black m ottling. These colours bear no relationship to the inherent parent m aterial colour but are highly im p o rtan t in assessing the drainage class o f the soil. The soil m ay be excessively freely drained, freely drained, im perfectly, poorly, or very poorly drained, and this is judged from the colour and degree o f m ottling w ithin the profile. Soil structure— the size and arrangem ent o f the soil particles— is observed by the way the soil breaks when a divot is dropped from the spade. T he structure may be single grain, platy, prism atic, colum nar, blocky, granular o r crum b. W ithin one profile a num ber o f structures will be found in each o f the different horizons present. Soil texture is judged by the fcelof th em oistenedsoil between thefingers, and gives an indication o f the am o u n t o f sand, silt, clay and organic m atter present. Structure and the drainage class o f the soil obviously bear a relationship to texture. Single grain sands are generally freely to excessively freely drained, whereas clay-textured soils with a prism atic structure often suffer from excess m oisture and show characters o f p o o r drainage. The consistence o f a soil refers to the way in which the structural units are cohered and bound together, and such term s as loose, firm, hard, friable, soft and plastic are used to describe the condition. The kind o f change between horizons, or the sequence o f layers, such as merging or sharp, and other observations, such as stoniness, roots and earth ­ worms, are also noted in physical exam ination. Classification of Soils The Russians, having observed th at soils were a product o f the clim ate, went on to postulate th at, under a given clim ate, the kind o f soil developed was a function o f the follow ing facto rs:— ( 1 ) age, or length o f tim e the soil had been form ing, ( 2 ) geology, or the kind o f rock m aterial from which it was derived, (3) vegetation, influencing the kind o f organic m atter and the soil organism s present, and (4) relief, or topographical position, influencing the degree o f freedom o f n atural drainage. In a relatively small country such as Britain there is a m arked variation in climate from the m ountain sum m its to the low ground, but within the arable regions the factors o f geology and relief are o f p articular concern to the soil surveyor. The soils o f the world are arranged into m ajor soil groups. These units are very wide divisions, and the soils o f Scotland could be broadly classified into three groups: podzols, brow n forest soils and gleys. Podzol soils are found under heath an d m oorland vegetation. They have at the surface an accum ulation of organic m atter under which the m ineral soil has a grey appearance and is highly siliceous. The layer may be one inch to tw enty-four inches thick but is comm only from two to six inches. Iro n com pounds have been rem oved from this horizon and deposited in the layer below to im part a yellow-brow n colour. 220 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Brow n forest soils have a relatively uniform brow n colour throughout, and it is usual to find these soils at th e lower elevations on well-drained slopes, often on basic paren t m aterials. These soils are capable o f supporting broad-leaved trees. It is thought th a t in the past the circulation o f bases from the decom position o f th e leaf litter, together w ith an earthw orm population, has prevented the stratification into the horizons th at are found in the podzol. In Britain m any variants between the podzol and the brow n forest soil can be recognised. Gley soils are grey or blue-grey in colour. These soils are affected by a high watertable and, where there is a seasonal fluctuation, m ottling with grey and ochre colours is com m on and there is no great accum ulation o f organic m atter in the surface horizon. U nder perm anently wet conditions the gley soils have a peaty surface, and a bluish cast is generally observed below the level o f the perm anent w ater-table. Surface w ater gleys and ground-w ater gleys can be distinguished. Clayey soils often have the gleying perched in the upper two feet o f the profile, a n d beneath this the natural colour o f the p aren t m aterial appears. In g round­ w ater gleys the gleying, i.e. the presence o f grey, blue-grey or ochre m ottling, penetrates to bed-rock o r to a depth in excess o f five feet. In the system atic soil survey the surveyor is particularly concerned with changes in paren t m aterial and drainage class. The m apping unit is the soil series, w hich is defined as a num ber o f soils having sim ilar m orphology and derived from sim ilar lithological p arent m aterial. The series is given a name, generally th at o f the locality in which it was originally observed. In the Scottish Soil Survey, series are grouped into a larger unit, the associa­ tion. This consists o f a num ber o f series which are derived from sim ilar litho­ logical paren t m aterial but which differ in drainage class. The association nam e is tak en from th a t o f th e m ost w ide-spread and dom inant series w ithin it, irrespective o f drainage class. Essentially the association m ay be th ought o f as a hydrologic sequence o f soils, varying from freely or excessively freely drained soils to poorly and very poorly drained soils. A com plete sequence may not always occur. O n clayey paren t m aterials, for instance, it is impossible to find a freely drained soil. Soil Survey Maps and Memoirs The final prod u ct o f the Soil Survey is a soil map which is on a scale o f one inch to th e mile and uses the 3rd E dition projection o f the O rdnance Survey m aps. This is the sam e projection as th at o f the Geological Survey m aps— both D rift an d Solid. The m ap key shows the genetic soil group, the association, the com position o f the p aren t m aterial and the drainage class o f the soil. The m ap is norm ally accom panied by a m em oir describing the soils in detail and discusses the physical features and clim ate o f the area surveyed, solid and glacial geology, pedological m ethods and definitions, vegetation, agriculture and forestry. The chapters on forestry an d agriculture are w ritten by the forestry officers and agricultural advisory officers, respectively, o f the area under survey. A technical section dealing w ith the chem istry o f the soils is included. T hree m em oirs with accom panying m aps have been published on the soils o f the country ro u n d Banff, H untly and T uriJf (Sheets 86 and 96)(‘), Jedburgh and M orebattle (Sheets 17 and 18) (6) and K ilm arnock (Sheets 22 and p art of 2 1 ) 0 ). The m ap shows the progress o f the survey. In future publications it is proposed to group several sheets together in one memoir, e.g. in one group the Fraserb u rg h (97), Peterhead (87), A berdeen (77) and Inverurie (76) sheets and in an o th er group the Brechin (57), B anchory ( 66 ) and Stonehaven (67) sheets. The Survey will publish the soil m aps as they com e from the press and before th e group m em oir is ready. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 221 SOIL S U R V E Y O F SCOTLAND 1 inch to 1 m i l e ( 3 rd- E d .) In d e x of S h e e t s Surveys in pro g ress. S u rv e y s com pleted. Fig. 22. Progress to date o n the Soil Survey o f Scotland. P u b lis h e d . 222 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Uses of the Soil Survey The eighteenth century co n trib u to r to the Statistical Account already m entioned has also com m ented that, if a hundred persons were asked to describe a soil, they would give a hundred different answ ers! W ithout standardisation of soil description and delineation o f the extent o f soil series, m uch valuable know ­ ledge o f soil properties m ust rem ain o f local and prescribed interest. In the w ork o f the experim ental farm s, particularly with regard to the results o f field trials, this inform ation can be applied only in relation to the distribution o f a sim ilar soil series, or series closely related to that on which the field experim ent was conducted. The w ork o f the Soil Fertility D epartm ent o f the M acaulay Institute has show n, from the field trials results and chemical studies, th at the series distinguished by the Soil Survey are valid units requiring different inter­ pretation o f the results o f soil tests and show ing contrasts in their fertiliser requirem ents. The advisory analysis o f soils for m anurial requirem ents involves the sam pling an d testing o f som e 12,000 fields per annum in the N o rth o f Scot­ land province alone. It is hoped that, when advisory d ata can be grouped on a soil series basis, definite trends in m anurial requirem ents will become apparent to enable safe generalisations to be m ade. It is also hoped that, as soil m aps are published for the south-east and south-w est o f Scotland, the field trials in these areas will be based upon the soil survey m ap. The system atic sam pling and study o f soil profiles collected in the course of soil survey have clearly defined trends in the distrib ution o f m any soil constituents, and have indicated m arked differences in phosphate relationships between soils with free drainage and those w ith p oor drainage (G lentw orth)(B). The results o f investigations by W illiams (“) in this line are o f great im portance in understanding the phosphate requirem ents o f soils in relation to crop responses. The soil survey is an inventory or stock-taking o f the greatest o f our natural resources and form s the logical basis on which to conduct a program m e o f soil research, such as is now being undertaken at the M acaulay Institute for Soil Research, A berdeen. R EFE R EN C ES (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) ( 6) (7) ( 8) (9) M uir, A. and Fraser, G. K. The Soils and V egetation o f the Bin and C lashindarroch Forests. 1939. Trans. Roy. Soc.Eclin. LX, P art I, 223. Kay, F. F. A. Soil Survey o f the Straw berry D istrict o f South H am pshire. 1939. Univ. o f Reading. Bull., LI 1. O sm ond, D. A. et at. A Survey o f the Soils and Fruit in the Vale o f Evesham . 1926-1934. B ull. M in. Agric. N o. 116 (H .M .S.O .). Soil Survey o f G reat Britain. R ep o rt N o. 8 . 1956. (H .M .S.O .). G lentw orth, R. The Soils o f the C ountry round Banff, H untly and Turriff. 1954. M em. Soil Survey o f G reat Britain (H .M .S.O .). M uir, J. The Soils o f the C ountry around Jedburgh and M orebattle. 1956. Mem. Soil Survey o f G reat Britain (H .M .S.O .). M itchell, B. D. and Jarvis, R. A. T he Soils o f the C ountry round K il­ m arnock. 1956. Mem. Soil Survey o f G reat Britain (H .M .S.O .). G lentw orth, R. D istribution o f T otal and Acetic Acid Soluble Phosphate in Soil Profiles having N aturally Free and Im peded D rainage. 1947. Nature 159, 441. W illiams, E. G. and Saunders. W. M. H. D istribution o f Phosphorus in Profiles and Particle Size Fractions o f some Scottish Soils. 1956. J. Soil Sci. 7, N o. 190. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 223 FO REST RY IN R E LATI ON TO LA NDS CA PE By C. A. J. B A R R IN G T O N Conservator, English Directorate An address to the Institute o f Landscape Architects on 1 \th April, 1957 I w ant to tell you, first o f all, why it is necessary for us to practice forestry in G reat Britain, and why the Forestry C om m ission has to go on m aking new forests th ro u g h o u t th e length and b readth o f the country on land which has been bare for m any generations. One m ain reason is to reduce o u r im port bill by growing m ore tim ber at home, thus helping the C hancellor o f the Exchequer with the balance o f pay­ ments; an o th er is to help build up a reserve o f tim ber in the country in the event of any future em ergency; and another, and by no m eans the least im p o rtan t one, is to help to m aintain our ru ral population. So far as the balance o f paym ents is concerned, the “ Z uckerm an” report by the N atural Resources (Technical) C om m ittee, entitled Forestry, Agriculture and M arginal Land, recently published, begins as follows: “ Products o f the soil account for one h alf o f the total im port bill for the U nited K ingdom , which in 1955 was ab o u t £3,900 millions. W e buy from ab ro ad one h a lf o f all our food a t a cost o f £1,250 millions; a n d we im port upw ards o f 85 p er cent o f our requirem ents o f tim ber and w ood products at a cost o f approxim ately £430 millions. These im ports are crucial to the problem o f o u r balance o f paym ents. T he im portance o f their reduction, where econom ically possible, and o f the m axim um econom ic use o f our soil, needs no em phasis.” W ith regard to the p o pulation o f our ru ral areas, the total land area o f G reat Britain, which has a p o pulation o f 50 m illions, is only 56 m illion acres. This is less than h a lf the area o f France. A nd R ussia w ith 5,600 m illion acres has a land surface one hun d red times as big as ours. O n an average, every citizen o f our country has a t his disposal a fraction over 1 acre; the average Frenchm an has 3+ acres at his disposal, an d the average A m erican 12t acres. However, in spite o f the shortage o f land in this country, the rem arkable distribution o f o u r popu latio n is such th a t large areas o f w hat m ay be called ‘Highland B ritain’ are very sparsely populated, an d the m ovem ent o f the popula­ tion from these rural areas into the tow ns, which has been continuous since the industrial revolution, is still going on apace, an d there is a danger o f the outlying areas o f G reat B ritain becoming com pletely depopulated, with a total loss o f their agricultural output. The young forests which have been planted since the end o f the first world war have already necessitated the building o f new villages in rem ote parts o f England, Scotland an d W ales, for the express purpose o f housing the m any foresters an d w oodm en who are required to w ork in them . A nd incidentally these young forests are already producing large quantities o f tim ber. Forestry has therefore already begun to play a m ost im p o rtan t p a rt in bringing the people back into our under-populated areas, an d this o f course is directly benefitting agriculture. N o t quite 7 per cent o f our to tal land area is w oodland, com pared w ith 71 per cent in F inland, 56 per cent in Sweden, 28 per cent in W est G erm any, and 20 per cent in F rance. Even H olland, w ith 7.7 per cent, has a larger 224 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION p ro p o rtio n o f its land area under forests th an has G reat Britain-. A nd yet this country, w ith its m aritim e clim ate, its generally mild winters, its com ­ paratively high rainfall and its fertile soils, is probably better suited to tree grow th th a n any other in Europe. Only 1,500 years ago the greater p art o f our land surface was covered w ith n atu ral forests. These n atu ral forests com prised m ainly oak, ash, beech, birch and Scots pine. The pine an d birch were established on the heathlands and the sandy soils. A sh grew on som e o f the fertile soils, beech dom inated the chalk downlands o f the south an d south-east, but oak, o f a type, covered the greater part o f th e country. Y ou can, I expect, picture to yourselves these beautiful vast natural forests, which covered so m uch o f our land for so m any centuries after the last Ice Age. M an appeared in this country m any thousands o f years ago. A nd the direct result o f th a t hum an invasion is th a t today we have so little o f our land surface left und er forest. T he destruction o f the natural tree cover o f G reat Britain occurred mainly as a result o f the clearing o f land for agriculture, and as a consequence o f the developm ent o f iron sm elting in the days when charcoal was used for that purpose. T he fact th a t trees were n o t planted elsewhere to take the place o f the natural forest was sim ply a reflection o f the fact th a t it was easier and cheaper to buy tim ber from abroad. Tim ber has been im ported into this country since the M iddle Ages, an d the exploitation o f virgin forests th roughout the w orld has resulted in high grade tim ber being available at our ports a t low prices. W orld supplies o f tim ber, however, are no longer as plentiful or o f as high quality as they were; neither is im ported tim ber as cheap as it used to be. I am not suggesting for one m om ent th a t the natu ral forests which used to grow in this country should have been left undisturbed, for m uch o f the land on w hich they were grow ing was very fertile, an d it was right and necessary th at the forests should be rem oved and the land cultivated. But we have overdone it in th a t we have cu t th e forest from land which is unsuitable for farm ing and not replanted it; hence our large areas o f unproductive land which no other overpopulated country w ould tolerate. Y ou m ay n o t know th a t during the tw o great wars o f this century, when we were all b u t b rought to our knees th ro u g h starvation, we were spending huge sums o f m oney an d using u p precious shipping space by im porting tim ber— tim ber which could so easily have been grow n at hom e w ithout serious inter­ ference w ith agriculture. T im ber is the m ost bulky cargo in relation to its value, and during the w ar it absorbed ab o u t one seventh o f the to tal shipping entering B ritish p o rts from overseas; shipping w hich could well have been used for bringing in food, especially during the lean an d hungry forties, which I expect all o f you will rem em ber only to o well. I do n o t w ant to w orry you w ith too m any figures, but it is h ard to keep away from them . By 1939 we h ad becom e the largest tim ber im porting country in the w orld, draw ing 95 per cent o f ou r requirem ents from overseas, am ounting to twelve h u n d red m illion cubic feet. W e are still far and away E u ro p e’s largest im porter o f both softw ood and hardw ood tim ber. W e im port over 90 per cent o f the softw ood we consum e, and in spite o f large fellings a t hom e nearly twothirds o f the hardw ood. A nd the bill is £430 m illions! Such facts indicate th a t b o th from th e supply and econom ic aspects it is essential th a t we should produce m ore tim ber at home. A nd conditions at hom e are very favourable to th e grow th o f trees at a m uch m ore rapid rate th an in m ost other E uropean countries. F o r exam ple Scots pine grows two and a half times m ore quickly in this country th a n it does in Sweden, and N orw ay spruce NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 225 (the C hristm as tree) twice as fast. A nd there is in this country a considerable area o f land which, because it is o f a low order o f production, is m ost suitable for planting. In planting this land we have to ensure n o t only th a t we do n o t harm the surrounding scenery but if possible, an d it som etim es is possible to do so, th a t we im prove it. It is here th a t the public can guide and influence us. T hanks to cheap travel an d shorter w orking hours the city dweller is today able to spend quite a large p a rt o f his life out in the country. H e takes, therefore, a m uch greater interest in the treatm ent o f the ru ral landscape o f G reat B ritain than he used to do. If he sees som ething going on in the heart o f the country that he d o esn 't like he is not afraid to say so, and his voice carries weight w ith the pow ers th a t be. All this is quite right an d proper, although som e o f his criticisms are m ade simply because he doesn’t realise exactly w hat is going on; and so the m ore we can all learn ab o u t ru ral land m anagem ent the better, and the easier will it be for us to u n derstand the reason for any sudden change which we m ay see taking place. I do not su p p o rt the contention th a t a large conifer forest will always be a blot on the landscape. I have for a long tim e studied the reaction o f the public to our w ork, and adm ittedly it has som etim es created a great hullabaloo, b u t I am convinced th a t it is, m ore th an anything else, the sudden change which is brought ab o u t when a new forest is created th a t people object to. They do not realise that, w hether you are building a new cathedral or planting a new forest, you will m ake a sudden change in the appearance o f the land on w hich you are working, and beauty is not m ade overnight. But if we as a natio n are n o t prepared for any changes, and quick changes if necessary, we shall stagnate. There can be no disputing the fact th a t forestry, ju st exactly like agriculture, is norm al land use. T im ber is ju st as m uch a crop as is wheat. M any people do not realise this. A nd the argum ent th a t forests are n o t natural to the landscape of Britain is o f course untrue. It is th e thousands o f acres o f bare land which m an has created by centuries o f forest destruction which are n o t natural. R e­ foresting som e o f o u r bare land gives us the chance o f re-creating the beauty which we destroyed generations ago— especially during the industrial revolution. It also gives us the chance o f adding to the w ealth o f our country a m uch needed natural resource for which there is a very rapidly increasing w orld dem and. In doing this we not only stop the depopu latio n o f the countryside which I m entioned earlier on, b u t in fact we reverse the trend. W e have got to have m ore forests in this country. T h a t is a M U ST, whether we like it or not. I personally like it; and the aim is to have, by the turn o f the century, five m illion acres o f fully productive forests in private and Com m ission ow nership. W e shall then produce each year ab o u t one-third o f our annual requirem ents o f tim ber. W hat we m ust do is so to design these new forests th at they fit in w ith the scenery. T h a t is n o t im possible. A forest m ay perhaps bring in a rath er sm aller financial retu rn if atten tio n is given to aesthetic considerations. But does th at m atter w ithin reaso n ? A nd there will be an enorm ous indirect gain by the pleasure afforded to the com m unity if am enity is taken into consideration; i f edges are softened; if hard , geom etrical lines are avoided; if inform al outlines are created; if dense forest is m ade to m erge naturally by groups and isolated trees into farm lan d ; if viewpoints are left u n p lan ted ; if species are mixed whenever possible; if the forester looks ahead— and thinks. Provided care is taken and com m on sense used, so th a t som e o f the adm it­ tedly awful m istakes o f the twenties an d early thirties are n o t repeated, th e beauty o f o u r scenery will n o t be im perilled by forestry. 226 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION F O R E S T R Y F R O M T H E T O W N P L A N N E R ’S A N G L E By JO H N CA SSO N , A .M .l.M u n .E ., M .T.P.I. Lancashire County Council M uch o f our advisory work nowadays touches upon problems o f tree preservation or scenic improvement, such as the affores­ tation o f waste land in industrial districts, where the views o f the town planning department o f the local authority often come into the picture. M r. John Casson has kindly made available to this Journal the follow ing extracts fro m a paper he presented to the Annual Conference o f Landscape Architects at King's College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in Septem ber 1957. H e asks us to state that the opinions he expresses are not necessarily those o f the Lancashire County Council; and also to say that detailed responsibility fo r experimental afforestation and management on the Council's properties rests with Mr. L . A. King, whom m any o f our s ta ff will remember as the Forester fo rm erly in charge o f Grizedale.— Editor. Tree P lanting on D erelict Land T he program m e o f tree planting on derelict land is carried out under Section 89 o f the N ational Parks an d Access to the Countryside Act, and the autho rity o f the M inister o f H ousing and Local G overnm ent m ust be obtained u n der Section 103 o f the A ct for the acquisition o f the land either com pulsorily o r by'agreem ent. A careful exam ination o f sites is carried out on the basis o f annual selection from ’a five-year forw ard program m e which is reviewed every two o r three years; one o f the difficulties is delay in securing land acquisition. The factors o f site selection in the first place include unsuitability for other purposes, suitable location from a landscape or biological point o f view, suitability o f soil m aterial available on the surface an d liabilities such as excessive fencing costs, dilapidated walls, dangerous em bankm ents, p it shafts, dangers o f public trespass and dam age by children. Conspicuous sites are selected where possible. In the earlier stages it was th o u g h t that w eathered shale or other effectivelyw eathered waste m aterial prom ised a greater likelihood o f success in tree planting, b u t in a num ber o f cases this has been disproved although site colonisa­ tion is an excellent guide as to suitability for planting. The Bickerstaffe experi­ m ental site near O rm skirk was well w eathered and colonised but raw er types of shale have subsequently been planted with apparently greater success in som e cases—the shale a t Bickerstaffe being o f a hard dry flaky nature after weathering. Difficulties of acquisition derive from owners suspecting th at the shale or other waste m aterial may becom e valuable; alternatively, inflated ideas o f the land value m ay prejudice negotiations. O pen-cast m ining has frequently interfered w ith th e planting program m e, and legal restrictions and large ‘ad m ittedclaim s’ have resulted in the sites being rejected, while in some cases the N ational Coal B oard wish to retain the site against future tipping contingencies or access for incidental m ining purposes. Difficulties o f land acquisition are, therefore, the greatest problem in the forw ard planning o f a planting program m e. T he choice of species involves consideration o f the type o f ground, extent o f colonisation, exposure, atm ospheric pollution, erosion and the ecological relationship o f the site to its surroundings. Fencing, which accounts for a large p a rt o f the cost o f planting, is usually required and it is norm al to use a w ooden NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 227 post an d wire fence w ith rabbit netting where necessary, in accordance with norm al forestry practice. The species so far used for planting include Sitka spruce, sycam ore, beech, Japanese larch, grey alder, birch, lodgepole pine, sweet chestnut, E uropean larch, black poplar, goat willow, red oak, w hite p oplar, m ountain pine, C orsican pine, ash, row an, horse chestnut an d N orw ay m aple. Planting rates vary between 1,500 an d 2,000 per acre— again in accordance with norm al forestry practice; survival counts are taken and beating-up is carried out annually for the first five years. W eeding is a problem on som e sites where colonisation has become extensive, whereas on shale heaps this is generally not so. The L ancashire Planning D epartm ent has two forestry officers on its staff whose duties include such w ork as the adm inistration o f Tree Preservation Orders, and these officers are responsible for the technical m anagem ent o f the program m e. A n estate van and trailer an d a forestry gang consisting o f a fore­ m an an d eight forestry w orkers are em ployed a t the present tim e to carry out fencing, planting and m aintenance. This direct labour organisation was em ­ ployed because o f the im possibility o f carrying out the w ork by contract m ethods. E xpenditure is m et from revenue and m any sites have qualified for Forestry Com m ission Small W oods Planting G ra n ts; this practical su p p o rt from the Com m ission has been m ost encouraging. Average costs so far have been £10 per acre for acquisition an d £30 per acre for fencing, the to tal cost o f work varying from £50-£80 per acre; after-m anagem ent has averaged £10 per acre for the succeeding five years but it is em phasised th at there are wide variations on the range o f sites and for the range o f w eather conditions during particular years. T he planting has generally succeeded on all the sites included in the program m e an d it is hoped th at in the future these areas will becom e useful tim ber-producing sites as well as am enity features. As m ore experience is gained, atten tio n is being given increasingly to the landscape factors o f the planting designs, and particular atten tio n is being given to the planting o f shrub layer fringes aro u n d the new woodlands. Planting on spoil heaps T he first positive step which the L ancashire C ounty Council to o k was in 1951 when a shale heap at Bickerstaffe in W est Lancashire, 11 acres in extent and 60 ft. high, was planted with trees. Subsequently grass seeding experim ents were carried out on a steep southern slope suffering from sheet erosion and gullying, a com m on phenom enon on colliery shale heaps. This experim ent was successful an d led to an annual program m e o f tree planting on derelict land under Section 89 o f the N ational Parks Act. Since then m ore th an 275,000 trees have been planted on 16 derelict sites covering 143 acres th ro u g h o u t the adm inistrative county. These sites now range from colliery spoil heaps to a haem atite mine dum p, devasted w oodlands, gritstone quarry wastes and a derelict erosion gully in the Rossendale area. Planting on spoil heaps has been going on for the past five years on sites o f varying physical condition, and it is now possible to generalise ab o u t the capabilities o f colliery shale sites. The im pression so far is th at in those areas less affected by atm ospheric p o llution an d hu m an interference they are apparently capable o f producing reasonable tree cro p s; in areas where atm ospheric pol­ lution an d hum an d epredation are m ore acute, they are capable o f bearing a less productive crop, w ith considerable am enity and biological value. 228 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION The m ain conclusions up to 1957 are:— (1) Colliery spoil heaps appear to be sufficiently fertile to m aintain tree growth. (2) Sufficient m oisture is available to su p p o rt the early stages o f tree grow th under average w eather conditions, but losses were above average during the dry sum m er o f 1955. This condition also obtained in com m ercial forestry th ro u g h o u t England. (3) T he choice o f species is partly governed by conditions such as sm oke pollution and trespass, but pollution does not com pletely rule out the choice o f certain conifers. (4) It is essential th at a pioneer or nurse species be extensively used. In the early stages o f the program m e up to three species were planted in m ixtures on the various site plots. It was found on one plot th at where alder was included in the m ixture it was acting as a nurse w ith significant benefit. Subsequently this m ethod has been generally adopted. (5) N urse species— Grey alder has proved th at it should be the first choice in Lancashire, especially where there is no existing vegetation. Birch is also beginning to establish itself, but does require m ore careful siting and should only be used on shales th a t retain their m oisture m uch longer an d where, if possible, vegetation has become established. A nother good species, particularly where the site is very dry and subject to erosion is white poplar, and this species, with its habit o f prom oting ro o t suckers, will ru n several feet during the year and thereby form a retentive m oisture-conserving root mat. ( 6) H ardw oods— Sycam ore and beech are fairly safe to plant though these are m uch slower than the grey alder, birch and white poplar. (7) Conifers— C orsican pine an d lodgepole pine are the m ost successful on all sites, even in areas o f atm ospheric pollution. Japanese larch, while show ing a considerable am ount o f grow th during the first three years, has show n a tendency to fail during a very severe drought. ( 8 ) O ther species which have been planted subsequently include gean. com m on alder, lime and Turkey oak, but it is too soon to draw up any conclusions regarding them . Afforestation in Rossendale R ossendale, 2,000 years ago, was covered by oak, birch and ash forests and in historic times was well noted for excellent sycam ore woods. The history o f settlem ent, however, changed when H enry VII abolished the laws o f the Forest o f R ossendale “ in order to reclaim lan d ” . Soon w idespread clearance heralded cattle-ranching on a large scale. In the 16th C entury new settlers began to infiltrate and the ranches fragm entated into sm aller holdings. By the 18th Century, when the textile industry began. R ossendale had become a region o f sm all farm s w ith lim ited stock and part-tim e family workers. The history o f centuries o f colonisation is clearly w ritten on the contem porary landscape and its place-nam es; bare hills are dotted w ith small isolated farm houses, as high as 1,250 feet; the m ajority now stand in ruins, and the land is blackened m oor. This was brought ab o u t through the com bined effects o f a diversion o f labo u r to the better-paid and growing textile industry, soil im poverishm ent resulting from high rainfall and exposure, followed by atm ospheric pollution. T he tragedy is th a t this terrible tran sfo rm atio n is accepted as a norm , yet the cold, dam p clim ate and repeated flooding resulting from the dis-afforestation NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 229 of centuries ago is one very real factor in the em igration from E ast Lancashire of the young an d vital elem ent o f its populatio n . There have now been steps by responsible authorities tow ards reh abilitation. A t H elm shore, n ear Bury, the experim ental farm o f the M inistry o f A griculture shows th a t soil rehabilitatio n in this region is practicable in spite of 72 tons o f solid deposit p er an n u m from the atm osphere on to its 350 acres, and sulphur dioxide p o llution ten times greater th an average (3.8 p arts per 100 m illion). T he visual im pact o f this farm sets its hilltop location a p a rt from the surrounding bare black hills. N evertheless, the difficulties experienced at this farm have show n th a t a regional clean air policy w ould m ake a w onderful contribution to ru ral rehabili­ tation in the south o f Lancashire. To their great credit the Irwell Valley W ater B oard has invited the Forestry Com m ission to plant a 900 acre w atershed at H aslingden G rane, one o f the most depressing areas o f derelict farm land. I t is to be hoped th a t the F orestry Comm ission, am ongst other bodies concerned w ith rural land use, will take a positive lead in re-establishing sound ecological conditions in areas such as this. The C om m ission’s task is, however, to raise tim ber, b u t atm ospheric conditions are a great deterrent, and m uch o f the necessary small-scale planting could n o t be carried out by their present organisation. T he L ancashire C ounty C ouncil has already planted three typically derelict sites in R ossendale and this, as well as im proving am enities, is seen as a contri­ bution tow ards the im provem ent o f land use a n d clim ate; these sites are res­ pectively a disused q uarry waste heap, a deep and ugly erosion gully and a steep abandoned roadside field in R aw tenstall. A reas such as R ossendale require a L andscape Plan and pow ers to restore their hills to beauty an d usefulness. T he p attern o f rural land degradation is repeated on a trem endous scale in the n o rth o f E ngland and the H ighlands o f Scotland and W ales. T hat the processes o f disafforestation were continuing until very recently is illustrated by the Forestry C om m ission’s Census o f 1947-1949. In L ancashire alone this showed th a t 15,000 acres o f w oodlands, o f 5 acres and over, had been devastated o r reduced to scrub in com paratively recent times. In fact, less th an three per cent, o f the G eographical C ounty o f L ancashire rem ains as w oodlands of five acres and over (30,000 acres). D educt from this the w ooded areas o f Furness and the w oodland picture for the rem ainder o f the county is indeed a sorry one (ab o u t 1 per cent as com pared w ith 7 per cent in the whole U nited K ingdom , 28 per cent in G erm any and 20 per cent in France). Tree Preservation Orders This shortage o f trees an d w ooded landscapes has influenced the L ancashire C ounty Council to ad o p t a strong policy w ith regard to the control o f felling operations, and 54 Tree Preservation O rders protecting a q u arter o f a m illion trees on 35,000 acres o f Lancashire countryside and tow ns have been m ade since 1948. F u rtherm ore, through liaison w ith the Forestry Com m ission, very little felling now takes place in the county w ithout replanting being carried out in a p roper m anner. T he C ounty C ouncil’s policy w ith regard to tree preservation has aim ed at the p roper m anagem ent o f standing w oodlands in accordance with sound forestry, an d the creation o f new areas o f properly-sited w oodlands and trees where felling has been necessary to facilitate agriculture or developm ent. It has been found th a t this policy is superior to one o f mere preservation and in the long ru n m ore effectively meets am enity objectives. 230 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION In spite o f w hat can be done under present powers, it is clear th a t the Lancashire countryside requires a very m uch greater p ro p o rtio n o f trees and w oodlands th a n it contains at the present tim e, particularly in the open plains an d m osslands, aro u n d an d between the great u rban centres, and to obtain clim atic im provem ent and w ater control. T he rep o rt o f the N atio n al Resources Technical C om m ittee on Forestry, A griculture and M arginal L and has throw n a long-aw aited and welcome light on ru ral land use in Britain an d has clarified the im portance o f w oodlands in relation to agriculture. This relationship is a basic factor in any conservation policy in the countryside. Tree Planting If developm ent o f any sort is to be harm oniously blended into the rural scene it is essential th a t there should be carefully-planned tree planting. In the days o f the great estates new building was autom atically endow ed w ith shel­ tering an d beautifying trees; the planning o f a lovely countryside was a prim e objective. The planning au thority is today the heir to this tradition. Tree planting conditions should, therefore, notw ithstanding architectural purism , be im posed on the great m ajority o f consents to develop in the co untry­ side where architectural and planting designs should be one. It is often said th a t tree planting is the p lan n er’s palliative, th a t it hides developm ent which should n o t be th ere; the only tru th in this com m ent is th a t it touches the essence o f th e problem o f conserving a lovely countryside while keeping it vital and m odern. Planting, an d existing trees an d w oodlands, should be given as m uch consideration as services, road s and agriculture, w hen planning applications are u nder consideration, because trees are a fundam ental elem ent o f landscape. T he redevelopm ent o f o u r tow ns an d cities to m ake them attractive livingplaces w ould achieve m uch in the conservation o f the countryside, by reducing the pressure for sporadic developm ent elsewhere. THE W OODLANDS OF SU SSEX : Q U E S T IO N S A N D A N S W E R S T ext o f a booklet prepared with the help o f the s ta ff o f SouthEast England Conservancy fo r the Sussex Rural Community Council, Lewes. (A) F a c t s a n d F ig u r e s 1. Q. W hat is the total w oodland area o f Sussex? A. 150,000 acres, or 15£ p er cent o f the C ounty acreage, the largest proportion o f any C ounty in England. 2. O. H ow m uch o f this is considered by experts to be suitable for econom ic m anagem ent? A. 130,000 acres or nearly 90 p er cent. 3. Q. H ow m uch o f this is today under properly planned m anagem ent? A. Less than one-fifth o f the privately-ow ned w oodlands, plus 20,000 acres o f Forestry C om m ission w oodlands. Less th an h alf o f this fifth is actually carrying productive crops today: b u t plans exist or are in p rep aratio n to replant the balance o f this one-fifth in the next ten years o r so. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 4. Q. (B ) F o r e s t r y Q. 6. A. Q. A. 7. Q. A. (C) A d v ic e 8 . Q. A. (D ) T h e D 9. as a R A. ural Industry H ow m any m en are directly em ployed, full tim e, in the w ood­ lands o f Sussex a t p resent? P robably some 500, including F orestry Com m ission staff. I f all w oodlands suitable for econom ic m anagem ent were intensively m anaged, w hat w ould be the effect on ru ral em­ ploym ent ? 130,000 acres o f intensively m anaged w oodlands could sustain a lab o u r force o f approxim ately 3,000 m en and wom en. In addition, there w ould be em ploym ent (m ainly ru ral, b u t n o t necessarily local), in nurseries to grow tree plants, an d a t saw­ mills to deal w ith the produce, and fo r the services required to m aintain w oodm en and their families. W h at wages can be expected ? W ages o f w oodm en are already closely related to those o f farm w orkers. Forest operations lend themselves to piece-w ork rates, an d earnings can com pare satisfactorily w ith m any o ther form s o f em ploym ent. and A s s is t a n c e H ow does an ow ner obtain advice o r additional advice on w ood­ land problem s ? F ro m or th ro u g h the F orestry Com m ission, by w riting or phoning, in Sussex, to the W oking address, The South E ast Conservancy, Danesfield, G range R oad, W oking, Telephone 2270. L ocal Officers o f the F orestry Com m ission are stationed in Sussex itself, and are available to visit w oodlands and give free advice on all aspects o f m anagem ent, planting, m arketing o f produce, etc. T here are also o f course professional m en, C hartered Surveyors and C hartered L and Agents who can advise themselves, o r else give inform ation as to Forestry C onsultants w ho in m any cases com bine a forestry contracting business w ith advisory w ork. e d ic a t i o n Q. 231 W h at o f the other ninety-odd th o usand acres for w hich there is no record th a t any plans exist? M uch o f it is at present unproductive because it has been totally felled and is now grow ing m ere scrub, o r the best trees have been rem oved and the w oods are now carrying only a sparse crop o f p o o r trees. A. 5. 1957 Schem e W h at is this business o f ‘dedicating’ w oodlands ? W hat precisely is the D edication Schem e? D edication is a device w hereby the O w ner and the Forestry C om m ission w ork in collaboration. A n agreem ent is entered in to jo in tly by the ow ner and the F orestry Com m ission. The ow ner undertakes to m anage his w oodlands for the m ain purpose o f tim ber p ro d u ctio n an d to w ork to approved plans. In return, financial assistance is provided by the F orestry Com m ission. F ull details are available in a Booklet obtainable from the C om m ission entitled ‘G ran ts fo r W oodland O w ners’. 232 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (E ) A p p r o v e d W 10. Q. A. (F ) Sm all W 11. Q. A. (G ) G rants 12. (H ) Q. A. oodlands I f the ow ner does n o t wish to dedicate, can he nevertheless o b tain assistance ? Yes, w ithout actually dedicating he can get certain grants for p lanting and fo r various oth er forestry operations which are carried o u t und er a p lan w hich has been ‘approved’ by the Com m ission. oods If a w oodland area is too sm all to be suitable for dedication or for an approved p lan, can assistance still be obtained? Yes. A ‘Sm all W oods Planting G ra n t’ is available fo r the planting o f a m inim um o f one acre on any estate in one year in detached w oods o f less th a n 5 acres, narrow strips or belts, and in badly shaped w oods o f up to 30 acres. O n an estate with a to tal w oodland area o f less th an 150 acres all woods are eligible for this gran t providing there is no individual and accessible w ood exceeding 35 acres in extent. A v a il a b l e W hat are these g ran ts? Full details are set out in the F orestry C om m ission publication ‘G rants for W oodlands O w ners’, a free pam phlet obtainable from the F orestry C om m ission itself and elsewhere. The G rants m ay be sum m arised as follow s:— Dedication o f Woodlands Scheme, under which an owner undertakes to p u t his w oodlands perm anently to tim ber p ro ­ d uction: Planting grant £17 an acre, M aintenance grant 5/6 an acre. Sm all Woodlands Scheme. Planting grant £17 an acre. Poplar Planting Scheme. Block planting £8 lOs. an acre. P op lar planting gran t o f 2/- per tree where planted in lines. Approved Woodlands Grants. The grants for planting in ‘A pproved W oodlands’, i.e. areas being w orked to an approved plan o f operations, will be one h a lf o f the rate payable to owners o f D edicated W oodlands. Scrub Clearance Grants. G ran ts o f £8 10.?. an acre where the net cost o f clearing is £17 to £27 an acre, and £13 10.?. where the net cost exceeds £27 an acre. T a x a t io n R e l ie f s 13. Q. A. W h at are the benefits for a w oodland owner in respect o f T ax atio n ? The benefits can be very considerable, b o th as to Incom e Tax an d Sur-Tax, an d also in respect o f death duties. Advice should be tak en a b o u t this m ost im p o rtan t aspect o f w oodland m anage­ m ent by owners who contem plate forestry w ork. T he Forestry Com m ission leaflet N o . 12 ‘Incom e Tax and E state D uty on W oodlands’ gives useful inform ation. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX (I) 233 L oans 14. Q. C an an ow ner obtain loans as well as grants to finance a re­ planting p roject? Yes. Subject to satisfactory security the Forestry Com m ission are prepared to m ake loans and im provem ent loans to owners o f dedicated w oodlands to cover a substantial p a rt o f the costs o f replanting. Interest is charged. L oans can also be obtained u nder the Im provem ent Acts, from the L ands Im provem ent C om pany and the A gricultural M ortgage C orporation. A. (J) 1957 G e t t in g 15. St a r ted Q. If an O w ner has little or no technical forestry knowledge and no skilled w oodm en, how can he get started ? He can ask for a visit from an officer o f the F orestry C om ission, who will advise and help him and give the nam es o f Forestry C onsultants a n d /o r C ontractors who could carry o u t the planting and, if necessary, could undertake to m aintain the w oodlands if the O w ner has no staff for this purpose. Is smallness o f an area a lim iting factor? N o t necessarily. A w ood o f one acre can som etim es be as productive and useful, size for size, as a w ood o f 100 acres. If it is difficult o f access, it m ay be more costly to m anage. A. 16. Q. A. ( K ) F a r m in g 17. (L ) M and Q. A. F orestry N eed farm ing an d forestry be in opposition? N o. W ell m anaged w oodlands on a farm can provide shelter, fencing m aterials, sport, and profit, and can provide alternative work for farm w orkers when they cannot get on the land. a r k e t in g 18. Q. A. Is it true th a t forestry is such a long-term investm ent th a t an ow ner will get no return for the m oney he lays out in his own lifetim e? This depends u p o n the size o f the scheme and the period over which the replanting is to take place. It also depends upon w hether the expression ‘retu rn ’ for the m oney laid out by an ow ner implies a net profit or m erely m eans gross income. F o r example, in farm ing, m ilk production should produce an incom e imm ediately, beef pro duction m ay take three to four years before any incom e is obtained. So w ith forestry, the tim e at which an income is received will vary w ith w hat is produced. The grow ing o f C hristm as trees m ay produce an income from the fifth year, p o p lar should m ature at th irty years, b u t in the case o f the p roduction o f hard-w oods such as beech, ash o r oak, a substantial income from m ature tim ber will not arise fo r fifty to a hundred years. Some incom e, however, should be derived from thinnings— and in the case o f coniferous plantations from a b o u t the fifteenth year. F u rth er, if the planting is carries o u t in one operation, incom e will be derived according to the species planted, a t varying tim es; b u t in the case o f continuing forestry operations covering a large area and which therefore extend 234 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION 19. Q. A. 20. Q. A. 21. Q. A. 22. Q. A. 23. Q. A. over a period o f years, the cost o f planting and subsequent tending o f the young plants is likely to continue to exceed the income derived from thinnings and early m aturing species. The expenditure on such planting m ust be considered to be in the n ature o f capital expenditure, and w ith the aid o f Incom e Tax benefits w hich are obtainable, planting offers capital appreciation as its chief financial attraction, anyhow until such time as through the years well managed woodlands have been built up to the stage when yearly fellings can take place. The difficulty o f m arketing ‘thinnings’ is every year alleged by m any w oodland ow ners to be insuperable. Is it really so? On the contrary there is a m ark et for thinnings in the form o f p it w ood, fencing m aterials and pulp wood. A co n stan t study o f the various m arkets for thinnings, especially those connected w ith any particu lar locality, m ust o f course be m ade. The Forestry C om m ission is prepared to advise on this if desired. H ow should the thinnings be sold; as they stand in the w ood, o r after they are felled ? It p artly depends upon local conditions. There are m erchants w ho will purchase the thinnings th at are m arked standing, and fell and extract them . The Forestry C om m ission can advise a b o u t prices and also provide a simple form o f contract for standing sales. Some o f the Forestry C onsultants also under­ take m arketing. W ho selects the trees to be m arked as thinnings? Again, the Forestry Com m ission will advise and will carry out a sam ple m arking w ith an ow ner to show how it is done if an ow ner requires such advice. D oes one have to obtain a licence to fell trees ? W ith certain exceptions a licence m ust be obtained to fell any tree over 3ins. in diam eter in w oodlands and hedgerows. A pplication m ust be m ade to the Forestry Com m ission. Is there any retu rn from the scrub and coppice cleared from an area before replanting? Som etim es it is possible to m arket selected produce. Birch betw een 2 and 7 inches in diam eter finds a m arket for turnery; there is some m arket for small w ood for charcoal burning, and for firewood. (M) P r o t e c t i o n 24. Q. W h at are the m ain sources o f injury to tree crops ? A. G rey squirrels, rabbits, fire, and wind. Y oung plantations m ust be fenced against rabbits and a constant w ar waged against the grey squirrel. The Fire Brigade will give free advice on fire protection. G ood thinning will do a great deal to prevent w indblow . (N) A m e n it y 25. Q. In Sussex the w oodlands are m uch valued for am enity. Will econom ic m anagem ent conflict w ith this? NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 26. 1957 235 A. It need n o t—in fact it can greatly enhance the am enity. Much, o f the fear o f com m ercial forestry expressed by those seeking to preserve the beauties o f the countryside is based on experiences and practices w hich are equally ab h o rren t to the m odern Forester. Q. A. H ow is th is? G o o d w oodland m anagem ent will produce continual tree cover o f a wide variety o f species and age-classes in reasonably intim ate m ixture, w ith individual trees o f fine form and full crow n de­ velopm ent. T here will be no clear-felling o f such a w oodland, producing d ram atic and unwelcom e change to the landscape; b u t as the different species reach m aturity a t different times, there will be a gradual, continuous and alm ost im perceptible replacem ent o f the old by the new, in blocks scattered th ro u g h ­ out the w ood. ( 0 ) S h o o t in g 27. Q. A. Will good forest m anagem ent conflict w ith the sporting value o f the w oodlands? N o —in fact the opposite. G o o d forestry and pheasants as well as am enity, dem and a w oodland com posed o f various species, o f various age-classes, and no wholesale clear-felling. Im perial C hem ical Industries have recently produced an excellent leaflet on this subject, I.C .I. G am e Services A dvisory Booklet N o. 15 ‘Forestry and P heasants’, obtainable from I.C .I. G am e R esearch Station, Burgate M anor, F ordingbridge, H am pshire. (P ) P r a c t ic a l C o u r s e s A v a il a b l e 28. Q. A. A re there facilities for im proving one’s knowledge o f practical F o restry ? Yes. The Forestry Com m ission runs a num ber o f five-day courses each year at N orth erw o o d H ouse in the N ew F o rest fo r ow ners and agents. In addition, courses o f six weeks’ d u ratio n are organised each year for estate w oodm en. Particulars o f all such courses m ay be obtained from The C hief E ducation Officer, Forestry Com m ission, D irector o f R esearch and Education, 1 Princes G ate, L ondon, S.W.7. The R oyal F o restry Society o f England and W ales also holds annual refresher courses for members. (Q ) S o c ie t ie s 29. Q. A. A re there Forestry Societies to jo in ? Yes. The R oyal Forestry Society o f E ngland and W ales, w hich publishes a quarterly Jo u rn al, has branches in each C ounty. Field m eetings are held at w hich estate w oodlands or F orestry C om m ission areas are visited. F requently 60-80 m em bers attend such m eetings at w hich problem s com m on to m any w oodland owners are discussed. Particulars ab o u t joining th e Society can be obtained from the Secretary, the R oyal F orestry Society o f E ngland an d W ales, 49 Russell Square, London,. W .C .l. 236 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION (R ) L i t e r a t u r e 30. Q. A. W hat are the publications dealing w ith Forestry ? The Forestry Com m ission have published, and are continuing to publish, a num ber o f leaflets, booklets, and F orest Records on different forestry subjects. A com plete list can be obtained from H .M . Stationery Office. In addition, there are a large num ber o f text books and m anuals on Forestry, m any recently published and w ritten prim arily for owners and agents. (S) C o n c l u s io n s 31. Q. A. D oes an ow ner get m ore out of it than a purely m onetary reward ? The grow ing and m anagem ent o f w oodlands can becom e an absorbing and intensely interesting pursuit. It is a pursuit that can be followed till advanced old age and takes one into the w oods to study the trees one has planted, and how they are growing, and to plan for the future. It leads to a wide field of interest in its connection w ith n atu ral history, soils, and the life o f the countryside, and to see trees grow ing where before there was only useless scrub o r bracken is one o f the m ost satisfying sights a m an can behold. Nevertheless a sufficient m onetary rew ard—chiefly in term s o f capital im provem ent but also show ­ ing by degrees som e yearly surplus— will be essential if Britain is to achieve a better position th an at present. 32. Q. F ro m the em ploym ent point o f view how long will it take to increase a present Sussex total o f some 500 people em ployed in Forestry to a to tal o f 3,000? P erhaps fifty years. A. 33. Q. A. 34. Q. A. W here w ould Britain then stand am ong the T im ber Producing countries o f the w orld ? It has been said th a t if a civilised and developed country is to be self-supporting in tim ber, som e 15 per cent o f its acreage should be afforested. A t 1914 the B ritish area was som e 5.6 per cent only (the lowest in E urope). A t the end o f the 1939 w ar the forest area was 3.7 per cent (and some o f this was merely open heath). The G overnm ent target tow ards rem edying this became ‘three m illion acres o f national forest in fifty years from now ; plus two million acres o f private w oodlands rehabilitated’. This would raise the w oodland area to 10 per cent. T h at would provide a third o f B ritain’s norm al requirem ents, but it m ight also provide several years’ reserve o f lim ber for felling in case o f w ar or other emergency. How can Sussex achieve its share o f this im provem ent? By the following m ean s:— (a) E ncouraging owners o f well-managed w oodlands to continue their planting. (b) Supporting the Forestry Com m ission to continue to work tow ards their (national) three million acre target. NUMBER T W EN TY -SIX (c) 35. 1957 237 H oping th a t ow ners o f small areas o f w oodland will increasingly carry o u t forestry w ork w ith the aid o f Advice, G ran ts and Loans. Q. In w hat way o r ways can the O w ners o f private w oods hope to reach their own national targ et o f tw o m illion acres? A. T he Sussex R u ral C om m unity Council, having had the benefit o f a num ber o f discussions w ith m em bers o f the F orestry C om ­ m ission, the R oyal Forestry Society o f E ngland and W ales, the C ou n try L andow ners A ssociation, the N atio n al Farm ers U nion an d w ith land ow ners an d land agents and others interested in afforestation, are o f the opinion th at under existing conditions an d using existing Societies and O rganisations there is really no reason why o u r ow n national target should n o t be reached. It is felt th a t m uch m ore will be undertaken w hen it is realised by ow ners how m uch valuable practical advice is available. The lab o u r problem which presents itself to those owners who can n o t contem plate em ploying their own w oodlands staff (or only a very sm all one) can be overcom e by em ploying one o f the several experienced Forestry C ontractors operating in Sussex. T here are, o f course, o th er alternatives such as the form atio n o f a ‘C o-operative W oodlands Society’ o r merely o f a ‘W oodlands Society’ but, for the present, and bearing in m ind th a t a forw ard m ovem ent is noticeable it w ould ap p e ar th a t no new organisation is required but rath e r renewed interest and fuller use o f existing facilities. (T ) S o m e F in a l F ig u r e s F arm ing an d Forestry in Britain are b o th affected by overseas facts which are beyond British control. E ngland, W ales, and Scotland contain 56 m illion acres to m eet all the need o f 50 m illion people. To produce o u r food we have no m ore th an h a lf an acre for each person. In the m eantim e w 'orld-population is increasing by som e 20 millions each year. Some o f those tw enty m illions are already themselves consum ing a p ro p o rtio n o f the produce which was previously exported to Britain (this applies, im portantly, to the whole A m erican C ontinent). In respect o f Forestry a vvorld-increase in housing and stan d ard o f living will perhaps have slower results. But it has been said th at C anada is today destroying her w'oodlands two and a h a lf times faster th an she is im proving them , and the U nited States four and a h a lf times faster. If this is the case and if it continues, any exportable surplus will obviously be m uch reduced. 238 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION BRITISH BR YOLO GIC AL SOCIE TY FIELD EXCURSION, BARNSTAPLE, NORTH DEVON By I. G. H A L L Forester, Research Branch The A pril, 1957, field excursion o f the British Bryological Society was held in N o rth D evon w ith headquarters at B arnstaple. All the localities visited were w ithin tw enty miles o f B arnstaple. G eologically all lie on either the C arb o n i­ ferous C ulm M easures or the D evonian Series. A p a rt from duneland m ost of the areas visited were w ooded or treeless hill and valley slopes. Some little time was also devoted to coastal cliffs and rocks. N o ground higher th an about 750 feet was w orked, so th at m ontane or sub-m ontane species were absent. N o rth D evon is quite well know n bryologically and, largely for this reason, there were few outstanding finds. N evertheless a large num ber o f moss and hepatic species were seen, including some which are rare or unknow n in B ritain outside the South-W est Peninsula. The m ost interesting and bryologically rew arding day was spent on the dunes at B raunton Burrows. Thursday, 25th April: Clovelly (The Hobby) The H obby, a well know n beauty spot, has hill and valley slopes which run dow n steeply to coastal cliffs below. G enerally the soils are o f Brow n E arth type derived from the Lower Culm M easures. T here is evidently a wide range in p H value, since the flora includes sanicle (Sanicula europaea) and dog’s m ercury (M ercurialisperennis) a t the one extrem e and ling (Calluna vulgaris) a t the other. This difference is naturally also reflected in the moss flora, so th a t Fissidens taxifolius, an associate o f basic soils, and Plagiothecium undulatum associated w ith raw hum us and acid soils, b o th occur. T he H obby is well w ooded, with pedunculate oak the m ain species. M uch o f this oak I judge to be aro u n d 120 years, b u t there is also some m uch younger. A little planted beech occurs, of w hich isolated trees appear unhealthy, having slight depressions in the trunk from which a black slimy exudation h ad flowed. Some well-grown ash was noted an d m ay owe its origin partly to n atu ral regeneration, o f w hich there is an abundance locally. O ther w oody species included occasional sycamore, birch, cherry, horse chestnut and hazel. N ear to the coast the oak are con­ siderably wind blasted, but in m ore sheltered sites fair grow th and satisfactory form is achieved. O ne m ust suppose a considerable degree o f exposure close to the coast, b u t it can n o t be so severe as on and near the coastline running southw ards, from H artlan d Point, west o f Clovelly, where the full force of westerly gales is experienced. The C om m ission’s H a rtla n d F orest lies in this general region. O n sandy banks tw o mosses found sparingly were Epipterygium tozeri, a M ed iterranean species rarely found w ith us outside S outhern E ngland and Philonotis rigida also o f southern distribution. C om m only occurring species of w oodland banks were Eurhynchium striatum , E. praelongum, Thamnium alopecurum, Fissidens taxifolius, Plagiothecium sylvaticum and Thuidium tamarascinum. W ith these were associated higher plants o f varying susceptibility to soil acidity or alkalinity, such as w ood sanicle (Sanicula europaea), golden saxifrage (Chrysosplenium oppositifolium), wood bitter-cress (Cardamineflexuosa), red cam pion (M elandrium rubrum), bluebell (Endymion nonscriptus), lady-fern (Athyrium filix-fem ina), h a rt’s tongue fern (Phyllitis scolopendrium), broad buckler fern (D ryopteris austriaca), greater w ood rush (Luzula sylvatica) a species com m on in the west o f Britain, an d F o rster’s w oodrush (L .fo rsteri). NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1 9 5 7 239 In and a b o u t stream s and rills and on wet shaded banks and rocks is often a good h ab itat for bryophytes; Eurhynchium riparioides was seen in q u antity in the faster flowing stream sections. This is a com m on enough m oss, b u t it was here m ost lu xuriant and rob u st in grow th. An uncom m on species associated with calcareous localities is Fissidens crassipes, seen on wet sandstone rocks. Most conspicuous o f the hepatics collected was Conocephalum conicum, a species useful to know in th a t it favours calcicole habitats. Pterygophyllum lucens was seen in quan tity b o th on stream sides and m oist w oodland banks. A t its best this is one o f ou r m ost attractive mosses which superficially m ight be passed over as an hepatic. A little Dichodontium pellucidum, com m on in m ountainous districts, occurred on the m argins o f the slower flowing stream sections. On tree trunks, especially in m oist and shady habitats, a num ber o f characteristic corticolous (or b ark inhabiting) species were recorded. Isothecium myosuroides and H ypnum cupressiforme varieties are ubiquitous, b u t also seen were two N eckera species, N . complanata and the m uch less com m on N . pum ila. Of the hepatics, Frullania tamarisci grew in great quantity, especially on ash on which the reddish brow n colouration im parted by the liverw ort was visible from a distance. F. tamarisci seems especially com m on in the west, whereas F. dilatata did not seem here m uch m ore notew orthy th an in other parts o f the country where I have seen it. All the foregoing species are easily observed, b u t it is doubtful if the non-bryologist w ould notice the tiny hepatic Microlejeunea ulicina also seen on ash. Ulota phyllantha, a moss which never occurs far from the sea, is with a little practice easily differentiated from U. crispa (also found). Greater difficulty was experienced with U. bruchii and U. crispa on hazel. Friday 26th April: Hunters Inn and Woody Bay (Between Trentisnoe and Martinhoe and nearby coast The valley o f the R iver H eddon running due north to the sea from H unters Inn falls rath er gradually from 145 feet above sea level. E astw ards the cliff track to W oody Bay runs at ab o u t 700 feet elevation. W ith the possible exception of the W ringapeak headland o f W oody Bay. which may be on the Lynton Beds of the Lower D evonian Series, the soils in this locality are derived from the Hangm an G rits. Tw o distinct soil types may be recognised: a fertile reddish loam found alongside the river and stream s a t lower altitudes and, o f widest occurrence, p o o r infertile hill top and upper hill slope soils. Some ash occurs on the richer valley soils, being com m only associated with h a rt’s-tongue fern (PhvUitis scolopendrium), hem lock (Conium maculatum), dog’s m ercury (M er­ curialis perennis), garlic or ram sons (Allium ursinum) and nettle (Urtica dioica). Oak, especially at W oody Bay, is w idespread on the poorer soils with Calluna m oorland on treeless hill tops. Some o f the oak is apparently o f coppice origin and near the coast a t W oody Bay is m uch blasted by the wind. On the m ost exposed sites the oaks are p rostrate, w ith stricken branches resem bling a multitude o f skeletal out-reaching hands. As m ight be expected the m oorland, being at low altitude and lacking bogs and rocky outcrops, was o f small bryological interest. All the mosses seen are of com m on occurrence, such as Pleurozium (H ypnum ) schreberi, Hypnum cupressiforme var. ericetorum. Dicranum scoparium, Pohlia nutans, Polytrichum juniperinum. Ceratodon purpureus, an d a little Feucobryum glaucum, the latter a species also o f acidic w oodlands. If confirm ation o f the hum us and under­ lying soil acidity were needed, all these are typical associates o f such habitats. The river an d stream s exam ined proved interesting, although no special varieties were found. D eep w ithin shaded rock crevices under a small w aterfall the rather uncom m on hepatic Jubula hutchinsiae, a species o f the w etter w estern 240 JO URNAL OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION h a lf o f B ritain, occurred in some quantity. Ju st below the w aterfall were masses o f M nium punctatum , also a species o f wet an d shady sites. H ereabouts hemlock (Conium maculatum) and scurvy grass ( Cochlearia officinalis) were growing luxuriantly and in great abundance. Eurhynchium riparioides was the com m onest m oss, grow ing on subm erged o r partially subm erged stream boulders. O n the banks o f the low er stream reaches Pellia fabbroniana, an hepatic associated with calcareous conditions, was seen. A t higher altitudes the soils are m ore acid and there the stream -side species included m osses such as Fissidens adianthoides which also occurs on chalk dow nland, Pterygophyllum lucens and Acrocladium cuspidatum, som etim es w ith the hepatic Saccogyna viticulosa and others. In the w oodland there were in addition to the com m oner bryophytes a few ra th e r uncom m on species. Those w orth m ention are all mosses and included Rhynchostegiella tenella, R. pallidirostra, Barbula cylindrica (probably) and Brachythecium populeum. O n non-calcareous coastal rocks close to the staG rim m ia maritima, B ritain’s m ost m arkedly m aritim e species, was observed in small quantity. Saturday, 27th April: Braunton Burrows The dune system o f B raunton Burrow s, whose highest point is only 85ft. above sea level, is over thee miles from n o rth to south and little over one mile from east to west. N earest to the sea there are shifting sands and dunes, but fu rth er inland there are old fixed dunes, boggy pools, dam p hollows o r ‘dune slacks’ and expanses o f dry ground. It appears th a t the unique flora o f the Burrow s is a result o f the long tim e over which the dunes have been stable, together w ith their com parative isolation and freedom from m uch hum an or anim al interference. In addition their southern latitude favours m any species no t generally distributed in Britain. T here are no trees, bu t shrubs such as sea buck th o rn (Hippophae rhamnoides) and elder (Sambucus nigra) are o f local occurrence. O n the drier sandy areas the moss Tortula ruraliformis, a characteristic duneland species and an im p o rtan t colonist, was ab u ndant. In places it was co-dom inant w ith Camptothecium lutescens, often w ith sand sedge (Carex arenaria). C. lutescens is a moss also associated w ith chalk dow nland and quarries, whereas T. ruraliformis does n o t often occur inland; both are indicative o f calcareous conditions. A t least eight Barbula species are know n from B raunton, including the uncom m on B. hornsuchiana. Those which I saw, B. convoluta, B. cylindrica, B. recurvirostra, and B. unguiculata, are all com m on species often occurring as colonists o f bare soil. O ther com m on mosses were Pseudoschleropodium purum, Funaria hygrometrica (often seen as a colonist of w oodland fire sites), Trichostomum crispulum, a som ew hat calcicolous species, an d Ceratodon purpureas, the latter on m ore acid sands. It will be noted that hepatics are absent from the drier dunes, since they are in general less well ad ap ted to dry conditions than mosses. The m oist hollows or ‘dune slacks’ proved m ost rew arding in the numbers o f rare mosses and hepatics. Tw o good finds near the lighthouse were the rare hepatics M oerckia flotow iana and Petalophyllum ralfsii, which, although no­ where plentiful, were found in a num ber o f separate sites. The rare Riccia crystallina is know n from the Burrow s b u t was n o t seen on this occasion. Pressiaquadrata (probably) a calcicole hepatic, was also present. T he occurrence o f this species is illustrative o f the richness and uniqueness o f the flora, in that it is essentially a m ountain p lan t o f the n o rth and west o f Britain. Tw o other hepatics which m ay be m entioned were also listed; these were Leiocolea turbinata, which som etim es occurs in chalk pits, and the m ore com m on Riccardia NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 241 pinguis. A fair num ber o f mosses were found, though none were especially rare. The m ountain Bryum pseudotriquetrum was com m on, often in com pany with B. pendulum a species m ost often seen perhaps in coastal areas. T he ‘hypnoid’ mosses seen were all such as are liable to some variation in appearance, accor­ ding as they are grow ing on m ore or less wet sites. Allowing for some difficulty, therefore, in confident field identification, the follow ing were seen at B rau n to n : Acrocladium cordifolium, A . cuspidal urn, Cratoneuron filicinum , C. polygalum, Drepanocladus aduncus, and D. lycopodioides. Owing to the absence o f shrubs o r trees o f very large size the corticolous bryophytes seen were not num erous. Some old elder (Sambucus nigra) carried Cryphaea heteromalla and two Ulota species, U. crispa and U. phyllantha. Sunday, 28th April: Kings Nympton (Between South Molton and Chulmleigh) The w oods and stream s w orked aro u n d the valley o f the River Bray lie at an altitude o f between 250 an d 500 feet above sea level. Bias W ood, the m ain woodland area visited, falls rath er steeply to the River Bray below and has a predom inantly north-w est aspect. The soils, derived from culm m easures, varied, and som etim es w ithin short distances supported calcifuge vegetation or a rich basic soil type flora. A n acidic calcifuge flora is associated with the oakwood and included bilberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus) creeping soft-grass (Holcus mollis) and associated bryophytes. A sh is locally abundant, som etim es adjacent to oak an d accom panied by a rich flora including dog’s m ercury {Mercurialis perennis) and garlic or ram sons (Allium ursinum). Incidentally the related and introduced though now thoroughly naturalised triquetrous garlic (Allum triquetrum) was seen on hedgebanks, together with an o th er introduced Umbellifer, A lexanders (Sm yrnium olusatrum). The list o f bryophytes seen is a long one and especially so for the banks and trees bordering the River Bray. F o r exam ple on tree trunks alone from water level upw ards all the following occurred: m osses; N eckera complanata, N. pumila, Ulota crispa, U. phyllantha, Camptothecium sericeum, Cryphaea heteromalla, Bryum capillare, Leskea polycarpa, Hypnum cupressiforme var. resupinatum, Isothecium myosuroides, Am blystegium serpens, and the uncom m on Orthotrichum rivulare; hepatics: M etzgeria furcata, Microlojeunea ulicina, Frullania dilata, and F. tamarisci. Some distance from the river, b u t also on tree trunks, were the uncom m on M etzgeria fruticulosa (possibly) and Tortula laevipila. The banks, sandy river m argins, and partially subm erged boulders and stones also yielded a large num ber o f bryophytes including some rarities. O f Fissidens species above four o r five were found : F. taxifolius, com m on also on clay banks, F. crassipes, F. serrulatus, and F. curnowii, although the latter can be confused in the field w ith F. adianthoides, probably also present. F. curnowii is rare and n o t often, I believe, found outside the South-W est Peninsula; F. crassipes and F. serrulatus also are rath er uncom m on. Eurhynchium riparioides was again seen o n river an d stream boulders, where also a little Fontinalis antipyretica grew. M ud an d the m argins o f stream s and rivers have a charac­ teristic colonising bryophyte flora, b u t only tw o mosses in this category were seen, Physcomitrium pyriform e and Webera carnea. M any hepatics were noted on shady overhanging river banks, including Riccardia pinguis, Lunularis cruciata, Lejeunea cayifolia, a Cephalozia species, and Pellia epiphylla to mention some. M arshy shaded ground alongside w oodland stream s and springs and shady wet boulders afford a h ab itat to some o f our choicer bryophytes. In such a h a b ita t M nium punctatum was seen in abundance and grow ing w ith great vigour. Trichocolea tomentosa, an unm istakable hepatic, was o f local occurrence. In add itio n to these two latter there occurred the following sug- 242 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION festiv e o f flush conditions, M nium undulatum, Acrodadium cuspidatum, Brachythecium rivulare, and Ctenidium molluscum. In Bias W ood, ap art from the m oister h abitats already m entioned, the bryophytes were som ew hat com m onplace th o u g h num erous in species. On tree tru n k s hepatics were Radulci complanata, Frullania dilatata, Microlojeunea ulicina and, on ro tting w ood, Tetraphis pellucida. O n the ground, calcifuge mosses were Pleurozium schreberi and Plagiothecium undulatum, b u t also basophiles such as Eurhynchium striatum and E. piliferum . H epatics were Plagiochila asplenioides and Lejeunea cayifolia on the better soils w ith, on the p o o re r soils, Buzzania trilobata a com m on associate o f W elsh upland oak woods, Lophocolea species, and Calypogeia arguta. Monday, 29th April: Westward Ho ! As few m em bers rem ained until M onday, the to u r previously planned was cancelled and the day was spent instead on the coast at W estw ard H o! The low cliff's exam ined to west an d bounding the raised beach are on the Culm M easures. N o rth o f W estw ard H o! the sm all dune system seen is bounded on the seaward side by a conspicuous pebble ridge. T here was very little o f bryological interest on the cliff's, perhaps because they are too frequented. Bryum capillare, Pleuridium acuminatum (in fruit) often an associate o f bare leached w oodland soils, and IVeissia controversa are all th a t need be m entioned. Looking n o rth from the duneland visited, the so u th end o f B raunton Burrow s is only distant a mile or two. D espite their proxim ity there is no com parison between the two floras, th at at W estw ard H o! being p o o r in the extrem e. Y et this is not w ithout interest in th at the reason appears to lie largely in the fact th a t at W estw ard H o! the dunes are m uch m ore frequented by the general public. In addition grazing by sheep occurs and there are no good ‘dune slacks’. Tortula ruraliformis and Camptothecium lutescens were again com m on, and were the only bryophytes seen in abundance. O ther com m on mosses were IVeissia tenuis (probably), Barbula unguiculata, and Pseudoscleropodium purum . Two rushes are w orth note,— sea rush (Juncus maritimus) an d sharp rush (J. acutus), both of them coastal species. E X C A V A T IO N S A T S T A P L E H O W E , SCA RD A LE FO R E ST By T. H. B R E W ST E R From time to time valuable archaeological finds are made in the Commission s extensive properties; the follow ing article, contributed at the suggestion o f M r. T. V. Dent, Divisional Officer in N orth-East England, illustrates the painstaking care that experts devote to uncovering the precious relics o f the past. D uring the last six seasons a group o f archaeologists led by the w riter have been excavating a prehistoric settlem ent a t Staple H ow e, K n ap to n , M alton, E ast Y orkshire. K n ap to n W ood, where th e site is located, form s p a rt o f Scardale F orest in the north-east E ngland Conservancy. W hen the excavations began the site was in private hands, b u t the p roperty was purchased by the F orestry C om m ission in M arch 1952. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 243 The excavations have uncovered the rem ains o f a com plete settlem ent built by som e o f the first Iro n Age invaders from E urope in the early p a rt o f the fifth century B.C. These K n a p to n settlers an d oth er allied groups are know n to archaeologists in Britain as the Iro n Age “ A ” people. M any settlem ents o f this period have been excavated in the M idlands an d in Southern Britain. In Y orkshire there is the site, excavated by Sim pson, on the C astle H ill, Scarborough, the badly damaged sites a t G ra fto n in the W est R iding, and th a t at T h ornham H ill in Holderness, now destroyed. Prior to the excavations a t K n ap to n no Iro n Age “ A ” settlem ent in the British Isles, so far excavated, had yielded a com plete plan o f all the structures, and produced large quantities o f different types o f p o ttery and sm all dom estic objects o f bronze, bone, antler, pottery, stone an d iron. F urtherm ore, the occupation o f the site was relatively short and, except for Edw ardian picnic parties, had n o t been occupied for 24 centuries. There had been no disturbance o f the structures, a p a rt from erosion, from the day the farm stead was ab an doned to the arrival o f the excavation p arty in 1951. The value o f the Staple H ow e excavations is th a t they disclosed a com plete plan o f an Iro n Age “ A ” occupation site associated with plenty o f dom estic debris. As is often the case w ith archaeological sites, this K n ap to n settlem ent was found entirely by chance. Early in A ugust 1950, M ichael and A nn Stones o f West H eslerton, w ith tw o school friends, w ent picnicking on Staple Howe. Michael picked up a sm all fragm ent o f crude pottery, and to o k it to H eslerton School where an archaeological recording scheme was operating for the Ordnance Survey. A detailed exam ination was m ade by the w riter in A pril, 1951, o f the find spot, and w ithin thirty m inutes m ore than 2,000 fragm ents o f Iron Age pottery were found. M uch o f the surface pottery discovered was larger th an a medium size saucer an d h ad been exposed to the w eather for centuries. Large numbers o f bones p ro tru d ed from the hillside, suggesting a considerable quantity of debris was buried b eneath the scree. Because o f the richness o f the finds and the possibility th at the settlem ent might be intact, excavations were begun a t once. W ithin a few days it became obvious th at the m aterial was very rich, and th a t the structures m ight well be intact. Due to the com pactness o f the site, it was decided it w ould be possible to excavate the entire area likely to be covered by huts, and also m uch o f the space straddled by the defences. It was planned to do this in five years, but the adverse weather in 1954 held the w ork up, and it becam e necessary to excavate for another season— in 1956. The final excavations were com pleted in A ugust 1956 and nothing now rem ains to be done. The Site Staple Howe is a huge n atu ral hog-backed hill o f solid chalk, half way down the n o rth ern slopes o f the W olds in K n ap to n W ood. To the im m ediate west, south and east lies a deep ravine. T ow ards the north-east is H eslerton Hall and to the north-w est are E ast K n ap to n and the huge white mass o f K napton Silo. From the top o f the H ow e, on any clear day, can be seen the immense colourful landscape o f the Vale o f Pickering, the H ow ardian Hills to the west, 244 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION the vast m o o rlan d hinterlands to the north-w est, D anby F orest in the A llerston group to the n o rth an d O liver’s M o u n t, C ayton Bay, and G risthorpe to the east. Staple H ow e’s basal length, from east to west, is 460 feet, w ith a m axim um w idth o f 220 feet. The m axim um height is 85 feet, and the really flat p a rt o f the to p m easures 178 feet, from east to west, and 40 feet from n o rth to so u th a t the widest point. STAPLE HOWE IRON ACE IN STR U M ENTA L C O N T O U R S 40 L. . . . © 40 AT HABITATION S' SITE INTERVA LS 100 150 200 I________ |________ |________ |________ I RCCT Fig. 23. Plan o f the Site. T hro u g h o u t the ages frost, rain, and sun have^eroded the rock, leaving behind on the slopes a grey chalk scree. W hen first located the m ound was shrouded in a dense ash scrub to w ithin a few feet o f the top, w hich was capped by several ancient and twisted larch trees. B eneath them , and ju st covering their roots, was a soft green carpet o f rockrose and fine short grass. (SeeJFigs. 23 and 24 and Plates 31, 32 and 33.) The Defences The steep slopes o f the Howe and its fairly flat top provided the Iro n Age settlers w ith an easily defended n atu ral position w hich they fully utilised. Early in the excavation it becam e obvious the m ound had been defended by a palisade o f logs. C hannels following the n atu ral contours, near the top, had been cut in the solid rock to hold the upright tim bers o f a palisade. These tim bers had NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 245 been securely packed into place by chalk, bones, broken pots, and miscellaneous debris from the huts. (Fig. 25, Plates 35 and 38). There had been tw o m ain stages o f the palisade system, the earliest o f these being constructed o f fairly light tim bers, so placed as to follow the edge o f the flat hill top. This fence was broken in three places by entrances— one a sm all side gate on the western end o f the southern side; the second a fairly wide m ain entrance h alf way along the southern slopes; and the third a sm all gatew ay on the north-eastern end o f the settlem ent. Owing to the lack o f space within the enclosure and the w eakness o f the light palisade, the Iron Age inhabitants increased the area o f the site and strengthened their position by placing the fence further down the slope and cutting a deeper channel. This was done on all sides, except on the line from the eastern side o f the m ain entrance to the south-eastern corner o f the Howe. In this area the channels were deepened, but not moved. An interesting feature o f the second palisade stage was a single m ain entrance and the absence o f side gates. Obviously these small gates had been a weakness and were done away with. The final phase o f the palisade system was the deepening o f the palisade trenches and the replacem ent o f all tim bers which had probably decayed. A new slot was cut to the west o f the m ain entrance for the palisade, which curved dow nhill in its new form , and then swung tow ards the top, narrow ing the gateway and incurving. It is probable th a t the light fence within the gate, which swung in an arc north-w estw ards from the eastern side o f the entrance, belonged to the final stage o f the occupation. These last tw o m odifications caused the trackw ay to enter the settlem ent in the form o f a flat “ S” bend. T hro u g h o u t the occupation the settlem ent was m uch longer than it was wide, due to the shape o f the hill. The area enclosed by the final stage o f the palisade was approxim ately 18,000 square feet, o f which 12,0 0 0 square feet has been excavated. W ith the exception o f an odd broken stum p, there were no signs during the excavation o f the palisade tim bers, due, no doubt, to their w ithdraw al when the site was abandoned. It is probable the palisades, in their final form , provided an effective protection for the inhabitants and anim als from b o th m an and beast, chiefly the latter. As a result o f the excavations it is know n there were guard dogs on the site, and m any o f their droppings have been found. Dogs alerted by the clink of the scree would sound a w arning. M any a false alarm m ust have been caused by a scurrying hare o r slinking fox. The Buildings W ithin the palisades, excavations uncovered several interesting structures. In only one case had the actual walls survived, but the holes cut in the solid rock for seating the tim ber uprights rem ained. It is from these postholes we can reconstruct the shape o f the huts. All excavation, except for tu rf rem oval, was by trowel and carpet brush, chiefly the latter. T he position o f each p o t rim , base, decorated wall fragm ent, and all finds o f interest was plotted to a fraction o f an inch. Using m odern survey equipm ent a detailed plan was p repared o f each structure, and 2,0 0 0 photographs, some in colour, recorded details o f postholes, buildings, and the position o f m any sm all finds. 246 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Fig. 24. A rtist’s R econstruction o f Staple H ow e. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 247 Hut I T hree houses, or huts, were discovered, two being o f the same ro u n d design and situated a t each end o f the settlem ent. T he h u t a t the extrem e western end was the best preserved. F orm erly it was a building 31 feet in diameter, w ith a porch facing south-east and w ooden walls approxim ately four feet high. C overing the house was a conical roof, w ith a hole in the to p to let the smoke out. The ro o f m ust have been protected w ith turf, thatch, or bracken. Allowing for the correct slope, the h u t’s height can n o t have been below 10 feet or much above 12 feet. Its appearance w ould n o t be unlike a m odern circular pig sty. Fig. 25. C ross-section o f the Palisade. 248 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION In addition to postholes for ro o f supports there were slots for w hat we are fairly certain was an upright loom , w ith a fram e shaped like a child’s w ooden swing. Ju st n o rth o f the centre and east o f the loom were the rem ains o f a clay oven. These prim itive ovens had a flat dom e, rath er like an olcl style circular beehive, they were heated by w ood, and all cooking was by retained heat after the fire had been w ithdraw n. D ue south o f the oven was an open hearth, with reddened and blackened stones. Strew n on the floor were odd item s o f bone, jet, bronze, and pottery. O utside the hut and ju st to the left o f the porch m any dog droppings, gnarled bones, and d og’s teeth were found. Obviously a dog had guarded the entrance to the dwelling. B oth o f the round huts conform ed to the general p a tte rn o f Iro n Age houses in Britain. Hut II T o the east o f the hut ju s t described, on the northern side o f the m ound, was a m ost rem arkable oval house 30 feet from east to west, and 20 feet wide. Its floor an d southern wall had been hewn o u t o f the solid chalk. On the n o rth ern , and on p art o f the eastern and w estern, ends there had existed a chalk stone wall approxim ately 4 feet high. A simple ridge type o f ro o f with rounded ends was indicated by the postholes. E ntrance to the house was gained through an unprotected doorw ay at the eastern end. In consequence o f the collapse o f the dry walls and chalk rubble, all the h u t’s interior survived undam aged. Even a shallow channel cut by w ater dripping from the ro o f rem ained on the n o rth ern side. Ju st w ithin the hut, on the southern side o f the doorw ay, was a small platform , probably a seat, cut into the quarried wall. N earby were the repiains o f a clay oven, b u rn t red w ith fire. The hearth, which was at the western end, was m arked by charcoal and b u rn t stones. Two systems o f channels and pits, connected to the drip line outside the hut, were probably used to collect rain w ater during heavy storm s. Both channels an d pits m ay have been lined with hide to prevent seepage. T he nearest water supply know n today is 300 yards away, and w ater carrying m ust have been an unpleasan t “ chore” . Splintered anim al bones, (Plates 38 and 39), broken to extract the m arrow, je t ornam ents, pins, spindle w horls and pottery covered, or were em bedded in, the earthen covering o f the rocky floor. A small, nearly perfect, pottery “ lam p ” turned up in the same deposit. This oval dwelling is m ost unusual and seems to be a cross between the E u ro p ean rectangular house and native ro u n d hut. There is every indication the oval house was the first habitation abandoned before, or ju st after, the second palisade was built. The G ranary In the centre o f Staple Howe, on the highest point, excavations uncovered five really big postholes, m ore th an two feet deep. A t first they appeared to be grain storage pits, a com m on feature o f Iron Age sites in the south. (Fig. 26.) F u rth e r w ork disclosed th a t these pits had form ed p a rt o f a nine-feet-square building w ith heavy tim bers. Such a structure was too sm all and massive for a hut, an d m ust have been a w atch tower, o r a building for holding a heavy weight. NUM BER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 249 A lthough carbonised grain had been found in the palisades no grain pits or silos have been located. It is tho u g h t the five postholes supported a massive timber box-shaped granary w ith posts a t least 14 inches thick, an d the b o tto m about 18 inches from the ground. This w ould prevent dam p o r mice affecting the corn. T he to tal capacity m ust have been ab o u t 18 cubic yards, if the re­ construction is correct. THE T.B. GRANARY NORTH Fig. 26. E nd views and side views o f the G ran ary . 250 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION The Finds Bronze Objects Several objects o f bronze were found, the m ost interesting o f these being three razors o f different patterns. One razor, the largest, has a curved blade and tw o loops fo r suspension, p robably ro u n d the neck. Its con­ dition is good, b u t the blade had been dam aged a little. A n other smaller razo r w ith a single loop and blade is the m ost beautiful object found on the How e and is in perfect condition. Even the striations caused by sharpening 2,400 years ago and the golden tone o f the bronze show through the delicate patina. It was discovered lying on its side in soft earth, where it had probably been hidden, n o t lost. The tw o razors— the third is n o t com plete— are unique in B ritain although the largest has some connection w ith the Llyn Faw r, W ales, H allstatt razor. A chisel o f bronze, in good condition, was found with the antler “ T ” piece o f its handle 10 inches away from the blade, the w ooden haft having perished. Awls and other bronze finds, including a pair o f tweezers, were found. These tweezers were discovered purely by chance on the surface. They m atch in every way a p air found at G rafto n in the W est R iding. Bone Objects M any pieces o f w orked bone turned up, the com m onest being pins. The m ost interesting finds were the netting shuttles o f bone and antler, w ith very fine slots, shuttles o f this kind were p robably used to m ake hair-nets o f hum an hair. Several double ended pins or hooks o f bone, know n as gorges, cam e from the palisade debris. Sim ilar gorges were used by Eskim os and hunters in Finland for catching certain fish and birds. D oubtless the Staple Howe people m anufactured them for the sam e purpose. O ther finds include a decorated bone scoop, not unlike a late medieval apple corer, and a wild b o a r’s tusk pen d an t w ith holes drilled at either end. C ast red-deer antlers were used as levers or “ picks” . Jet A rtifacts of jet, while not com m on, appeared from tim e to time. Bangle fragm ents and finger rings in the style o f a m odern w edding ring were the com m onest objects. Jet pendants, beads, buttons, and other ornam ents turned up occasionally. Pottery A striking feature o f the excavations was the ever present scatter o f broken pottery. (Plate 37.) The quantity excavated ran into tons. There were two chief types o f pot, burnished and plain coarse ware in red, brow n, yellow, buff, and black. C ooking pots, b o th large and small were decorated with finger tip, finger nail, and applied bands. Small beakers and bowls were ornam ented, in m any cases, w ith incised grooves or slashes in various patterns. O f the ceram ic finds the m ost com plete were two small oval vessels, divided, in each case, by a th in partitio n , perforated a t the base by small holes. It is th o u g h t th a t these pots were used as lam ps w ith a floating wick and burning seal o r other anim al oil. A small scoop in fine yellow pottery cam e from the palisades. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 251 Weaving Equipment W eaving o f w oollen cloth was evidently a duty o f the Staple Howe Iron Age housewife. This is b orne out by num erous broken red and yellow loom weights o f poorly fired local clay, originally weighing ab o u t five pounds. T h eir function was to keep the w arp tight in upright loom s. M any pottery spindle whorls, used to spin woollen yarn, were scattered everywhere. N o bone weaving combs occurred, and it is th o u g h t none were m ade. Iron Objects As in the case o f Sim pson’s excavations on the Castle Hill, S carborough, the paucity o f iro n objects a t Staple H ow e was m ost m arked. Only a sm all iron pin and a ring were found. In the early p a rt o f the B ritish Iro n Age iro n was a rare and precious m etal. Other Objects A part from the objects already m entioned, the palisade trenches and the huts yielded stone pounders, hones, broken fragm ents o f clay ovens, sea shells, sharks’ teeth, and carbonised wheat. Coastal Visits It is obvious the in h abitants o f the Howe went to the coast, probably Filey, fairly frequently, possibly in order to get fish an d brine. It is likely th a t w heat was grown on the narro w plateau to the sou th of, b u t overlooking, the m o und. This strip has a relatively rich soil and is easily worked. Acknowledgments The Staple H ow e excavations could n o t have been com pleted had it n o t been for the h ard w ork o f m any volunteers from all over Britain. (Plate 34.) The F orestry C om m issioners, who own the property, have assisted us in every possible way and to them we owe m uch. In p articular I w ould like to thank M r. T. V. D ent, D ivisional Officer, M r. R. M arshall, D istrict Officer, Mr. O. W ood an d M r. F. W oodw ard, Foresters at Scardale Forest. W ithout their help the excavation would have been impossible. T hro u g h o u t the excavation we have had every help and encouragem ent from M r. C. W. Phillips o f the O rdnance Survey, and to him we are grateful fo r many things. STAPLE HOWE.- Plate 31. Plate 32. Plate 33. Plate 34. FULL DETAILS OF ILLUSTRATIONS Staple H ow e from the east. H eight from ravine 75 feet. Staple H ow e from the south-w est. Taken prior to the felling o f the larch trees. N ote (thinned) scrub ash forest on the W old slopes and the H ow e itself. View o f w estern end o f the H ow e showing concrete pegs m arking postholes o f round hut, H ut I. N ote tree stum ps (larch) and hollow o f oval hut p rio r to excavation in 1955. Scrub ash forest in distance. E xcavation in progress on the eastern end o f Staple Howe. W hite bucket for unrecorded pottery and bone. Clippers used for rem ov­ ing larch, ash, and rockrose roots. Left to right: H atty H aines (C an ad a); M artin F aragher (Y ork); John Pallister (Y orkshire M useum ); and Terence M anby o f Y ork. 252 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION Plate 35. Plate 36. Plate 37. Plate 38. Plate 39. Section o f palisade trench on south-eastern end o f Staple Howe show ing division o f trench into first, second and third cutting. Top o f trench first— bottom trench third. N orth-eastern posthole o f granary. R am m ed packing still intact in lower half. Scale rests in form er position o f post. Scale 2 ft. Broken pottery lam p in situ on floor o f oval hut. Scale 4 inches. Ox skull ram m ed into the palisade trench as extra packing. H orn cores still intact. Scale 4 inches. H um an skull, red deer antler, an d ox bones in packing o f upper palisade. Probably from a burial, previous to the Iron A ge,disturbed by the building o f the huts. Book Review TI M BE R S U S E D IN THE MUSICAL INSTRUM ENT INDUSTRY A SURVEY Forest Products Research Booklet. Free Issue. November 1956 B y F. G. O. Pearson, B.Sc. fo rm erly Sales Officer in our Directorate fo r England, who is now on the sta ff o f the Forest Products Research Laboratory (D epartm ent o f Scientific and Industrial Research) Princes Risborough, and M iss Constance Webber, also o f Princes Risborough. The technical requirem ents for the tim bers used in the musical instrum ents industry are probably m ore exacting than those o f m any other industries, and the aim o f this survey was to ascertain the p articular purpose for which wood is to be used in the m aking o f musical instrum ents and to know, not only by labo rato ry tests b u t also by personal contact w ith a large num ber o f firms, just how the various species stand up to the test o f com m ercial production. Reasons put forw ard for the choice o f species were often em pirical, resulting from the trials and errors o f previous generations o f craftsm en. T he minimum am o u n t o f m ovem ent is particularly desirable, reliability is a general requirem ent, and the report m entions the necessity o f considerable selection o f the timbers to be used. Eighty-five different tim bers were found to be in use or to have been used in the past. W hile the m akers show why certain tim bers are liked, other tim bers are spoken o f w ith regret “ . . . because they are no longer available” . Pianos, organs, the stringed, w ood-w ind, percussion and classical instru­ m ents come under survey, and inform ation is given in some detail for each instrum ent, together w ith brief notes on drying m ethods and glues. Production and export values for 1954 are also included, and the industry gives em ploym ent to approxim ately 9,000 workers. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 253 The practical ways o f handling the problem s o f tone-quality, stresses, atm ospheric and clim atic difficulties, the trouble o f corrosion o f m etal parts experienced by several firms, and the unusual presence o f com m on salt in particularly large quantities in one species m ake engrossing and instructive reading. The rep o rt, which is essentially a record o f the opinions o f different firms, also has a useful Index To The Timbers listing, alphabetically, 121 tree nam es and the latin nom enclature. This booklet is a free issue, and a copy will be sent to anyone who writes to the D irector, F orest Products R esearch L ab oratory, Princes R isborough, Aylesbury, Bucks. H. Jo hnston Publications Branch M A T H E M A T IK A H ow much wood could a woodchuck chuck i f a woodchuck could chuck wood? With acknowledgments to Sir N o rm an From e, C .I.E ., D .F.C . This problem is cited as an excellent exam ple o f the m ethod o f direct logical deduction reinforced by a rigorous application o f differential calculus. The argum ent o f the p ro o f is one o f the m ost elegant o f all m athem atical concepts and will be found to be a very pow erful w eapon in dealing with problem s o f this type. Now, consider the problem as set forth. It is presented in a form which may lead the unw ary astray. The initial reference to the calculation o f a quantity may (erroneously, in fact) be taken as indicative o f the necessity to derive a form ula for the estim ation o f quantity and for the production o f a solution o f the form ula so derived. This tra p should be avoided. In all problem s o f this type it is the p o stulate in the second p a rt o f the problem which is predom inant, i.e., “ if a w oodchuck could chuck w ood” . We have, therefore, to examine the truth of this postulate before proceeding to any calculation o f quantity, volume or numbers which can be projected over any given distance by a given projector. Before any w oodchuck can chuck wood it is necessary to provide the wood to be chucked. N ow m athem atics has available large quantities o f w ood— in the form o f logs. It is, therefore, a straight-forw ard m atter to provide the necessary operative m aterial by the expression: lo g < 7 ..................... ( 1 ) where q is a quan tity not yet determ ined. Now, exam ine (1)— it is a quan tity which, containing only one zero (in the second term o f the expression), is o f the first o rd er o f smallness. The quantity (q) of wood (iv) contained in the term “ log q” is, according to the given data, to be dealt w ith by the o p erato r, a w oodchuck. C onsider the expression, “ w oodchuck” . It is, by inspection, a quantity o f the second o rder o f sm allness since it contains zero squared—arising from the two zeros in the second and third term s o f the expression. 254 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION F ro m the well-known “ T heorem o f C huckability” it is an axiom th a t no chucker o f the second o rder o f smallness can chuck anything (w hether w ood or otherw ise) o f a higher order, i.e., o f the first order o f smallness. It follows, therefore, th a t no w oodchuck can chuck log q. This does n o t m ean, however, th a t the p o stulate is yet disproved since we have n o t yet investigated the results o f the application o f any other function perm issible w ith reference to log q. The calculus contains a pow erful tool in the form o f a saw: Sigm a. E A pply this saw to log q : S log q ................... (2) T he solution o f an expression o f this type is easily derived w hen the funda­ m ental principle o f differential calculus is applied— the division o f quantities into an infinite num ber o f sm all elem ents indicated by the prefix d, thus : E log q = dq -f dq -(- dq + dq + etc. . . (3) th a t is to say, an infinite num ber o f sm all pieces o f wood are now available in chuckable form . H aving perform ed a function on the operative, log <7, however, it is necessary by the application o f the principle th a t like m ust be done to like, to carry out the sam e function on the op erato r, the w oodchuck, i.e., E w oodchuck = d (w ood) -j- d (chuck) -jd (wood) + d (chuck) -jetc ................................. (4) th a t is to say, an infinite num ber o f sm all pieces o f wood plus an infinite num ber o f sm all elements o f chuck. E quate (3) and (4) : dq + dq + dq + dq -J- etc. = d (w ood) -fd (chuck) + d (wood) + d (chuck) + etc................... (5) N ow , from the nature o f the derivation o f 'dq' (vide (2) and (3 )) and from the equation (4) we have: dq = d (wood) F rom (5), therefore, by the rem oval o f quantities know n to be equal : O = d (chuck) + d (chuck) -f- d (chuck) -4- etc..................... ( 6 ) Integrate (i.e., produce a sum m ation of) b o th sides o f this equation, which gives : O = chuck, th a t is to say, the am ount o f chuck available in any given w oodchuck is nil. The p o stulate is, therefore, provided to be untenable and the calculation o f the quan tity th a t can be chucked does n o t arise. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 255 FORESTRY C O M M IS S IO N STAFF At 1st January, 1958 Notes: The stations o f individual officers are shown only where they are different to th a t o f their m ain office. This list should n o t be read as a seniority list; it has been com piled from returns subm itted by the various offices to the Establishm ent Section. H E A D Q U A R T E R S : 25 S a v il e R o w , L o n d o n , W. 1 T e l e p h o n e : R e g e n t 0221 c h a ir m a n d ir e c t o r T he E arl o f R a d n o r, K .C .V .O . Sir A rth u r G osling, K .B .E ., C.B. Sir H enry B eresford-P eirse, Bt., C.B. H . A. T u rn er : -g e n e r a l : D E P U T Y D IR E C T O R -G E N E R A L secreta ry C H IE F : e n g in e e r M ajor-G eneral H . P. W. H u tso n , C.B., O .B .E ., D .S.O ., M .C. M ackenzie, G . 1. Z ehetm ayr, J. W. L., M offat (W ork Studies) C row ther, R. E. (N ew castleton); : CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L o f f ic e r : D IS T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : D a n n a tt, N . (A e); F o rre ste r, S. (Dolgelley) K irk lan d , C. P. (N ew castleton) T o u lm in-R othe, L. P. (Dovey) FO R ESTER : A S S IS T A N T F O R E S T E R : p r in c ip a l s C oggins, W. E., O .B .E .; D avid, M. L. C orm ack, W . M. : C O N T R O L L E R O F F IN A N C E : S E N IO R C H I E F E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : C H IE F E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R S ! P R IN C IP A L IN F O R M A T IO N O F F I C E R : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R S : S E N IO R P R O F E S S I O N A L A C C O U N T A N T H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R S ! W EL FA R E O F F IC E R : Shanks, E. C. C h arters, H ., M .B .E .; Lewis, C m dr. E. R ., V .R .D .; M inter, A. F. H ealey, D . B utcher, J., M .B .E .; Hyern, H. G .; T aylor, G . F . ; W haram , J. B. (Dolgelley). Sam pson, G . T. B row n, F . J .; C arvosso, L. A .; C rab b , D . J .; D oherty. W . R .; E vans, W .; Flow ers, H . R .; G rin ter, L. C. H arp er, E. C .; H arp er, J .; M ills, B. V .; Overy, J. S. V. Preston, J .; Sum m ers, J. J. V .; W estcott, A . B .; W right, S. T. G ow er, E. (H .E.O .). D IR E C T O R A T E F O R E N G L A N D Office o f D ire cto r: 1 Princes G ate, L ondon, S.W .7. T elephone: K ensington 9691 d ir e c t o r O. J. Sangar, C .B .E ., M .C. C. A. J. B a rrin g to n ; S. W . E dw ards (E state). K ennedy, J. B. (S ales); Stocks, J. B. : CONSERVATORS: d iv is io n a l o f f ic e r s d ir e c t o r a t e : e n g in e e r : M E C H A N I C A L E N G IN E E R S W O RK SH O P m a n a g e r : s e n io r c h ie f e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : Packw ood, R . H . R ichardson, M . C .; Sandw ell, A . C. (L ightm oor, D ean Forest) G aw n, S. „ „ „ H inds, E. S. J. 256 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION s e n io r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : s e n io r p ro fe s s io n a l a c c o u n ta n t: h ig h e r e x e c u tiv e o ff ic e rs : gam e w a rd e n : B arter, L. G. W h arto n , K . B aldw in, F . C. (E state); B rim m er, S. H .; B uck, A .; H o rsh am , M iss J .; M anicom , M iss M . E .; M orley, R. M. F o o k s, H . A. (G rizedale). E N G L A N D , N O R T H -W E S T C O N S E R V A N C Y U p to n G range, U p to n H e ath , C hester, C heshire T elephone: C hester 24006-7-8 J. S. R . C h a rd C onder, E. M .; G ra n t, D . ; R aven, W. J. (E state). c o n s e rv a to r: d iv is io n a l o ff ic e rs : d is tr ic t o ff ic e rs i: C rosland, J. V.(K en d al); F lynn, A . E. C . ; Jackson, W. V. (M ansfield); R o b e rts, W . G . (Shifnal). d i s tr i c t o ffic e rs ii: C oulson, T. W . G . (N o ttin g h a m ); F letcher, J. R .; Leslie,J. E .; M alcolm , D . C. (C raven A rm s); M anning, P. H. (G rizedale, E state); M iehie, E. J. S. (N ottingham ); M itchell, T. C. (C arlisle); O rro m , M . H . (K endal); W inchester, P. L. (C ockerm outh). Phillips, W . M . H aynes, W . S. H ughes, R . E. (K endal). Steele, J. Searle, A. J. c o n se rv a n c y e n g in e e r: m e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e r: a s s is ta n t e n g in e e r : s e n io r e x e c u tiv e o ff ic e r : h ig h e r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : H EA D FO RESTERS A dam s, I., M ortim er; Sim pson, G . A ., S herw ood; W alton, W ., T ho rn th w aite. FO RESTERS A llcock, M . S., H a rd k n o tt; A nderson, R. D ., G reystoke; A tkinson, I. D ., M iterdale; A tten b o ro u g h , T. J., L ong M y n d ; A xtell, D . W ., C a n n o ck ; B arraclough, J. W ., M atlo ck ; B ennett, H ., D elam ere; B randon, J. W ., M o rtim er; B rooke, B. L., K inver; B row n, D ., K ershope; Close, F., G rizedale; C oates, W . E., G rizedale; D avis, P. P., A rden; D ay, J., C h a m w o o d ; Francis, E. R ., K ershope; Fuller, H ., B lengdale; G a m e r, W ., Sherw ood; G ra n t, W ., T h o rn th w aite; G u th rie, F . H ., K ershope; G w illiam , G . T . S., B eeston; H all, D ., C a n n o ck ; H all, W ., S herw ood; H arvey, D . R ., S herw ood; H arvey, K . B., L ongtow n; Jenkins, T. L., D elam ere; Jones, E ., Inglew ood; K eens, D . W ., D a lto n ; L loyd, C. J., M o rtim e r; M acdonald, R ., M o rtim e r; M acM illan, J. R ., S w ynnerton; M organ, L. G ., C an n o ck ; M orley, D . S., G rizedale; M orrill, W . H ., H o p e; M orris, J., M o rtim er; M u rray , M ., B ow land; N elson, D ., E n n erd ale; P em berton, F ., S padeadam ; Pow er, R . J., T h o m th w a ite ; Rees, T. J. R ., W alcot; R ow lands, I. G ., S herw ood; Sarsby. O. R ., S herw ood; Shelley, W . R ., M o rtim e r; Stickland, H . F ., S herw ood; Stokoe, J., H abberley; T hom as, D . R ., S herw ood; T ucker, E. J., C orvedale; W alsh, D . H ., T h o m th w a ite ; W hite, S. L., S herw ood; W ilson, W . J., B agot; W ood, P., O a k am o o r; W oollard, R . P. C., Bawtry. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S A spinall, E., D elam ere; B artholom ew , W ., G rizedale; B ollard, W. A ., C artm cl; Colling, J. B., B ow land; C ollings, P. J., C an n o ck ; D ean, B. G ., S w ynnerton; E dw ards, K . T ., T h o rn th w aite; H all, J. R ., K crshope; H arp in , J. W ., S herw ood; H aw kes, D . M ., K ershope; H obbs, A. B., Sherw ood; H o b so n , K . A ., K ershope; M cK enzie, J. H ., C ausew ay W o o d ; M oore, T. B., M o rtim er; M orris, R ., S h erw o o d ; N ew som , G . B., G isb u m ; P a tte n , B. D ., K ersh o p e; P ark er, J. A ., W alcot; Sim pkin, J. R ., M o rtim e r; T hick, F . W ., C otgrave; T hom pson, B. S., G reystoke; T isdale, J. C., F o re m a rk ; T yler, W. H . S., S herw ood; W augh, D . E ., L on g to w n ; W illiam son, F . L., T h o rn th w aite; W indle, D ., D a lto n ; W ood, D ., G rizedale; Y ates, H ., E nnerdale. NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX 1957 257' E N G L A N D , N O R T H -E A S T C O N S E R V A N C Y B riar H ouse, F u lfo rd R oad, Y ork T elephone: Y o rk 24684 CONSERVATOR I G . G . L. B atters D IV IS IO N A L O F F I C E R S : D ent, T. V .; Petrie, S. M ., H exham ; P ortlock, W . J. J . (E state). d is t r ic t o f f ic e r s I : d is t r ic t o f f ic e r s ii M aund, J. E. Selby, B. C .; Sem ple, R. M . G ., B o rd er; S m ith, W . T ., H exham . : C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R : B arrett, F. D ., Bell, H . W ., Pickering; C raw ford, J. R ., H exham ; Langley, P. J .; M acdonald, I. A . D .; M arshall, I.R .B .; Piper, R. J. (E state); Rix, A ., C hopw ell; R ow an, A . A ., R o th b u ry ; T hallon, K . P., H elm sley; Voysey, J. C ., W akefield. P reston, G . W. A S S IS T A N T E N G I N E E R S : A llan, C. S., B ellingham ; Bassey, T ., Brom ley, A . R .; W ortley, A. S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : C haplin, L. A. B lott, J. C. H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : B ellingham ; H E A D FO RESTERS Gough, W. R., A llerston; S harp, G . A .; Snow don, L., A llerston; S to d d art, W. F ., R o th b u ry . FO RESTERS Adams, G., C leveland; A insw orth, P. H ., H olm firth; B aird, R. L., M arkington; B artlett, R. F. E., A llersto n ; Bewick, T ., Slaley; Bignell, R. A ., W ark ; Bolam, T. W ., R ievaulx: Bowns, A ., W ham cliffe; B row n, W . C., W ark ; Charlton, E., W idehau gh; C hisholm , J. D ., L angdale; C um m ing, J., Jervaulx; Daglish, T. E., H am sterley; Faw cett, E., L ondesborough ; Featherstone, C., A m pleforth; Fowler, N . L., R a y ; Fox, T. F., K ielder; F rance, J., W idehaugh; G ilson, R . B., C aw ood; Gledson, J. G ., R o th b u ry ; H arb in , W. B., W ynyard; H ird , J., A rkengarthdale; Hislop, J. J., H a rw o o d ; Jo h n sto n e, T ., H a m b le to n ; Judge, J. N ., R edesdale; McCavish, W . L., R edesdale; M arsh, E. W ., Selby; M arshall, J. A ., W ark ; M artindalc, J. M ., O sgodby; M ennell, J., L angdale; M etcalfe, J. E., A llerston; Parker, G. W ., C hopw ell; Salm ond, M. P., D o n c aster; Scott, G . H ., C ro p to n ; Scott, J. J. O., K ielder; Sim pson, C. N ., K ielder; Stanley, W . E., L angdale; Stephenson, F., A m p lefo rth ; Stokoe, G ., Slaley; S traughan, J. G ., W ark ; T ait, J., K ield er; Taylor, C. E., C leveland; T elford, J. W ., C hillingham ; T erry, T. N ., R osedale; Thompson, L. T. J., K ielder; T urnbull, M. T.’, K ielder; W heeler, R . W ., R o th b u ry ; W oodcock, F. A., K id lan d ; W oodw ard, F . G ., S cardale; Y oung, R. E., K ielder; A S S IS T A N T F O R E S T E R S Bardy, D . A., H a rw o o d ; Barry, G . N .. C hopw ell; C ollier, T. E., W ark; Conduit, J. S., K ielder; C raig, J. H ., Y o rk ; D avidson, A., K naresborough; Dawson, K . J., A llersto n ; Edes, D . S., H a rw o o d ; Featherstone, P., R edesdale; Fisher, H., A llerston; H am m ond, D., C hopw ell; H artley, A., Y o rk ; Haw, G ., R osedale; Heaven, S. F., Y o rk ; H odgson, M ., A m pleforth; H olden, R. L., K idland; Lancaster, R. A ., A llersto n ; Long. T. W ., H am sterley; M cG rath, T. P. C., K ielder; Manning, N . L. B., K n aresb o ro u g h ; M archant, R . E., Jervaulx; M aughan, B., R o th b u ry ; Miles, M. D ., W ynyard; M ills, K ., L ondesborough; M obbs, I. D ., K ielder; Moules, T. R ., R osedale; R obinson, P. D ., H am sterley; Scott, T. I., R edesdale; Simpson, G . R o sedale; S tonehouse, F ., L angdale; S traughan, W ., Bym ess; Tibbies, D . M ., A llerston; W ebster, F., C a w th o m e ; W eir, A. H ., K ielder; Wilbert, G . N ., K ielder: W illiam s, K . D ., A llersto n ; Y oung, J. P., Langdale. 258 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION E N G L A N D , E A ST C O N S E R V A N C Y B rooklands A venue, C am bridge T elephone: C am bridge 54495 CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L O F F IC E R S : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S 1 1 D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I I : C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R 1 M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : G . W . B ackhouse Ballance, G . F .; G o o d , F . G . (E state); Payne, S. R. C h ard , R ., D avidson, J. L., Princes R isborough; H aldane, W . D ., T h etfo rd ; H a lto n , K ., H a rk e r, M . G., M acK ay, D ., A ylsham . C hapm an, E. S. B., H itch in ; C urw en, J. G ., Aylsham ; D errick, R. G ., G ra n th a m ; H obbs, W . F., K ennedy, J. N., K irto n , I. W ., T h e tfo rd ; Pryce, T ., Searle, H ., Lincoln; Sm all, D ., T h etfo rd ; Stoakley, J. T ., Ipsw ich; W alker, A. D ., Princes R isb o ro u g h ; W ildash, J. T ., N ortham pton. D u fto n , F. G . C ook, G . O. C lark, G . H. Affleck, R . J. H EA D FO RESTERS A nderson, J. T., T h etfo rd ; B utton, G . H ., S w anton; H eavener, C., Princes R isborough; R edford, C. W ., T h etfo rd ; Sm ith, J. J., T h etfo rd ; W ellington, C. R., R endlesham ; W yatt, L., H azelborough; W illiam s, J., R ockingham . FO R E S T E R S A cott, E. J., R ockingham : A dam s, H ., E lveden; A xten, G . B., B eard, B. W ., A m p th ill; B irk itt, A ., R endlesham ; B loor, C. A., Y ardley; B urnie, H . W ., T h etfo rd ; C lark, J. F ., F ineshade; D eal, W ., H o lt; Field, H. C ., T h e tfo rd ; G oudy, H . E., T unstall; G racie, A., T h etfo rd ; H all, V. B., W igsley; H ardy, R. B., K esteven; H ark er, A ., R ockingham ; H endrie, J. A ., T h etfo rd ; H in to n , F . I., B ram field; Ingram , L. D ., T h etfo rd ; Iro n s, E. R ., D itto n ; Jo hnson, H ., C h ilte m s; Jones, F. B., K in g ’s F o rest; Jones, G ., B ardney; K eeler, B., B em w ood; K ing, S. G ., T h etfo rd ; Law , S. J., T h etfo rd ; L aw son, G . E ., T h etfo rd ; L eutscher, E. H ., T h etfo rd ; L iddington, G ., H azclborough; L ing, J., L au g h to n ; M cL eod, E., G ayw ood; M arshall, D . F., W illingham ; M arston, W . H ., S an to n ; M itchell, A. L., K esteven; M orris, A. M ., R ockingham ; M oulden, D . J., W alden; M uggleton, H . G ., S w anton; P a rk e r, J. W ., D unw ich; P arlett, H . F., H evingham ; P ritchard, R., Sw affham ; Pywell, A. C., B urw ell; R o b erts, G ., T h etfo rd ; R obinson, D . A., T h etfo rd ; Salisbury, E. J., T h etfo rd : Schofield, R ., C hilterns; Shinn, F ., T h etfo rd , Sm ith, W. P., S houldham ; Steel, W . H ., T unstall; S tott, W. S., W alsham ; Straw bridge, F., L avenham ; T russell, J., C hilterns; W illiam s, J. H ., T h etfo rd ; W oodrow , R. B., T h etfo rd ; Y eom ans, F . W . J., T hetford. A S S IS T A N T FO R E S T E R S A rb o n , A. A., W alden; Banks, P. A., H arling; B elton, G . C., T h etfo rd : Beverley, E., B ardney; B ooth, E. M ., W h ad d o n C hase; B oughton, M. J., F erm yn; B utcher, A. J., W igsley; C handler, R. H ., Pytchley; D over, A . C ., C h ilterns; Ellis, D . E ., H evingham ; Faddy, A. G ., Salcey; F ulcher, D . E., A peth o rp e; G o sdon, B. S., Sw affham ; H am stead, E. V., W aveney; H obbs, G ., Bardney; H o w arth , J., T he K ing’s F o re st; H u n t, L., L avenham ; H utchins, D . R ., H oneyw ood; K ew , F . M ., T u n stall; K irby, P. D ., H o lt; L ane, P. B., G a yw ood; M arsh, P., M arlow ; N ichols, A ., Y ardley; N icholson, A ., K esteven; P atterson, D . T ., K esteven; P ayne, W. C., A m pthill; P latt, R. B. W ., R ockingham ; R oebuck, B. A., W illingham ; R ogers, E. V., H u n tin g d o n ; Shaw, J. K ., R o u d h a m ; Snow den, J. D ., Southgate, G . J., H azelborough; Sturges, B. W ., B ardney; W ainw right, J. D . F., E lveden; W ard, J. A ., C hilterns; W aters, C. G ., D unw ich; W hite, J. B., E ynsford; W ilson, A . L., W aveney a n d B rooke W oods: W ilson, B., K esteven; W isem an, J., R endlesham ; W ood, P., D id lin g to n ; W oods, A . J., Bramfield. NUM BER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 259 E N G L A N D , S O U T H -E A S T C O N S E R V A N C Y “ D anesfield” , G range R oad, W oking T elephone: W oking 2270-1-2 CONSERVATOR: D I V IS IO N A L o f f ic e r s : R. H . Sm ith. D ixon, E. E .; G arth w aite, P. F. D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S 11 B urton, E. S. V., W inchester; K een, J. E. A ., R ead in g ; M ithen, D . A., A sh fo rd ; Snook, K . R . (E state); S utton, A. R ., C hichester; T ro u p , L. C., G u ild fo rd ; W eston, F ., W inchester; W ilson, J. F . (E state). D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R I C ooper, D . J., Sevenoaks; C u th b ert, A . A ., A sh fo rd ; Joslin, A .; G radw ell, J. W. (E state); Joslin, A .; K ipling, T. H ., C hichester; Perry, D . J., R eading; Spencer, A . J., U ckfield; Verey, J. G . H ., Uckfield. C raw ford, P. C. R. G ulliver, H . W. H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : S hapcott, M . P. CO N SER V A N C Y E N G IN E E R ' H EA D FO RESTERS Brook, J. W ., S lindon; D avies, D . J., H em sted; K ing, B. H ., H ursley; Lingwood, N . J., Bram shill. FO RESTERS A m ott, W ., A n d o v er; A ston, T. H ., C h allock; A w bcry, P. P., S outhw ater; Barden, J. T., St. L eo n a rd s; Barling, F . C., V inehall; B ashall, J. R. C., O rlestone; Brinsley, D . A ., B ram shill; C atchpole, R. A., M ichcldever; C ooper, J., M ard en ; Cooper, J. H ., B edgebury; C ordery, E. B., M aresfield; C ross, L. G . F ., Alice H o lt; Davy, J. H ., R ogate; D rake, F . H ., A lto n ; F o rre st, A. H ., W itley; Francis, R. E., C hiddingfold; F reeth , A. J., B ishopstoke; H a n n , F. C ., A binger; Henderson, J. R ., B rightling; H o lter, G . E ., F risto n ; H yett, S., S hip b o u m e; Laney, H., Q ueen E lizabeth; M cN am ara, H . A. G ., B ram shill; M iddleton, W. F . C ., A ru n d e l; M oseley, J., H em sted; Pym an, A. G ., M icheldever; Spiller, C. D ., Lym inge; T aylor, A. F., B ram shill; T ro d d , K . H . C ., G ravetye; Twallin, R. W ., Shere; U sh er, F ., H a v an t; Vickery, F . J., M ildm ay; W atkins, S., Lym inge; W atkinson, R. W ., B ram shill; W atts, F. C., B ere; W oods, W ., Basing. A S S IS T A N T F O R E S T E R S Batt, C. J., L ym inge; B ayston, P. W . R ., M icheldever; Bignell, R . A ., B ere; Brewer, D . P., A lice H o lt; B udgen, E ., B rightling; C ale, C. P., Q ueen E lizabeth; Choules, C., F risto n ; D avies, W . J., B edgebury; D avys, J. P., A ndover; Devine, R ., B a d b u ry ; D ineen, P. J., B ram shill; G reen, G . G ., C h a rlto n ; Griggs, B., H ursley; H arding, D ., A lto n ; H inds, C . H ., R ochester; H oblyn, R . A ., Alice H o lt; Howell, W. R ., A ru n d el; K e n n ard , J. T ., P en; L angford, D ., C h a rlto n ; Law es, R . F ., B ere; M arples, D ., A binger; M eek, W . T ., R o g ate; M o n k , R. F ., O rlestone; Newland, R. L., B ram shill; P a m all, D . L., St. L eo n ard s; Pearce, P. H ., M icheldever; Percy, D . M ., H ursley; P erkins, R . M ., M ildm ay; R ickards, S. W ., Slindon; Smith, H . J., A rundel; S utton, B. E ., H ursley; T yers, J. D . A ., Brightling; Vine, S. V., B edgebury; V ines, R . C. B., C h allock; W ainw right, R ., V inehall; Wood, I., C hiddingfold. 260 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION E N G L A N D , S O U T H -W E S T C O N S E R V A N C Y F low ers Hill, B rislington, B ristol, 4 T elephone: B ristol 78041-5 C. CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L o f f ic e r s : A. C onnell R ouse, G . D .; P enistan, M . J. S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : C arnell, R .; P urser, F. B. K ., Salisbury; R ogers, S. W ., E xeter; W hite, A. H . (E state); W illiam s, D . N ., D unster. B anister, N ., C hild O kerord; C lothier, C. R. G .; D ru m ­ m ond, J. A., T avistock; Kellie, J., B odm in; Lapage, C. J .; M aclver, I. F., M alvern; M oir, D . D . (E state); O ram , A. K ., L aunceston; Scott, A. H . A., C hild O keford; Shirley, M . C., G loucester. Perkins, J. S. Inglis, E. J. Shillito, P. E. C oote, R. H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : T inson, E. F. J. D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S 1 : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I I : C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R : M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R : H EA D FO RESTERS Beasley, G . F., O keh am p to n ; C am eron, A. H ., B odm in; G u n te r, A. T. G ., M alvern; H ollis, G . W ., E xeter; Parsons, F. G ., W areham . FO RESTERS B arber, E. G ., G a rd in e r; B eard, A. C., D ym ock; Bow dler, T. C., B rendon; B ow m an, P., B odm in; B raine, R. G ., W ilsey D o w n ; B ultitude, R ., H a rtla n d ; B urton, H . J., B rendon; C hapm an, S., C larke, H . F ., M olton W oods; C oles, L. H ., C ollingboum e; C ox, D . J., C h a rm o u th ; D yer, H . C., W est W oods; E veritt, E. C. W ., Stanw ay, C ow ley; E veritt, F. W ., Puddletow n; F airm an , E., M endip a n d S hepton; Fife, R. G ., F crnw orthy a n d D a rtm o o r; Fow ler, J., N ercch e a n d S edgem oor; F ulford, A . G ., G ly n n ; G reen, W. J., B lan d fo rd ; H am m o n d , B. R. G ., M occas a n d A co n b u ry ; H ockaday, C., St. C lem ent; H um phries, W . J., Salisbury; Jane, T. A., B ru to n ; Jenkinson, G . A., Q uantocks; K ibble, E. C., Eggesford; Law, H . G ., W yrc; Lewis, C. J., Savernake; M cIntyre, N . E., B entley; M ills, E. W ., Savernake; Poll, E. A., H a ld o n ; Sherrell, D . A., H alw ill; Skinner, F. C., H a u g h ; Spencer, A. H ., Stokeleigh; S trong, T. G ., H ero d sfo o t; T ackney, A. J., W arch am ; W alsh, J. E., H alw ill; W hale, R. S., Plym a n d E rm e; W ilkinson, W. E., L ydford; W illiam s, L. H ., D u n ste r; W ills, K . G ., B rad o n ; W ilson, W. J., M iddlem arsh W ood. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S A n d erson, J. E ., W areham ; A yers, D ., B entley; B arton, E. N ., M endip; B land-F lag, G . D ., S tanw ay; C halm ers, J. G ., D a rtm o o r; D ouglas, G . S., E ggesford; D y er, W . F ., H a ld o n ; F o ster, M. V., P o o rsto ck ; Fox, F. G ., B ru to n ; G ould, J., W yre; G renfell, R . G . P., W ilsey D o w n ; G rosfils, L. F., D u n ste r; H all, M . P., B rad o n ; H am bley, J. R ., G ly n n ; H ibberd, E. C., N ero ch e; H o u g h to n , M. A ., H a rtla n d ; H um phrey, A. W ., H o n ito n ; Jam es, M . E. H ., N eroche; K ing, R. J., P ershore; L ansdow n, P. W ., B landford; Lewis, W . P., P o o rsto c k ; L ink, H . H ., D ym ock; M iles, R . B., Q uan to ck s; M orrish, F. C., B lan d fo rd ; P ainter, B. A., Plym ; P a rk e r, J., B rendon; P arsons, P. H ., E rm e; R ayner, G . L., B am pton; Scam m ell, R . L., H o n ito n ; Scott, M . J., Q uantocks; Sim kins, G ., B ra d o n ; Snell, D . G ., H a ld o n ; Snellgrove, D . S., M endip; Sturgess, W . F., S avernake; T ay lo r, G ., D a rtm o o r; Tilley, J. W ., W yre; T hurlow , F . G ., D u n ste r; W alton, R ., P urbeck; W hitlock, M . D ., Savernake. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 261 EN G LA N D , NEW FO REST T he Q ueen’s House, L yndhurst, H ants. T elephone: L yndhurst 300 DEPUTY SU R V EY O R : D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I : D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I I H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F I C E R : E. W ynne-Jones Sim m onds, S. A. (E state); W interflood, E. G . H arrison, J. C .; M unro, N . S., R ingw ood; Pullinger, R. A. W atson, W. G. H EA D FO RESTERS Adam s, J . H . : Liddell, J.; M cN ab, C., R ingw ood; P arry, A. A., Isle o f W ight; Y oung, H . C . FO R E S T E R S CulT, E. W .; G reen, F. J .; H indlcy, N. Holloway, A. T .; Jam es, A . L .; Jam es, Perkins, D . E. S., F e m d o w n ; Reece, A . S tirrat, J. B., R ingw ood; T hom as, T. J. H., B righstone; H odgson, R. S., R ingw ood; H . B. S.; M eech, R ., F e m d o w n ; V .; R oe, W . T .; Sainsbury, B. H ., H u m ; H .; W ood, J. F . B. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S Allison, C. E.; C am pbell, I. R ., Shalfleet; C hristm as, S. E. V .: C outts, A . A .; D unning, A. R .; E vans, W. C., B righstone; E verard, J. E., H u m ; Fletcher, R .; Fox, K . W ., C om bley; G oodson, P. B.; H ouse, D . H .; H ow ard, D . H .; M oore, W .; Stacey, G . C .; Stone, P. L .; Y erbury, E. S., P arkhurst. EN G LA N D , FO REST O F DEAN W hitem ead Park, P arkend, N r. Lydney, G los. T elephone: W hitecroft 305-6 DEPUTY SU R V E Y O R : R . G . Sanzen-B aker D E P U T Y G A V E L L E R , M IN E S : D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : H erd m an , H . P. C am eron, J. D . ; H ew itt, R. M .; Jardine, J. (E state). E X E C U T IV E G ubby, M . A. E. o f f ic e r : HEAD FO RESTER W atson, F. FO RESTERS Daniels, P. R .; D avies, C. H .; D avis, S.; D ick, C. R .: F alconer, I. A .; Freem an, J. E. D .; Jones, H .; Lee, J. J .; Lewis, A . E .; M iddleton, J. W .; N o rth , S. J . ; Parry, H . M .; Phelps, S. E . ; R o b erts, G .; Russell, C. F. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S Brain, J. S.; D u n n , M . J .; G o rry , A. C .; P ugh, T. C .; R icketts, G . A .; Sharp, H . O .; T aylor, G . E .; V enner, B. G .; W estacott, W. D . 262 JO U RN A L OP T H li FORESTRY COMMISSION D IR E C T O R A T E F O R S C O T L A N D Office o f D irecto r: 25 D rum shcugh G ardens, E dinburgh, 3 T elephone: C aledonian 4782 A. W att. J. P. M ackie W hyte (E state); J. R. T hom . D IR E C T O R : CONSERVATORS: F o rrest, G . G raham -C am pbell, D .; L cgard, P. H .; Seal, D . T. D IV IS IO N A L O F F I C E R : D I S T R I C T O F F I C E R S 11 D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I I : Forbes, D . F. C .; Jackson, R. d 'O . P.; M orrison, A. M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : Blane, J. W. A nderson, W. C. Palm er, A. D. M acK enzie, M. E. W. Bisset, J. T .; B urnett, A. G .; N . R .; Sticks, M iss J. A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R : S E N IO R C H I E F E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R S : G eckie, M iss J .; Jones, SCO TLA N D , N O R TH CO N SERV A N CY 60 C hurch Street, Inverness T elephone: Inverness 223, 608-9 M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : J. A. D ickson. C hrystall, J .; C raw ford, A. R .; G ascoigne, C. A. H. (E state); Innes, R . A. C o tter-C raig, T . D ., D ingw all; F raser, A. M. Cassels, K . A. H . (E state); G ra n t, I. A . D ., D o rn o ch ; M acK ay, A . F ., F o rt A u gustus; M acL eod, D ., D ingw all; M acrae, F . M ., R o y B ridge; M assey, J. E ., G len U rq u h a rt; M o rriso n , A .; Ogilvie, J. Y ., L eanachan; P aterson, D . B .; Savage, G . F ., F o rt A ugustus; T aylor, G . G . M ., D ingw all. M acK illop, E. R. R oss, R . B. A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R : D avidson, K. T ., F o rt A ugustus. S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : N icolson, M. M acB eath, T. S. B. CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L O F F IC E R S : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I I : C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : H EA D FO RESTERS M acdonald, C., Isle o f Skye; M acdonald, D ., In c h n ac ard o c h ; M acK ay, A ., G len A flric; M ackenzie, J., S u n a rt; M acrae, D . J., B alblair; M u rray , W ., Black Isle. FO R ESTER S B eattie, W . R ., B a tta n ; B row n, R. S., N o rth S tro m e; C am eron, W. J., G len A flric; C am pbell, R . W ., L eanachan; C arm ichael, D ., T orrach illy ; C raw ford, A., O ykel; D rysdale, A ., F iu n a ry ; Fell, J. B., U rra y ; F raser, T ., C reag n a n E u n ; F ra te r, J. R . A ., G len R igh; G alt, T. J., S lattadale; G o rd o n , J., F in d o n ; G ra n t, A ., G len L oy; G ra n t, J. D ., G len G a rry ; L ockhart, W . A ., G len H u rich ; M acA llan, F., S o u th Strom e; M cC lym ont, W ., S tra th C o n o n ; M acin to sh , W ., B orgie; M acK ay, H ., C raigs; M acK ay, J., A ch n ash ellach ; M acK ay, J. A ., Salen; M acK ay, W ., C ulloden a n d C raig P h ad rig ; M acK enzie, A., A ssich; M acK enzie, A., L on g art; M acL ean, A . R ., Shin; M acL em an, A., A rd ro ss; M acL eod, D . M ., F arigaig; M acpherson, E ., L aiken; M acpherson, W ., G len AfTric; M acrae, H ., L ael; M orris, H . D ., N evis; M orison, A. W ., K essock; M unro, G ., G len U rq u h a rt; M urray, R ., South L aggan; N icolson, W . J., R u m s te ra n d D u n n e t; Officer, A. W ., P o rt C lair; Phipps, N ., S tra th N a irn ; R iddell, J. M ., B alblair; R o b ertso n , D . D . C., T he Q ueen’s Forest; R oss, D ., M illbuie; S cott, M . P., In v erin ate; Sm all G ., M orangie; Sm ith, D . R ., R a ta g a n a n d G len Shiel; Stobie, F . D ., F erness; S utherland, D . R ., S tra th D e a m ; T aylor, C. A ., K ilcoy; T hom , A. B., In sh ria ch ; W atson, J. C ., C eannacroc. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 263 A SSISTA N T F O R E S T E R S Baird, T. L., G len U rq u h a rt; B eaton, D. A ., M illbuic; B oustead, J., D o rn o c h ; Cam eron, F . S u n a rt; C am pbell, D ., G len R igh; C hree, J. W ., E ilanreach; Douglas, R ., Salen; D yce, W. J. P., C lach L ia th ; Evans, R ., F arigaig; Forsyth, A ., P o rt C lair; F raser, L. A., F in d o n ; G ibson, A ., T orrachilty; G ordon, J., K ilcoy; G rah am , G ., K ilcoy; G ra n t, D ., H ealaval; G ra n t, W . M ., L eanachan; H enderson, A . A ., G len G a rry ; H ow ard, R. L., O ykel; H unter, W ., Shin; Kay, E. R. M ., M oran gie; L aird, D . M ., C luncs; Law son W. M ., South Strom e; M acdonald, J., S tra th C o n a n ; M acD ougall, D . A ., G len H urich; M acG ilvray, C. G ., G len U rq u h a rt; M achines, A., S u n a rt; M aclnnes, D . F ., South L aggan; M acKay, J. W ., B oblainy; M acK innon, J., C ulloden; M ackintosh, J. A ., G len L oy; MacLean, K. A., N av er; M acL ennan, D ., G len V arragill; M acleod, J., In chriach; Millar, J., C ean n acro c; M orrison, I. C., F iu n a ry ; M unro, A., M illbuie; M urdock, R. K., S tra th M ashie; N icol, A ., Salen; Patience, J. J., Q ueen’s F o rest; Patience, W. M ., G len AITric; R eid, G . W . M ., G u isachan; R eid, H . R ., A rdross; Saunders, E., In ch n acard o ch ; Scott, J., F arigaig; S utherland, F. W ., S trath M ashie; Taylor, J. W ., R a ta g an ; T hom , H., Inchnacardoch; T hom son, R., Boblainy. S C O T L A N D , E A ST C O N SE R V A N C Y 6 Q ueen’s G ate, A berdeen T elephone: A berdeen 33361 c o n ser v a to r d iv is io n a l F. : o f f ic e r s d is t r ic t o f f ic e r s i d is t r ic t o f f ic e r s ii c o n se rv a n c y C hrystall, J. G ., B rechin; Fergusson, J. L. F., P e rth ; K ennedy, J. A. M ., F o rre s; W att, I. S., P e rth ; W oodburn, D . A., D unkeld. B earhop, A ., P e rth (E state); C athie, R. G ., F o ch ab ers; D o n ald , F . J., F och abers; F rench, W . F ., K em nay; Jeffrey, W. G ., B rechin; L arsen, R. T. F ., D unkeld; M cIntyre, P. F., D in n e l; W haym an, A. : : e n g in e e r W. A. O liver B ennett, A. P. (E state); D ier, H . V. S.; Feaver, B. R .; H o m e , R. J. G . : : a s s is ta n t e n g in e e rs : s e n io r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : h ig h e r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : Blenkinsop, R. I. C. C hapm an, F. G ., P e rth ; W alker, P. H . F. L enm an, J. P. Reid, J. L. H EA D FO RESTERS Allison, R. A., S peym outh; C o rb e tt, J., C raig V inean; G ilbert, G ., D u rris; Kennedy, J. M ., D ru m m o n d H ill; M cD onald, W ., D ru m to ch ty ; M ilne, W. G ., C ulbin; M urray, G . J. A. M ., G len L ivet; R obbie, J. D., B lackhall; U rq u h a rt, D . J., T he B in; W att, D. M ., M onaughty. FO RESTERS Allan, J., E densm uir; A nderson, D., C lash in d arro ch ; A nderson, F ., Benachie: Anderson, J. A ., S tra th o rd ; Biggar, A. W ., Elchies; Cassie, A. C ., Countessw ells; Coull, G . F., N e w to n ; D ouglas, W . S., W hitehaugh; Ellen, R. M ., B lairadam ; Ewen, B., K em nay; G arro w , P. J., R a n n o ch ; G rigor, E ., G lenisla; G ru b b , J. A., N ew to n ; Guild, J., K irk h ill; H arw o o d , A. E., B lairadam ; H yslop, R . M ., B lackhall; H epburn, N . R ., H ally b u rto n ; Innes, G . C., M idm ar; L inder, R ., C lashindarroch; McBain, G . L., F etteresso; M cC onnell, J., M o n tre ath m o n t; M cD ow all, C., Pitfichie; M ackay, W ., Inglism aldie; M cIntosh, W. J., T o m a sh e a n ; M ackintosh, C. O., Speym outh; McLeod, E., R oseisle; M cR ae J., S cootm ore; M a m o ch , D ., A lltcailleach; M asson, V., B lackcraig; M axtone, J. R., R osarie; M itchell, F. M ., C ard en ; Pennet, H ., R osarie; R eid, J., T entsm uir; R eid, J. G . M ., F o ch ab ers; R eid, J. K ., F o n a b ; Rose, A., L edm ore; Russell, J. C., K insfauns; Scaife, C. L., L ossie; Seaton, J. A., T eindland; Skene, W. F ., D alg aty ; Stew art, G ., D allas; Stew art, S. W. R ., K eillour; Stuart, P., N ew tyle; T hom son, R . B., C raig V inean; T how , G . B., G lendoll; Thow, J. B., F o rest o f D e er; W att, W . J., A llean; W ebster, J. O ., S peym outh; W ilson, J. F ., Pitm edden. 264 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S A dam , R ., H ally b u rto n ; A itken, R. G ., M onaughty; A m cr, D . J., C ulbin; A nderson, W . B., N ew to n ; A rm strong, P., B in; B ain, J., R a n n o ch ; Bowie, A . G ., Bin; C hristie, J. H ., G len Livet; D avidson, A . L., M on au g h ty ; E llio tt, D . M ., Inglism aldie; F raser, J. R ., Pitfichie; G o rd o n , W. J., S p e y n o u th ; Jo h n sto n , W ., D ru m to ch ty ; Jolly, J. M e., G lenerrochty; K em p, W. T ., A lltcailleach; K ingham , H . A., C lashindarroch; M cC onnachie, K ., G len L ivet; M cL ean, J. P., L edm ore; M acm illan, T. W ., D rum tochty; M acPhee, H . A., F etteresso; M urray, G . M . W ., D ru m m o n d H ill; R ose, J., A lltcailleach; Shepherd, J. M cK ., C raig V inean; T hirde, G . S., G lenisla; T racy, C. R ., D ru m to ch ty . SC O T L A N D , S O U T H C O N S E R V A N C Y G reystone P ark , M offat R oad, D um fries T elephone: D um fries 2425-6-7 J. A . B. M acdonald. Fossey, R . E .; G ibson, W . N .; D o n a ld , R . R. Innes, P. A. (E state); B row n, N . M ., Peebles; L ong, M., M offat; M acN ab , J. D ., P a ln u re; W ilson, K . W ., Dairy. CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L O F F IC E R S I D I S T R I C T O F F I C E R S 11 D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S III Fcrgusson, W . S., D a lb ea ttie; F indlay, T. S. L., N ew ton S tew art (E state); G olding, R . A ., B a rr; N eustein, S. A., M offat; R o b e rtso n , S. U ., G ateh o u se o f F le et; Salter, I. J. W ., Peebles; Steel, R . P ., D u n b a r; Stirling, J., A uchcncastle, M offat; V arty, I. W ., G alashiels; W illiam s, M . R . W ., Jedburgh. C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R I M acM ah o n , C. D . C larkson, W. H . A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R : s e n io r e x e c u tiv e o ff ic e r H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : : F a rm er, T. E llio tt, J. W. H EA D FO RESTERS C am eron, D . M ., D und eu g h ; G rah am , A ., M ab ie; M ackay, W . H ., F leet; M acM illan, H ., K irro u g h tree; M acR ae, A. D ., G len T ro o l; Parley, C. W ., C a im E dw ard; R eid, J. M ., A e; W atson, J., D albeattie. FO RESTERS A rm strong, H . O ., B areagle; B roil, J. L., Y air H ill; C am pbell, D ., C a irn E d w ard ; C arru th ers, M . F ., D re v a; C hisholm , M . R., C a rric k ; C ochrane, A . S., D alm acallan ; D avidson, J. R ., D u n s; D rysdale, N ., C a rric k ; D u n can , D ., W auchope; E dw ard, R . M ., B row nm oor; G allacher, J. M ., C lauchrie; G allacher, P., G len T ro o l; G oodlet, G . A ., N ew castleton; G u tch , J. H . M ., S te n to n ; H arkness, J. R ., C astle O ’er; H a rt, R . B., K ilgram m ie; H arvey, T. S., A e; H u n ter, J., G reskine; Jam ieson, R . A ., N ew castleton; K irk , D . M ., K irro u g h tree ; L eishm an, A ., C hanguc; Lloyd, S., L au riesto n ; M cD onald, J. D ., G lentress; M cG eorge, R ., S alto u n ; M cG ivern, W ., A e; M cN icol, F ., W auchope; M cN aught, D . J., A recleoch; M elville, J., Seim M u ir; M urray, W ., G lengap; P ark , H . C. B., G len T ro o l; P arkinson, J. W ., A u ch en ro d d an ; P a tte rso n , B., G a rcro g o ; Peddie, A. S., C a rd ro n a ; R obertson, D ., K ilstu re; R o b ertso n , W . J., C lydesdale; S cott, J. F., C raik ; Slater, J., E d g arh o p e; Sw an, R ., W aterm eetings; T aylor, J. J., F leet; T hom son, A ., C astle O ’e r; TThomson, J., P enningham e; T ow ns, K. W ., C latteringshaw s; U rq u h a rt, G ., E libank a n d T raq u air. NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 265 A S SIS T A N T FO R E S T E R S A nderson, M ., W auchope; Bagnall, J. A., W auchope; B agot, W ., C hangue; Beaton, J., K irro u g h tree; Birch, F. C., N ew castlelon; B rooks, C., Penningham e; Burgess, W ., M abie; B urgon, F. W ., C airn E d w ard ; C arrutliers, J., C arrick; C ooper, B., A e; C ooper, J. A. M ., G len T ro o i; D insdale, E., A e; E dw ards, O. N., G a rrarie s Fligg, P., C arrick ; F raser, J. M cD ., W auchope; G ra h am , P., C a rric k ; G rieve, W. J., Fleet Hogg, J. L., K irro u g h tree ; H ope, T . C., F leet; Jo rd a n , R . D ., D undeugh; L aw son, J., E libank Liddell, A . T ., G lentress; M cA rthur, A ., C arrick ; M cB um ie, A ., A c; M cIntyre, C ., D albeattie M cClelland, P. W ., G len T ro o l; M ackenzie, P., C o rried o o ; M ow at, P., N ew castleton; M urray, D . M ., B areagle; M urray, T. M ., C a irn E d w a rd ; N elson, T., G lengap; O ’Brien, C. D ., L au riesto n ; O ’M ara, J. P., G reskine; P ark er, J., G len T ro o l; Paterson, W . G ., A e; P earce, J. S., K irro u g h tree; Pickthall, H ., C a irn E dw ard; Rae, W. R ., M abie; R am say, K . J., C astle O ’e r; Reid, J. M ., D albeattie; R utherford, G . R ., G len T ro o l; Sem ple, W. K . L., D und eu g h ; T aylor, J. W ., G len T ro o l; Thom as, A. F., C a im E dw ard; V citch, T. H., A uch en ro d d an ; W atson, A., B areagle; Wood, R. A. L., K irroughtrec. SC O T L A N D , W EST C O N SE R V A N C Y 20 Renfrew Street, G lasgow , C.2 T elephone: D ouglas 7261-2-3-4 J. E. Jam es M axwell, H . A., R obbie, T. A. G illespie, I., A berfoyle; Johnson, W. A. J., C airn b aan (E state); M urray, G . K . (E state); Stew art, I. J .; S utherland, W. B., B enm ore; T hom son, W . P., A lloa; Tow nsend, K . N . V., K napdale. Dcy, G . A., C a im b a a n ; G oodlet, J. A., B enm ore; G w ynn, J. M ., A berfoyle (E state); Illingw orth, R. F ., B enm ore; M cG arva, J. F., B enm ore; M cN airt, A . S., Stirling; M cN eill, I., C a irn b a an ; M acpherson, M ., Barcaldine. CO NSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L o f f ic e r s : D IS T R IC T O F F I C E R S I : D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : co n se rv a n c y e n g in e e r: a s s is ta n t e n g in e e rs : s e n io r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r ; h ig h e r e x e c u tiv e o f f ic e r : G reen, A. M. A tkins. F. C., M cL achlan, R. W ., B enm ore; J. B., C a im b a an . K in n aird , B. N isbet, M cM illan, W. H EA D FO RESTERS Calder, J. M ., C a rro n Valley; C am eron, A., S trath y re; C rozier, R ., Inverliever; Fairbairn, W ., D evilla; F raser, E. D ., L och A rd ; K ennedy, J., M inard: M ackay, A., B arcaldine; M acK innon, H ., K n ap d ale; M urray, R. G ., G lenbranter. FO RESTERS Allan, J. S., S trath y re; A ngus, R . S., G lenfinart; B eaton, K . A ., T o rrie; Cam pbell, W . W ., L och A rd ; C ram b, J., G le n d u ro r; C unningham , A. J., L eapm oor; Dye, W. E., A rdfin; Francey, C. S., A rd g a rta n ; F raser, T. S., R o w ardennan; Gilles, A., G le n b ran ter; G ilm our, W ., Inverliever; H am ilton, J., B enm ore; H enderson, W ., L och A rd ; Irving, R. H ., A berfoyle; Jackson, J., B enm ore; Johnston, C. R ., G a relo c h h ea d ; L aw son, D . W ., T ulliallan; M acC allum , D ., A chaglachgach; M acCaskill, D . A ., L ennox; M acF adyen, D ., Inverliever; M acG regor, D . R., A rd g a rta n ; Mackay, D . J., A sknish; M ackay, J. F ., G lenfinart; M ackenzie, I., Tnverinan; M cLarty, H . C., St. F illans; M cL ean, A ., K ilm ichael; M cL ean, R ., K ilm ory; M cM illan, A., L och A rd ; M cN icol, I., B arcaldine; M cN icol, P., Inverinan; MacPhee, C. J., F earn o ch ; M acR ae, D . J., A rd g a rta n ; M cR orie, J. P., G lenrickard; M artin, W . C., T ulliallan; M orrison, A., C a rrad a le ; M orrison, N ., C orlarach; M unro, D., C a rrad a le ; P ohvart, A., S trath y re; R a ttra y , W . D ., G a rad h b a n ; R obertson, D . A ., K n a p d ale ; R o b e rtso n , N ., T iglinabruaich; Ross, D . H ., L och A rd ; Ross, 1., K ilm ichael; Sim pson, A . A. C., C a rrad a le ; Sinclair, L., G len d u ro r; Stout, H . C., G len d aru el; S tu a rt, A. M ., L och E ck; Y oung, A ., Strathlachlan. 266 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S B eaton, J., Loch A id ; Blake, G . W ., G le n d u ro r; C airns, J. M., Inverliever; C alder, A. M ., G le n b ran ter; C am pbell, M . M ., Loch A rd ; C arr. I., G a ra d h b a n ; Covvie, F . R ., A rd g a rta n ; C ruickshank, A., S tra th y re ; E lgar, W ., L och E ck; F erguson, P. D ., K ilm ichael; F raser, J. M ., G le n d u ro r; F ryer, K ., G le n b ran ter; G elder, J. S., B enm ore; G rah am , A . W ., L och E ck; G ra h am , H ., K n ap d ale; H a rlan d , J., B enm ore; H a rt, C. W ., Inverliever; H arvey, R ., G le n d u ro r; K eiller, W . C ., C a rro n Valley; Lyon, J. H. M ., T ulliallan; M cD onald, W ., Inverliever; M acD uff, R. J. A., B arcaldine; M cG avin, J. M ., G lenfinart; M cG eachy, R ., S trath y re; M ackay, J. S., B arcaldine; M cK eand, J. W ., Invcrliever; M cK enzie, J. S., Saddell; M cL aughlin, R. S., Loch A rd ; M cLeod, H ., L och E ck; M cM illan, J., M in a rd ; M cN air, J., D evilla; M ain, D ., Inverinan; M aule, S. G ., G le n b ran ter; M axtone, J. S., L och A rd ; M orrison, I., Inverliever; M urray, J. T. H ., A sknish; O liphant, R ., K n ap d ale; P roctor. \V. A., S tra th y re ; P ro u d fo o t, L. O ., D evilla; R obertson, J. B., Loch A rd : R odger, J. H., Inverinan; R oss, D . A., K ilm ichael; Sallie, J. L. T., A chaglachgach; Sanders, P. R. W ., G arshelloch; Shaw , M ., R o w ard en n an ; Sinclair, D ., Inverliever; Smcllie, A., K n ap d ale; Solway, D . P., G lenfinart; T urner, A. S., G lenbranler. D IR E C T O R A T E F O R W A LES Ollicc o f D ire cto r: V ictoria H ouse, M arine T errace, A berystw yth T elephone: A berystw yth 367 d ir e c t o r G . B. Ryle C ow nie, F. C adm an, W. A. : CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L o f f ic e r : C H IE F E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : H oltam , B. W ., R u th in ; M organ, P. W .; Peaty, C. E., L lan d rin d o d Wells. G rabaskey, B. P., N a rb e rth ; R o b ertso n , D . Y. M., C ardiff; Stern, R. C., W allace, D . H. M ullow ney, V. L. M cG eorge, T. H . H I G H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F I C E R S : E dw ards, F. L. G ., Pope, H . J. (E state); Salantan, D . O. J. D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S U : D IR E C T O R A T E E N G IN E E R : W A L ES, N O R T H C O N S E R V A N C Y 15 Belm ont, Shrew sbury T elephone: Shrew sbury 4071-2 CONSERVATOR: F. C. Best. D IV IS IO N A L O F F IC E R S : F airchild, C. E. L. (E state); G odw in, G . E., H am pson J. R. D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I : A rends, A. W. (E state); Davies, E. J. M ., Dovey; H ughes, B. D ., L landrindod W ells; Keighley, G . D., Osw estry;. Lindsay-Sm ith, W. A., G w ydyr; O sm aston, J. F., Dolgelley. D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I I : G uile, A. W. L., B an g o r; H e rb ert, R. B., R uthin; H ooper, H . J. (E state); M uir, J. L., G w ydyr; Overell, P. A . W ., L lan d rin d o d W ells; Pinchin, R. D ., Bala; Saunders, H . J., S kinner, J. R., A berystw yth; Spencer, J. A., R u th in ; W albank, B., W elshpool; W ebb, F. H ., A berystw yth. Philbrick, G . E. H. Low, W. L. C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R : M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : Baylis, D . O., A berystw yth; Yates, R. W. P., Cem m aes. M ayhew, K. H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : Bowers, G . H. A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R S : E gerton, F. C., G w ydyr; NUMBER TW ENTY-SIX 1957 267 HEAD FO RESTERS Davies, A. 1., C locaenog; Evans, J. E., T aliesin; H arrison, B., G w ydyr; Hughes, A ., C oed y B re n in ; Jones, A ., Beddgelcrt; Jones, E. T ., Y stw yth; Jones, J. T ., H afren ; Lomas, J., L ake V yrnw y; Y app, P. W. C., R ad n o r. FO RESTERS Bell, H . C., D ovey; Bowen, J. F., Elw y; B u tterw o rth , P, R a d n o r; C arlaw , R. S., D ovey; Claydon, G . W ., B reidden; D aniel, C. E., G w ydyr; D avies, P. G ., Y stw yth; Edwards, R ., C oed y B renin; E vans, A. C. W ., K erry ; E vans, J. F., L lyn; Farrelly, F., G w ydyr: G a rd n er, E. C. C., C oed y B renin; Griffiths, E., M yherin; Griffiths, I. L., D ovey; G riffiths, O. G ., C oed y B rcnin; G riffiths, R. W ., M o n ; Harrison, P. G ., Penllyn a n d G lanllyn; H opkins, C. J., C arn o and B echan; Hughes, J. W ., R heidol; H ughes, L. E., G w ydyr; H yteh, F. A. L., L langollen; James, J. E., G o ro r; Jennings, R. J., H alcyn; Jones, A ., D ovey; Jones, A. A. S., D ovey; Jones, D. M ., Y stw yth; Jones, H . G ., D ovey; Jones, L., A eron; Jones, M ., C oed S arnau a n d E dw ; Jones, O., A b e rh irn a n t; Jones, T. G . M ., C oed y B renin; Jones, W. H ., K e rry ; Kelly, C. L., L ake Vyrnw y; Lane, E. H . W ., R a d n o r; Little, T. E., L lam b ed ; L loyd, I., D ovey; M axwell, A ., Y stw yth; M orris, O. I., G w ydyr; Owen, G . M ., M o n ; Pierce, G . J., H afren ; Price, G ., Y stw yth; Rees, E., G w ydyr; Roberts, R. H ., G w ydyr; R oberts, R. I., G w ydyr; R oberts, T ., C locaenog; Ross, J. L., C locaenog; R oyle, J. H., C ynw yd; Shaw, D. L., C lw yd; Stockw ell, L. A., T arenig; Storer, E. H ., C eiriog; T a rra n , J., C oed S arnau and E dw ; T ear, D ., H afren; Thom as, R. O. L., T a n a t; T hom as, T. W ., D ovey; Vionnee, J. A., Lake Vyrnw y; W ainwright, R ., M a th ra fa l; W aters, R. W ., D yfnant; W atson, J., C locaenog; W atson, L. C ., C locaenog; W illiam s, F., D eu d raeth ; W illiam s, J. D., C locaenog; Williams, R. J., D ovey; W ood, J. A., M aelor. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S Ambler, C. R ., C oed y B renin; Beveridge, C. T. W ., R heidol; B row n, R. H ., D ovey; Brown, R. I., M a th rafa l; C a rte r, T. A., D ovey; D a v en p o rt, J. B., C oed y B renin; Davies, C. C., R a d n o r; D avies, C. M., M o n ; D avies, D . D . G .,D y fa n t; D avies, R . D ., D ovey; Eccles, N., D ovey; E dw ards, B. F ., D e u d rae th ; E vans, I. T ., D e u d raeth ; G oodbody, D ., C oed S a rn a u ; G rayson, J., M yherin; G riffiths, C., Penllyn; Ham ilton, J. P., A e ro n ; H indlc, H. J., R a d n o r; H um phreys, H . J., T aliesin; Isaac, C. M ., Y stw yth; Ivison, G . H ., C locaenog; Jenkins, H . M ., D ovey; Jones, D . J., G w ydyr; Jones, E. W ., C oed y B renin; Jones, G . W ., R heidol; Jones, J. E., G w ydyr; Jones, R. T ., G lanllyn; L arge, A. L., C a m o ; Legge, D . A., D ovey; McLean, A. F., T aren ig ; M illm an, M. R ., A b e rh irn a n t; M orris, D . J., R heidol; O smond, V. J., D ovey; P ritch ard , I. W ., C oed y B renin; R ead, J. L., A ero n ; Roberts, O. J., K erry ; R o b erts, R., G o ro r; R oberts, T ., D y fan t; Sandy, J. N ., C lw yd; Taylor, F. L., B eddgelert; T aylor, W ., C oed y B renin; W aite, E. J. W ., K erry; W ebster, J., Elw y; W estlake, M . J. H ., H afren; W iblin, J. M ., T aliesin; Williams, B. H ., M a th rafa l; W illiam s, B. L., A b e rh im a n t; W illiam s, D. J., Llyn; Williams, J. M ., Halcyn. W A L ES, S O U T H C O N S E R V A N C Y Block I, G overnm ent Buildings, St. A gnes R oad, G abalfa, C ardiff T elephone: C ardiff 33051 CONSERVATOR: D IV IS IO N A L O F F I C E R S t D IS T R IC T O F F I C E R S U D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : J. Q. W illiam son D ru m m o n d , R . O .; F itzherbert, J. T. L. C urrie, J. H ., B recon; Jones, E., L landovery; Pallett, R. E ., C a rm a rth e n ; W est, S. J. C., C hepstow ; W hite, J. N e a th ; W illiam s, G . O. (E state); W illiam s, L. H . (E state). Bell, T. I. W ., B recon; B latchford, O. N ., L landovery; C ram , A. R .; D avis, F. G . (E state); H enderson, J. W ., N e a th ; M arnie, R. J. R ., N e a th ; Stum bles, R. E .; T easdale, J. B., C a rm a rth e n ; T hom pson, T. S.; Verel, J. F ., C arm arthen. 268 JO U RN A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION C O N S E R V A N C Y E N G IN E E R : W ebbe, W. F. G . M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R : Pcrcival, A. S. M artin, J .; M ills, A., L landovery. B radford, E. H. M orris, T. D . H . A S S IS T A N T E N G IN E E R S : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F I C E R : HEAD FO RESTERS C arr, C. P., C rychan; E dw ards, L. T ., B rechfa; M cN ulty, M . E., T a ir O nen; M orris, T ., T in te m ; Sm ith, N ., C oed M organnw g. FO RESTERS Baillie, N . S. R ., T aly b o n t: Barker, G . J., C oed M organnw g; B row n, A. H ., T in te m ; B row n, E., B artnau; B row ne, T. N ., B an n au ; B u rn ett, R. M ., E bbw ; B u tter, L., T a ly b o n l; C olson, M . H ., C oed M organnw g; C ox. K. E., E bbw ; E ckton, J. A ., C oed M organnw g; E vans, A. C., C oed M organnw g; E vans, E. O ., Cilgw yn; E vans, I. O ., T ow y; Evans, W . A ., C oed M organnw g; F arran ce. D. H., B rechfa; F arrelly, P. P., C oed M organnw g; G ray, J., T a ir O nen; H am ilton, A., C oed M organnw g; H inds, C. B., St. G w ynno; H ollow ell, E. G ., W en tw o o d ; H ughes, B., T eifi; Jam es, D . J. A ., Irfo n ; Jenkins, W . T ., C oed M organnw g; Jo h n , A . G ., T in te rn ; Jones, W . E ., C rychan; K e rfo o t, L. R ., H a y ; Lewis, D . T ., C a e o ; Lewis, R. S., T in te rn ; Lewis, T. H ., M ynydd D du; L loyd, J. E. W ., C oed M organnw g; M ackie, C. J., T a ir O nen; M cM illan, G . H ., Ebbw; M addocks, M . R ., C rychan; M ilsom , W . D ., L la n trisan t; M itchell, V., C oed y R h a ia d r; M organ, D . M ., C oed M organnw g; M organ, W . E., L landeilo; N icholls, H ., C oed M organnw g; Pow ell, A., B rechfa; Pow ell. N . S., Pem brey; Pow ell, W . E., C oed M organnw g; Pyper, A. H . D ., W entw ood.; Rees E. G ., G am rh iw ; Rees, W . T. O ., C oed C aerd y d d ; Reid, R. J., G ow er; R oderick, W. J., G lasfynydd; R udge, G . I., B recon; Saunders, T. G ., M o n m o u th ; S latter, F. A., Slcbech; Studley, J. T ., L la n d d o w ro r; T hom as, J. H ., G ie d d ; W atson, J. D., Irfo n ; W aygood, G . E., C hepstow ; W heel, P. J., B rechfa; W illiam s, F. J., D racth en ; W illiam s, W . G ., T a ir O nen; W illiam s, W . H ., Prcseli; W ishart, R. D., Brechfa. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S B allard, B. H ., E bbw ; Bayliss, L. A., T in te rn ; C ham bers, J. F., M ynydd D d u ; C harlesw orth, P., B a n n au ; D avies, G ., P em brey; D avies, M ., St. G w ynno; D ean, R., C aco; D enm an, R ., B rechfa; D ufeu, A. P., H ay; D ym ond, D . M ., C hepstow ; E ngland, J. W ., C oed M organnw g; E vans, J. E., St. G w ynno; Fildes, G . F ., W entw ood; Fitzgerald, T ., B a n n au ; Fryer, T. G ., T in te m ; G o o d h ead , A. A., C rychan; G riffiths, D ., C oed M organnw g; G riffiths. H. J., Slebech; G riffiths, W . T ., C hepstow ; H obbs, J. E., E bbw ; H ollow ay, R. J., T cifi; H ow son, J. G ., B rechfa; Jam es, T. A . C., C oed M organnw g; Jenkin, A . M ., T in te m ; Jones, A. L., C oed M organnw g; Jones, D ., C oed M organnw g; Jones, E. R. C ., B rechfa; Jones, J., T ow y; Jones, R . S., T in te rn ; K envyn, K ., B recon; L angdon, J. A . T ., Brechfa; L aw son, M . D ., T ow y; L loyd, D . A., P em brey; M ackinnon, J. C., M o n m o u th ; M orris, G . M ., C oed M organnw g; N eedham , A ., G o y tre ; O tto , C. F ., C rychan; Phillips, M . W ., C oed M organnw g; P hilpotts, K . R . G ., E bbw ; Pow ell, R . W ., C oed M organnw g; Price, R . O., M ynydd D d u ; Reeve, J. A., G o w er; R o b erts, C. J., C rychan; R o b erts, H ., D ra eth e n ; Sherw ood, M . M ., C oed C aerdydd; Shuker, K . G ., C hepstow ; Stevens, W . J., C ry ch an ; T ayler, L. S., G lasfynydd; T h o m as, R . K ., Slebech; T oibin, D ., Slebech; T rcw eeks, E. C., T aly b o n t; T ro u g h to n , R ., B rechfa; W alton, M . J. C., C oed M organnw g; W est, V., T a ir O nen; W ilde, C. G ., C oed M organnw g; W illiam s, S., C rychan.' D IR E C T O R A T E O F R E S E A R C H A N D E D U C A T IO N Office o f D ire cto r: 25 Savile R ow , L o n d o n , W .l T elephone: R egent 0221 d ire c to r: • Jam es M acdonald d iv is io n a l o ff ic e rs : M A C H IN E R Y R E S E A R C H O F F I C E R : B roadw ood, R . G . ; R ichards, E. G . Shaw, Col. R. G . NUMBER TW EN TY -SIX e n g in e e r 269 Begley, C. D ., E dlin, H . L. A aron, J. R. D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R I I : a s s is t a n t 1957 W est, R. W. (Alice H olt). Colley, M . A . (Alice H olt). Brooks, M iss A. : A S S IS T A N T F O R E S T E R : S E N IO R E X E C U T I V E O F F I C E R I RESEA RCH Office o f C h ief R esearch Officer: F o re st R esearch Station, Alice H o lt L odge, W recclesham , F a m h a m , Surrey T elephone: B entley 2255 Office fo r S cotland a n d N o rth E ngland: G overnm ent B uilding, B ankhead A venue, Sighthill, E dinburgh, 11 T elephone: C raiglockhart 4010 C H IE F R E S E A R C H O F F I C E R : M. V. L aurie (C onservator). D I V IS IO N A L E dw ards, M . V., E d in b u rg h ; H um m el, F . C .; Peace, T . R .; W ood, R. F. Bevan, D .; B row n, J. M . B .; C rooke, M .; C ruickshank, H .; H olm es, G . D .; M acK enzie, A. M ., E din b u rg h ; M atthew s, J. D .; M urray, J. S.; N im m o, M .; Stew art, G . G ., E dinburgh. o f f ic e r s : D I S T R IC T O F F I C E R S I : D IS T R IC T O F F I C E R S I I : A ldhous, J. R .; F aulkner, E., E dinburgh; G rayson, A . J.; H enm an, D . W ., E d in b u rg h ; Jobling, J . ; Jo h n sto n , D. R .; K itchingm an, G . D .; Lines, R ., E din b u rg h ; Locke, G . M . L .; M iller, A. D . S.; M itchell, A. F. S E N IO R S C I E N T I F I C O F F I C E R I Jeffers, J. N . R. H inson, W . H . Buscewicz, G . M. S C I E N T IF IC O F F I C E R : E X P E R IM E N T A L O F F I C E R : A S S IS T A N T E X P E R IM E N T A L O F F I C E R : P R IN C IP A L p h o t o g r a p h e r ph o t o g r a ph e r : : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : Davies, M iss J. A nderson, I. A. W ood, M iss T. K. Rendle, R. H EA D FO RESTERS Farquhar, J., T ulliallan; G ray , W . G ., O xford; M acdonald, A., F o rt A ugustus; W ealherell. J., A llerston. FO RESTERS Bartlett, G ., A rd ro ss; B row n, R . M .; C oates, A. E., E xeter; C ooke, A. W ., K ennington; Cousins, D . A .; F ancy, E. E ., W are h am ; F orbes, G . S., K ielder; F o u rt, D . F .; Fraser, D . K ., B ush N ursery; G enever, R. W .; H all, I. G .; H endrie, R .; Howell, E. A .; How land, B. G ., K e n n in g to n ; K irk lan d , R. C .; L eyshon, E., W estonbirt; M cD onald, M . K ., M ab ie; M cL ean, C., Bush N u rsery ; M air, A . R ., Benm ore; MofTatt, E., D ru m to ch ty ; Ogilvie, J. A ., F o rt A ugustus; Pringle, G ., G w ydyr; Styles, J. H. T hom pson, F., D e an ; T hom son, J. H ., N ew ton; T h o rn e, C. A .; Tugwell, D . G ., T hetford LTre, R. M ., K n ig h to n ; W aller, A. J .; W aters, W . T ., H in x to n ; W estall, A. W ., Bedgebury W ilkinson, E. J. D . 270 JO U R N A L OF THE FORESTRY COMMISSION A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R S A ppleyard, G ., W esto n b irt; A rm strong, J., E d in b u rg h ; B acon, A .; B aker, K . F ., D e a n ; Baldw in, E ., E d in b u rg h ; B artle, J., K ielder; B lackm ore, I. H ., T u lliallan ; B lair, W . J .; B oo th , T . C., A llerston; Boyes, J. W ., M ab ie; B row n, A . F ., E d in b u rg h ; B udden, R . C ., E x eter; C aird, D . G ., E d in b u rg h ; C am pbell, J. A ., E d in b u rg h ; C larke, J., E x eter; C ollins, R . B .; C ourtier, F . A .; C o u tts, D . G ., In c h n ac ard o c h ; C rofts, E. A ., B enm ore; C ruickshank, C., A llersto n ; D a b o m , P. W . W ., R o th am ste d ; D aw son, I. J. M ., G rizedale; F arrim o n d , G . H ., T h etfo rd ; F letcher, E. J .; F o rre st, W . S., E d in b u rg h ; G abriel, K . A . S., A llersto n ; G a rd in er, A. S.; G a rd in er, J. B. H . ; G lad m an , R. J .; G ledhill, H .; G reen, A . A., A e; G regory, P. A ., G w ydyr; H aggett, G . M .; H eddle, C. R ., E xeter; H o rn , A. P.; H ow e, L. A., W areh am ; H ow ell, R . S.; Jo h n so n , J. M .; Jones, D . L .; K eenleyside, J. C., B ush N u rsery ; K eir, R . M ., F fressydd O rles; K em p, D .; Lew is, R . E. A ., B edgebury; L ightly, A . A ., G rizedale; L ock, M .; Low , J. D .; M acdonald, A . M ., M abie; M acN eill, J. B., E d in b u rg h ; M aiscy, A . J . ; P aterso n , J. N ., D e a n ; Pearce, M . L., M o n m o u th ; Phillips, M . T . T ., N ew to n ; R eid, A . H ., D ru m to ch ty ; R ichardson, J. G ., E d in b u rg h ; R o b so n , E. R ., T u lliallan; Sim pson, L. M ., A berdeen; Slem m onds, S., N ew to n ; Sm ith, J. B., E din b u rg h ; Steven, F . R . W .; S traito n , J., E d in b u rg h ; Tee, L. A .; W alker, I.; W ebber, G . W ., K e n n in g to n ; W illiam s, V .; W ray, S. R. P ., In c h n ac ard o c h ; Y oung, C. W . T .; Y oung, M . J. E D U C A T IO N Office A ddress: 1 Princes G ate, L ondon, S.W .7 T elephone: K ensington 9691 I. O . R o b ertso n (D ivisional Officer). G oodw in, J. F ., D e an ; G o ugh, P. C ., B enm ore; Jam es J. H „ G w ydyr; T ulloch, N . W „ Faskally. D ickenson, M . E. S., D e a n ; F rancis, G . J., G w ydyr; H arris, E. H . M ., F ask ally ; M acD o n ald , R ., B enm ore. G illingham , J. G . S. C H IE F E D U C A T IO N O F F IC E R : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S I : D IS T R IC T O F F IC E R S n : H IG H E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R : FORESTERS B etterton, S. J., D e an ; B lack, D . F ., F askally; Bruce, J. M ., G w ydyr; G ale, B., N o rth e rw o o d ; G a rrio c h , I. M ., F askally; K em p, R . A. F ., G w ydyr; M cL aren, A . R ., B enm ore; M itchell, R . F ., B enm ore; W addelove, R. F ., B enm ore. A S SIS T A N T F O R E S T E R W ebster, J. T ., D ean. M A N A G ER , N O R TH ER W O O D H O U SE B row n, G . (4369) W t.P l 1721/2472 2,500 3/58 J.W .Ltd. Gp.365