Transcript
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technical book
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vapore ®
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Garioni Naval’s technical notebooks have been studied to offer a useful tool for the technical offices and for the users of steam, pressurized water and thermal oil. We obviously do not have the presumption to want to teach how things should be done. We just want to put at disposal of those people that wish to increase their knowledge in this sector, or find new information, our experience matured in many years of study and hard work. We warmly hope that what is written in these "technical books" will allow every reader to be able to work with ease and serenity and to avoid, where possible, to fall in errors that others, previously, have unintentionally committed in order to arrive to a certain knowledge level of the Termotecnics sector. This series of notebooks will be published in two editions, one in Italian and the other in English. We thought, with the purpose to avoid any possible confusion, that it was more practical and technically more appropriate, not to mix the two languages. The collection is dedicated to all those people whom have contributed, and that are still contributing, to GARIONI NAVAL’S development and growth. If you are interested to receive all the issues, please apply compiling in each part the enclosed form, by Internet through our web site www.garioninaval.com or by e-mail at
[email protected]
G2
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Steam, a traditional but at the same time modern and efficient instrument, is practically irreplaceable regarding petrochemical, chemical, paper, dyeing, pharmaceutical, food, canning, rubber and plastic industries etc. It is also indispensable in the civil sector for sterilising in hospitals and clinics, it is used as a preference in canteens and laundries and in air conditioning plants (on industrial level, where it is often used for heating). Again it has a wide and irreplaceable use in generating power using turbines, pumps and alternators in large heating plants and onboard ships. Wherever there is a need to produce, pump and utilise both thermal energy and pressure, steam is the ideal solution. What advantages does it have and which are the reasons for this? Above all, steam can be produced fairly easily and comes from water which, at least in relation to the present or near future global production needs of steam, is luckily still available in large quantities and at economically advantageous conditions, apart from the fact that in steam plants continuos recycling is applied and recovery can be almost one hundred per cent. Steam has a very high ponderal heat content which means tubes and user units having to support a light load, which also means movable equipment with excellent exchange coefficient, compact and economic. Steam circulates naturally without requiring accelerators, temperatures can be high at quite low pressures which means a relatively safe means and fairly easy to deal with. Temperature or pressure regulations can be carried out using simple twoway valves; above all it has the advantage of being extremely “flexible” meaning that it adapts well to later variations and changes, not like other fluids such as water, superheated water, diathermic oil, etc.. Of course the above mentioned becomes more valid concerning steam plants which have been rationally designed and constructed, above all regarding recovering energy. This automatically leads to the fact that trained technicians with a good knowledge of the subject should be called in because, although steam is not so complex as other fluids, a good theoretical preparation and practical know-how are required.
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gas burners Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H) 1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid
a) supplier charge
b) customer charge
Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H) 1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid
a) supplier charge
b) customer charge
Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H) 1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid
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a) supplier charge
b) customer charge
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NATURAL GAS PIPES
METHANE GAS delivery in m3/h (density 0.6) for a maximum load loss of 5 mm. Methane 8000 cal/ m3. Calculation of straight sections. Each curve or branch must be calculated as 0.5 m extra.
Distance from meter to boiler
Ø 1/2” Ø 3/4” Ø 1” Ø 1”1/4 Ø 1”1/2 16,6 22,2 27,9 36,6 41,5 copper 18x1 copper 22x1 copper 28x1 copper 35x1 copper 42x1
Ø 2” 53,8
Ø 2”1/2 69,6
Ø 3” 81,8
Ø 4” 104
203
313
551
139
214
390
171
318
146
275
128
246
Capacity in m3/h (calories burned with P.C.I cal/mc)
mt
4
2
(32.000)
4
(21.600)
6
(32.000)
8
(14.400)
10
(12.800)
15
(10.400)
20
(8.800)
25
(7.200)
30
(7.000)
40
(5.900)
50
(5.200)
60
(4.700)
80
(4.000)
100
(3.500)
2,7 2,1
1,8 1,6 1,3 1,1 0,9
0,88 0,74 0,66 0,59 0,5
0,44
9
(72.000)
6
(48.000)
4,8
(72.000)
3,6
(32.800)
3,6
(28.800)
2,8
(22.400)
2,45
(19.600)
2,1
(16.800)
1,9
(15.200)
1,6
(12.800)
1,4
(11.200)
1,3
(10.400)
1,1
(8.800)
0,98
(7.800)
16,9
(135.000)
11,4
(91.200)
9
(72.000)
7,7
(61.600)
6,7
(53.600)
5,3
(42.400)
4,5
(36.000)
4
(32.000)
3,6
(28.800)
3
(24.000)
2,72
(21.600)
2,4
(19.200)
2
(16.000)
1,8
(14.400)
35,5
(284.000)
24
(192.000)
19
(152.000)
16
(128.000)
14
(112.000)
11
(88.000)
9,6
(76.800)
8,4
(67.200)
7,6
(60.800)
6,4
(51.000)
5,7
(45.600)
5
(40.000)
4
(32.000)
3,8
(30.400)
50
(400.000)
33,8
(270.000)
27
(216.000)
22,8
(182.400)
20
(160.000)
16
(128.000)
13,6
(108.800)
11,9
(95.000)
10,8
(86.400)
9
(72.000)
8
(64.000)
7
(56.000)
6
(48.000)
5,4
(43.000)
102
(816.000)
69
(552.000)
54
(432.000)
46,5
(372.000)
41
(328.000)
32
(256.000)
27,6
(220.000)
24
(192.000)
22
(176.000)
18
(144.000)
16
(128.000)
14
(112.000)
12
(96.000)
11
(88.000)
(1.624.000) (2.504.000) (4.408.000) (1.112.000) (1.712.000) (3.120.000)
110
(880.000)
94
(752.000)
82
(656.000)
65
(520.000)
55
(440.000)
49
(392.000)
44
(352.000)
37
(236.000)
33
(364.000)
29
(232.000)
25
(200.000)
22
(176.000)
(1.368.000) (2.544.000) (1.168.000) (2.200.000) (1.024.000) (1.968.000)
102
(816.000)
86
(688.000)
76
(608.000)
68
(544.000)
58
(368.000)
51
(408.000)
46
(368.000)
39
(312.000)
34
(272.000)
195
(1.560.000)
174
(1.392.000)
156
(1.248.000)
142
(1.136.000)
123
(984.000)
110
(880.000)
100
(800.000)
87
(696.000)
65
(520.000)
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COPPER TUBES Virtual length in meters
copper 12x10
copper 14x12
copper 16x14
copper 18x16
copper 22x20
copper 28x25
Delivery in M3/h (calories burned with P.C.I cal/mc) 0,6
5
(4.800)
10
(3.280)
1,25
(10.000)
0,41
0,85
(6.800)
2,2
(17.600)
Pressure drops calculation for big natural gas pipeline
∆P =
1,5
(12.000)
1,2 x Q2 x L D5
Where: ∆P= Pressure drop in mm.H2O L = pipe length in m Q = gas capacity in Nmc/h D = internal pipe diameter in mm. Example Methane line L=100 m, required capacity 6.000.000 Kcal/h
2,8
4,1
(22.400)
(32.800)
1,9
2,5
(15.200)
(20.000)
8,4
(67.200)
5,4
(43.200)
D 5 values
Diameter
DN25
1”
169
DN32
1” 1/4
656
DN40
1” 1/2
1.386
DN50
2”
4.181
DN65
2” 1/2
15.414
DN80
3”
34.439
DN100
4”
146.253
DN125
5”
408.394
DN150
6”
1.058.443
DN200
8”
3.997.331
DN250
10”
12.298.388
Piping DN 150 Gas capacity 750 Nmc/h 2 ∆P= 1,2 x (750) x 100 = 63 mm.c.a. (160,3)5
Example: Natural gas piping 200 m far from the beginning to the burner. Gas capacity : 750 Nmc/h Gas pressure at the gas train 1.500 mm H2O. Admitted gas pressure drop at the end of piping not more than 150 mm H2O.
D5 = 1,2 x Q2 x L 150
D5 = 1,2 x (750)2 x 200 = 900.000 ∆P
From the table we find the D5 value closer to the calculated one , that is 1.058.443 Corresponding to a 6 “ pipe.
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LIQUID PROPANE GAS TUBES Initial pressure 1,5 ate 37.1
Distance in M 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100
Iron Ø _ “ Efficiency Copper18 x 11 Capacity kcal Kg / h Lt / h Nmc /h 55 110 27,5 605.000 38,5 77 19,2 422.000 31,8 63,6 15,9 349.000 27,3 54,6 13,6 299.000 24,2 48,4 12,1 266.000 22,2 44,4 11,1 244.000 19,2 38,4 9,6 211.000 17,2 34,4 8,6 189.000 15,8 31,6 7,9 173.000 13,7 27,4 6,8 150.000 12,1 24,2 6 133.000
1 lt GPL = 0.5 Kg 1 lt GPL = 0.25 m3
Iron Ø _ “ Copper 22 x 1 Capacity Kg / h Lt / h Nmc / h 82 66 57,7 51,8 47 40,8 36,2 33,1 28,8 25,7
1 Kg GPL = 2 lt 1 Kg GPL = 0.5 m3
164 132 115 103 94 81 72 66 57 50
41 33 28,8 26 23,5 20,4 18 16,5 14,3 12,5
Efficiency kcal
902.000 726.000 633.000 572.000 517.000 448.000 396.000 363.000 314.000 275.000
Iron Ø _ 1” Copper 28 x 1,5 Capacity Kg / h Lt / h Nmc / h
100 89 82 71 63 57,7 50 44,2
200 178 164 142 126 115 100 88,4
Efficiency kcal
1.100.000 979.000 902.000 781.000 693.000 633.000 550.000 486.000
50 44,5 41 35,5 31,5 28,8 25 22
Kcal/Kg = ~ 11.000 Kcal/m3 = ~ 22.000 Kcal/lt = ~ 5.500 Example: Line pressure: 1.5 ate Tube length: 60 m Calories required: 220,000 Kcal/h The choice falls on a 3/4” iron or 22 x 1 copper tube
LPG
1 lt GPL = 2 Kg 1 lt GPL = 4 lt
PIPE’S DIMENSIONING
Pressure 300 mm H2O
Distance in
Iron Ø _ “ copper14 x 1
Iron Ø _ “ copper18 x 1
Iron Ø 1” copper 22 x 1
Iron Ø 1”_ copper 35 x 1,5
Iron Ø 1”_ copper 42 x 1,5
M
Capacity N mc/h
Kcal
Capacity N mc/h
Kcal
Capacity N mc/h
Kcal
Capacity N mc/h
Kcal
Capacity N mc/h
6
1,5
33.000
3,2
70.400
6,1
134.000
12
264.000
19
8
1,3
28.000
2,8
61.600
5,2
114.000
10,6
233.000
10
1,1
24.000
2,6
57.000
4,7
103.000
9,5
15
0,9
19.800
2,0
44.000
3,8
83.000
20
0,78
17.000
1,7
37.400
3,2
25
0,69
15.000
1,5
33.000
30
0,62
13.600
1,4
40
0,55
12.000
50
0,46
10.000
Iron Ø 2” copper 54 x 1,5 Capacity N mc/h
Kcal
418.000
35
770.000
16,4
360.000
30
660.000
209.000
14,5
319.000
27
594.000
7,6
167.000
11,5
253.000
21,5
473.000
70.000
5,7
140.000
9,8
215.000
18,4
404.000
2,9
63.000
5,4
125.000
8,7
191.000
16,1
354.000
30.800
2,6
57.000
5,1
112.000
8
176.000
14,7
323.000
1,2
26.400
2,2
48.000
4,5
99.000
6,8
149.000
12,5
275.000
1,0
22.000
2
44.000
3,8
83.000
6,1
134.000
11,1
244.000
60
1,8
39.000
3,5
77.000
5,5
121.000
10
220.000
80
1,5
33.000
3
66.000
4,6
101.000
8,6
189.000
1 lt GPL = 0.5 Kg 3 1 lt GPL = 0.25 m
1 Kg GPL = 2 lt 1 Kg GPL = 0.5 m3
1 lt GPL = 2 Kg 1 lt GPL = 4 lt
Kcal
Kcal/Kg = ~ 11.000 Kcal/m3 = ~ 22.000 Kcal/lt = ~ 5.500
Example: Line pressure: 300 mm H2O. Tube length: 60 m Calories required: 220,000 Kcal/h The choice falls on a 2 ” iron or 54 x 1.5 copper tube
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stacks How they are classified • • • •
Forced draft Induced draft Balanced draft Draft with pressurized boiler
NATURAL
DRAFT STACKS
In the combustion process the fuel must be fed with a suitable quantity of air. In the old generators the air entered the combustion chamber drawn in by the vacuum created. In order to create this vacuum the combustion products leaving the boiler must exit into the atmosphere at a height higher than the boiler itself through a passage called a stack. In this way the static pressure in the combustion chamber is equal to the weight of the atmospheric column present at the mouth of the stack (p.s.a.) minus the weight of the column of hot gas contained in the stack (p.s.f) and therefore less than the one present at the boiler air inlet resulting only from the weight of cold air (p.s.a.). This difference in pressure defined as draft is the transfer of an external gaseous mass towards the boiler, to the combustion chamber and evacuation stack. This process is known as NATURAL DRAFT. Draft will increase in proportion to the height of the stack and the difference in temperature between the fumes and the air feed. Good efficiency of the system depends on: - high stacks with perfect insulation. - boiler combustion chamber perfectly sealed without infiltration from outside. - high temperature of gases expelled from the stack. The use of re-generators and heat exchangers lowers the final temperature of hot gases, increases the loss of air load and makes the natural draft effect difficult if not impossible.
G8
FORCED
DRAFT STACKS
The use of a fan which pushes the air and combustion gases forward is forced draft. Forced draft This is achieved by installing a ventilator at the bottom of the stack which extracts the fumes from the boiler and forces them up the stack. The ventilator must have particular characteristics as the impeller must support high temperatures and resist corrosion due to acid
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components which form according to the type of fuel (sulfur dioxide). A shut-off placed at the bottom of the stack and in the ventilator intake helps to regulate roughly the delivery of gas. The efficiency of this system is hindered if the combustion chamber is not perfectly sealed towards the external.
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In order to achieve a good combustion process the boiler makers adjust the fan head so as to create a slight vacuum in the combustion chamber (5 – 10 mm H2o) that is the suction fan has a higher head than the pusher fan.
Induced draft This is achieved by installing a fan externally to the stack which aspirates a part of the fumes expelled by the boiler and then forces them up the stack itself using an accelerator which could be an injector. The part of the fumes blown into the stack by the fan forces the remaining column of hot gasses towards the exit of the stack at high speed while at the same time a vacuum is created in the section aspired by the fan thus creating a forced draft in the combustion chamber. The efficiency of this system is impaired if the combustion chamber is not perfectly sealed towards the external.
Pressurized boiler draft It can be said that in recent years the introduction of pressurized combustion boilers has eliminated the majority of boilers using the systems described above. In fact in order to eliminate all the drawbacks caused by a very precarious draft a pressurized combustion boiler was designed which incorporates the pusher fan which imparts the necessary head or pressure on the fuel air aspirated from outside in order to overcome all the load losses of the air-fumes-stack circuit. Advantages: Limited size of boiler, less absorbed electric power, lower running and maintenance costs.
Balanced or compensated draft This is achieved by using two fans; one which forces the fuel air in the boiler, the other which aspirates the combustion products and forces them up the stack. G
The fan which emits the fuel air into the boiler is called the pusher fan whereas the one that forces the combustion products is the suction fan.
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CHOOSING
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THE SIZE OF THE STACK
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THE SIZE OF STACKS FOR SOLID AND
LIQUID FUELS
Stack draft
(antismog law dated 13 July 1966)
This is the possibility the fumes stack has of eliminating all the combustion products of a boiler without forming counter pressures. Remember the stacks must be:
Boilers under vacuum with natural draft stack
• completely airtight with smooth internal surfaces. • appropriately insulated to avoid fumes cooling too much. • the connection between the boiler and the stack must be as short as possible, avoiding bends and long horizontal sections. T= h=
draft of the stack in mm column of water working height of stack (net of bends and sub horizontal sections) s.a.w. = specific air weight s.f.w. = specific fumes weight corresponds to the average temperature taken inside the stack.
T = h x (p.s.a - p.s.f.) Specific weight of air s.a.w. Air temperature °C
-5
0
5
p.s.a. (Kg/m3) 1,317 1,293 1,27
Specific weight of fumes Exhaust gas temperature °C
160
p.s.f. (Kg/m3) 0,848
180
200
(at a pressure of 760 mmHg)
10
15
20
25
Net surface of fumes stack (cm2) Calories burned by boiler S= Q Coefficient: for solid fuel = 0.03 h for liquid fuel H = Working height of stack. (not to be confused with height of construction H of stack). - The resulting sections must be increased by: 50% where lignite is used 25% where long - flaming steam coal is used 10% for every 500 m above sea level.
- The use of prefabricated elements with commercial cross sections higher than 30% or lower by as much as 10% of the value resulting from the calculation formula can be adopted. - The minimum cross section must in no case be less than 220 cm2. - In the case of stacks with cross sections which are not circular, the ratio between the sides must not be higher than 1.5. - Triangular shaped cross sections are not admitted.
1,247 1,226 1,205 1,185 1,165
(at a pressure of 760 mmHg)
220
240
260
280
300
0,81 0,776 0,774 0,715 0,688 0,664 0,64
Example: external temperature: 5°C; fumes temperature: 180 °C; working height of stack: 10 m
T = 10 x (1.27 – 0.81) = 10 x 0.46 = 4.6 mm
G10
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S= Q= K=
The workable height h of the stack is calculated from the height of the construction H less: 0.5 m for each change of direction (C) 1 m for each meter in length of the sub horizontal conduit (L) 1 m for each millimeter of load loss of the boiler (p) As a rule it can be accepted that the load losses on the fumes side for boilers under vacuum are: 2 mm for boilers up to 160,000 Kcal/h 3 mm for boilers up to 320,000 Kcal/h 4 mm for higher capacity boilers
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Heght h of stack calculation: h = H – (c x 0.5 + L + P)
The cross section of the stacks is:
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S = 0.008 x Q 9
Example: for the same boiler as before with the same system we will have: h = 15 - (2x0,5+2)
300,000 Kcal boiler (p= 3 mm) Height of construction H = 15 m N° 2 curves (c) Horizontal section: 2 m (L) Fuel: Diesel K = 0.024
h = 12 m
S = 0,008 x 300.000 = 693 cm3 (market size 12 30x25 cm)
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Example:
h = 15 - (1+2)
LIQUID
FUEL
TABLE FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO BOILERS UNDER ASPIRATIONS Chimney high calculated in m Section
Boiler burn capacity
h h h h
= H – (c x 0.5 + L + p) = 15 – (2 x 0.5 + 2 + 3) = 15 – (1 + 2 + 3 ) h = 15 – 6 =9m S=K x Q h S = 0.024 x 300,000 = 2400 cm2 9 That is a stack is needed with a net cross section of : 49x49 cm The market measurement closest to this is: 50 x 50 cm This example reaffirms the difference between height of construction H (15) and calculated usable height h (9 m), still a source of misunderstanding in the choice of stacks. Pressurized fuel boilers Pressurizing of the burner removes the problem of load loss on the boiler fumes side (p) therefore height h in calculating the stack is: h = H – (c x 0.5 + L) The K coefficient drops to: 0.008
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LIQUID
FUEL
TABLE FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO PRESSURIZED BOILERS Chimney high calculated in m Section
Example: Pressurized boiler. Calories burned: 325,000/h Stack calculated h height : 7 m The result is a stack with internal dimensions 30 x 40 cm
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Boiler burn capacity
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GASEOUS TABLE
Up to:
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FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO PRESSURIZED BOILERS
10m< H <20m
H> 20 m
THERMAL CAPACITY Kcal/h
30.000 40.000 50.000 70.000 100.000 140.000 176.000 228.000 283.000 358.000 435.000 512.000 607.000 704.000 808.000 920.000 1.039.000 1.164.000 1.297.000 1.437.000
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FUELS
CHIMNEY HIGH CALCULATED H < 10 m
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Up to:
30.000 40.000 60.000 105.000 155.000 200.000 245.000 320.000 407.000 503.000 708.000 724.000 849.000 985.000 1.131.000 1.287.000 1.453.000 1.628.000 1.814.000 2.010.000
Cylindrical section Internal diameter cm
Internal section cm 2
Rectangular or square sections Internal section cm 2
Up to:
40.000 60.000 80.000 125.000 180.000 239.000 308.000 402.000 509.000 628.000 760.000 904.000 1.062.000 1.231.000 1.413.000 1.608.000 1.816.000 2.035.000 2.268.000 3.013.000
For higher consumption a circular cross section must be used: -3.5 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H < 10 m -2.5 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H compreso fra 10 e 20 m -2 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H >20 m
11 13 14 17 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
95 123 154 226 314 452 616 804 1.018 1.257 1.520 1.809 2.124 2.463 2.827 3.217 3.632 4.071 4.536 5.026
105 135 169 249 345 497 678 884 1.120 1.383 1.672 1.990 2.336 2.709 3.109 3.539 3.995 4.478 4.990 5.529
The cross section of a rectangular stack must be at least the same as the cross section of the corresponding cylindrical pipe increased by 10%.
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Rapid calculation of dimensions of manifolds
Ø pipe
DN
Ø external mm
Ø internal mm
Sez. area interna cmq
Rapid calculation of dimensions of manifolds
Boilers installed in parallel D (cm) =
Total surface of the outlet pipes +50% 0.785
Example: Input: Output:
N° 1 3” tube N° 1 1/2“ tube N° 1 2” tube N° 1 3” tube sum the sections of the output tubes
1 1/2” = 14.2 cm2 2”
= 22.8 cm2
3”
= 52.4 cm2 89.4 cm2
Increased by 50% Total
D (cm) =
44.7 134.1 cm2
134,1 = 13 cm (130 mm) 0.785
The diameter chosen is the same as or slightly greater than the one corresponding to the external dia. in the table. In our case a 5” dia. manifold is chosen with an external diameter of 139.7 mm.
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VR= check valve
Each boiler has to be provided with a steam outlet valve. When two or more boilers have to deliver steam to the same line, each of one has to be able to work independently from the others and concerning the delivery, and concerning the feeding. If the boiler’s rated pressure are different one to the other, than it is necessary to install safety valves trimmed at the lower pressure. For instance, if two boilers are tested at 10 one and at 12 the second, both safety valves have to be trimmed at 10 bar. It is also strongly suggested ,above all for boilers producing more than 1000 kg/h of steam, to install check valves on the outlet lines after the steam outlet valve.
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boiler room All boiler’s room have to be realised with:
b) All steam boilers with pressure below 6 bar
1. Doors operable from inside to outside
c) All steam boiler with a pressure between 6 and 10 bar having the pressure multiplied per the water volume < than 30.000
2. To be used only for the boiler’s management. This means that no one but the boiler’s responsible can enter the boiler room. One display panel indicating this rule has to be fitted on the outside boiler’s room wall. 3. All existing rooms above and under the boiler room cannot be lived permanently by people with the exception for : a) Boilers with pressure lower than 10 bar, if the water volume per M” of heated surface do not exceed 50
P = 6-10 bar PxV ≤ 30.000
4. A minimum high of 1.8 m have to be free over the highest part of the boiler 5. All sewing of the boiler have to be easily accessible
P ≤ 10ate
Water volume = < 50 litres m2 surface
6. Steam accumulators have to be installed (if possible) outside the boiler room
www.garioninaval.com G15
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1) Minimum boiler’s room dimensions have to be :
2) Minimum 1,8 mt from the boiler top side and the roof.
a Minimum 1,5 mt on the boiler’s front side, after the burner.
b) Minimum 0,6/0,8 mt. between the boiler and the wall or between boiler and boiler.
3) All boiler’s blow down have to be connected to the sewer.
c) Minimum 0,8 mt between the boiler’s back side ant the wall.
4) Safety valve discharge have to be conveyed outside and separately. 5) All chimneys have to be openable for inspection. 6) Fuel tanks bigger than 300 lt. Are not allowed inside the boiler room.
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control, calibration, protection, feed and safety equipments 1) Manometer 2) Safety valve 3) Level indicator 4) Calibration pressure switch 5) Stop pressure switch with manual reset 6) Level adjuster 7) Safety level adjustment with block 8) Feed equipment 9) Feed group 10) Discharge group
1) MANOMETER The manometer is an instrument for measuring and indicating the relative internal pressure of the boiler. Each boiler must be equipped with a manometer with Mpascal, Kgcm2 or bar graduated scale and the range must reach a pressure reading not less than 1and a quarter times but not higher than double the rated pressure or the calibration setting of the safety devices. In the case of manometers with unified scales according to TAB. UNI 4663, the range may be set based on the settings indicated in the table. The rated pressure on the manometers must be printed in red. a) The manometer should be equipped with a s i p h o n coil tube, where the steam, on coming into contact with the manometer sensor will condense.
Absolute pressure (kg/cm)
Pressure gauge scale (kg/cm)
b) A 3-way stop cock must be applied equipped with an appendix. c) With a flat disk dia. 40 mm and 4 mm thick. (control check) 2) SAFETY VALVE Le valvole di sicurezza si distinguono in 3 categorie: Safety valves fall into 3 categories: a) Qualified valves are those valves where the assigned value of the discharge coefficient K, has been controlled under test conditions before representatives of a body.
b) Qualified valves with tested lift up are those valves where the assigned value of the discharge coefficient K, has been controlled simply by checking the action of the stop plug.
c) Non qualified or ordinary valves are those which have not undergone testing and for which the value of the discharge coefficient has been set at 0.05 at random (very penalizing).
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Each steam boiler must be equipped with at least 2 safety disk valves, each of which is able and armed so as to discharge the steam when the maximum working pressure has been reached.
DE = inlet diameter DU = outlet diameter
USUAL
Pressure calibration of safety valves = rated boiler pressure. (Kg/cm2) Safety valves discharge capacity = maximum production of steam of the boiler at continual load (Kg/h) divided between the two valves. Example: Steam boiler.
DIMENSIONS OF SAFETY VALVES USED BY MANUFACTURERS
DE
DU
25 32 40 50 65 80 100
40 50 65 80 100 125 150
b) The discharge tube must be realised so as to avoid the formation of condensation. We strongly advise against using the discharge outlet placed in the valve body as a discharge for condensation
rated pressure: 12Kg/cm2. steam capacity: 4,000 Kg/h
Two safety valves having the following characteristics should be chosen: - calibration pressure = 12 Kg/cm2 - discharge capacity ≥ 2,000 Kg/h
To secure strongly at the wall the discharging pipes of the safety valves
Safety valves discharge tube installed on steam boilers bigger than 1000 Kg/h have to be piped outdoor. Recommendations for realising discharge pipes: a) We recommend installing the discharge tube with a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the exit flange of the safety valve.
The shorter possible
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c) The discharge tube must be well anchored and supported so that the forces created by the sudden and violent discharge of steam do not unload on the safety valve. d) If several safety valves are connected to one discharge tube this must have an internal cross section equal to the sum of the exit cross sections of the valves. Example: 2
Total cross-section of the 2 valves 22.8 + 22.8 = 45.6 cm .
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Example: steam boiler. Find the dimensions of the safety valve at the capacity of 3000 Kg/h with a discharge pressure of 12 ate. Q = 3000 Kg/h K1 = 0.66 C = 0.639 P1 = 14.21 Kg/cm3 V1 = 0.141 m3/Kg
2
A 3” tube with an internal cross section of 52.4 cm should be used.
A=
3000 = 6,9 cmq 0,9 x 0,66 x 113,8 x 0,639 x 14,21 0,141
The choice falls on a safety valve with a passage cross-section equal to or slightly greater than the value found. In the manufacturer’s catalogue there could be a valve with useful area of 8 cm2, with 32 mm dia. passage and DN40 input flanged connections x DN65 output. Safety valves calculation of deliver y of saturated water vapour (D.M. 21.05.74)
Q = A x 0,9 x K1 x 113,8 x C x
A=
Q 0,9 x K1 x 113,8 x C x
P1 V1
P1 V1
3) LEVEL INDICATOR Each boiler must have not less than 2 water level indicator devices, one of which must be made of glass. The other indicator may be made up of 2 test valves. The visible height of the indicator level must nit be less than 150 mm, of which not more than 40 mm must be below the minimum level of the boiler. There must always be a plate bearing the wording “MINIMUM LEVEL”
Q = valve discharge capacity (Kg/h) A = passage area (cm2) 0.9 = reduction coefficient K1 = discharge coefficient 113.8 = numeric constant C = expansion coefficient P1 = discharge pressure + 10% +1,013 (Kg/cm2) V1 = steam specific volume at P1 (m2/kg) 4) CALIBRATION PRESSURE SWITCH In the case of ordinary type safety valves 0.9 a K1 = 0.05 is assumed In the case of qualified type valves the value used for the discharge coefficient is the one calculated during the qualification tests by ISPESL which usually varies, depending on the type of valve, from 0.2 to 0.9 (K1).
Equipment needed to check the boiler pressure and keep it within the set maximum and minimum pressure limits. This role is achieved using pressure switches equipped with differentiated calibration of operating levels.
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R = adjustment knob pressure value D = adjustment knob differential value
Example: boiler with rated pressure of 12 bar operating pressure: 9 bar control level of pressure switch : 9 bar differentiated level set: 1 bar less This means that when the pressure reaches 9 bar the pressure switch will switch off the burner and will switch it on again when the pressure drops to 8 bar (9-1). As a rule for fuel oil and diesel where certain capacities are exceeded(over 300,000 cal/h) the burner is equipped with 2 nozzles (2 phases) where each one guarantees half of the fuel delivery. In this case there will be two pressure switches, set at different pressures and each one connected to one phase of the burner.
This pressure switch operates by opening the boiler power electric circuit. A device holds the electric contact permanently blocked in the open position. The electric power circuit can only be reset manually by the operator once the cause for the breakdown has been removed.
Pressare 12bar
6) LEVEL ADJUSTER (LEVEL GAUGE) Automatic equipment for maintaining the water level in the boiler within a set range. The regulator controls the start of the feed pump when the level in the boiler reaches the set minimum and stops it when the maximum level set has been reached. Float regulating system. Sensor made up of a float which moves with the level of the water in the boiler. The float is connected to a rod movement which moves mercury filled spheres which open or close the electric contacts. 7) SAFETY LEVEL REGULATOR WITH STOP
PSH= on-off regulation pressure switch
Level regulator with electrodes. Equipment which takes advantage of the electric conductivity of water, made up of three electrodes or sensors. When sensors 1 and 2 are out of the water the feed pump is actuated thus covering first sensor 2 and then sensor 1. At this point the pump stops. If for some reason the level drops below sensor 3 the burner is automatically switched off. In the electric sequence apparatus the stop control is actuated which will not allow the burner to start unless it is reset manually after the cause has been removed.
PSL= first step regulation pressure switch PSH= second step regulation pressure switch Control panel
5) STOP PRESSURE SWITCH WITH MANUAL RESET Equipment having a safety role which intervenes in the case of breakdown of control pressure switch. It is set at a higher pressure than the control pressure switch but lower than the rated pressure of the boiler.
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8) FEED WATER PUMP (1)
Every steam boiler needs one or two feed water pumps (depending from the regional law)
Feed water pump capacity
Maximum boiler’s steam production
Feed water pump capacity in % Fire tube steam boilers
Natural circulation water tube boilers
up to 1 T/h
200%
200%
Fire tube
more than 1 T/h up to 5 T/h
160%
130%
steam boilers
more than 5 T/h up to 50 T/h
125%
115%
more than 50 T/h up to 100 T/h
160%
105%
up to 1 T/h
100%
110%
more than 1 T/h
100%
100%
Natural circulation water tube boilers
Example Fire tube steam boiler. Rated pressure 8 bar . Maximum steam production 1000 Kg/h. Piping pressure drop 1,3 bar Pump head 0,5 bar Pump dimensioning: Head = ( 8+1,3+0,5) + 5% = 10,3 bar (103 m.) We may so assume that the head is within 1,25 and 1,3 the rated pressure, while the capacity have to be the 200 % of the steam production.
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9) FEED WATER GROUP It is composed from : pump, check valve and water valve
on-off valve check valve water pump
10) BLOW DOWN It is used to blow down totally or partially the boiler. It is composed by one special fast blow down valve and from a onoff valve
on-off valve fast blow down valve
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steam use PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC Pressure
Temperature
Specific volume
OF
SATURATED STEAM
Sensibile heat Kcal/kg
Latent heat Kcal/kg
Total heat Kcal/kg
Heating systems is using the latent heat, for example: Steam production 1000 kg/h 10ate Sensibile heat 186,8 KCAL/KG + Latent heat 478 KCAL/KG + Total heat 186,8 KCAL/KG +
Heat exchanger Given 478,0 KCAL/KG
Condensate capacity 1000 kg /h Sensible heat 186,8 KCAL/KG Total heat 186,8 KCAL/KG Condensate, when at atmospheric pressure ( 0 bar) will be at 100°C and will produce 86;8 Kcal/h as re-steaming
Usually, in the steam heating process, the most important is the latent heat Comparing the latent heat of the steam at 1 and at 10 bar we have: Latent heat at 1 bar 526 kcal/h Latent heat at 10 bar 478 kcal/h This means that 1 Kg of steam at 1 ate give 48 Kcal more than the one could give at 10 bar.
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Air heaters Utilised heat
R = efficiency of the utility =
Steam
Total given heat
Q= V x ∆t x Cs L
Considering two installations, one at 10 ate, and one at 1 ate, both with condensate discharged into atmosphere and not reused 478 = 72% 664
10 ate Steam R
=
1 ate steam R
526 = = 81% 646
It is clear theta efficiency at 1 ate is 9% higher than at 10 ate. If the same example is recovering and using all condensate at 100°C with a heat content of 100 kcal. 10 bar steam R = =
1 bar steam R
478 664-100 526 646-100
Condensate Q = steam capacity kg/h V = volume of air to be heated Nm_/h ∆t = temperature increase °C (t2 – t1) Cs = air specific heat (0,3 kcal/m_/°C L = steam latent heat kcal/kg
= 85%
Exemple: air heater with air capacity of 6000 Nmc/h, inlet temperature T1 15°C, outlet temperature T2 65°C. Steam available 5bar (498 kcal/kg)
= 81%
Q = 6000 x (65 – 15) x 0,3 = 180 kg/h 498
In this case the higher efficiency is the one of 10 ate of 11 %.
Heat exchangers
Steam
Practical examples Unit heater Steam
Condensate
Q=
W L
Condensate
Q = steam capacity kg/h W = required heat from the air heater L = used steam latent heat Exemple: air heater of the capacity of 25.000 kcal/h using 3 bar steam latent heat is 509kcal/kg
G24
If Kcal are already known we will have: Q=
W L
Q = steam capacity kg/h W = heat required by the heat exchanger kcal/h L = latent heat of the used steam Exemple: heat exchanger of the capacity of 150.000 kcal/h using steam at 2 bar (517/kcal/kg) Q = 150.000 = 290 kg/h of steam at 3 bar 517
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When the yield data or calories available, but the characteristics of delivery, temperature at input and in fluid plus its specific heat, are known following formula can be used:
Q=
required are not the fluid such as: output and kind of or can be had, the
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Calculation coil surface for rapid exchanger
Steam
Cs x F x ∆t L Condensate
Q = Steam consumed (Kg/h) Cs = Specific heat of the fluid too be heated (water = 1. Oil = 0.5) F = Delivery of fluid to be heated (Kg/h) ∆t = Increase in temperature of fluid to be heated. ( t 2 – t1) (°C) L = Latent heat of the steam used (cal/Kg)
S=
Q K x ∆tm
S = coil surface m2 Q = calories kcal/h K = transmission coefficient kcal/m2/°C ∆tm = Average logarithmic difference of temperature between the two fluids °C
Steam
Condensate Example: Water to be heated Cs = 1. Water delivery = 4,000 l/h. Temperature input water (t1) = 15°C Temperature water in output (t 2) = 60°C. ∆t = t 2 – t1 = 45°C Steam at a pressure of 4 bar is used whose latent heat is 503 cal/Kg. Q = 1 x 4000 x 45 = 357 kg/h 503 Example: Fuel oil Cs = 0.5. Oil delivery: 4,000 Kg/h. Temperature input oil = 45° (t1) Temperature oil in output 90°C (t 2). Dt = t 2 – t1 = 45°C Steam at a pressure of 4 bar is used whose latent heat is 503 cal/Kg. Q = 0,5 x 4000 x 45 = 178 kg/h 503
VALUES OF K - Coil’s transmission coefficient From
Through
To
K
Steam
Steel Cooper
Water
900 1200
∆tm = A trustworthy rough calculation (without having to consult the log. Tables) and with steam up to 6 ate is: t1 – t3 = t5 t2 – t4 = t6 t5 + t6 ∆tm = 2 Example: Calories required: 100,000 cal/h, copper coil, modular adjustment steam available: 3 ate t1 = 143°C. Condense temperature t 2 = 100°C Steam vaporisation heat: 3 ate = 510 Kcal/Kg Water temperature t3 = 60°C Water temperature t4 = 70°C ∆tm = S=
(143 – 70) + (100 –80) = 46,5°C 2 100.000 = 1,79m2 1200 x 46,5
If the coil is manufactured in a copper pipe Ø 16x1 which surface is of 0,05 m_/m linear, we will need (formula Metri = Metres) Metres =
1,79 = 35,8 m 0,05
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Surface treatment tanks Temperature of the surrounding environment °C - 15°C 0°C 10°C 20°C 40°C
Steam
Condensate
Water mark superficial temperature 40°C
60°C
80°C
100°C
590 408 294 189 /
851 654 527 408 189
1169 944 794 654 408
1529 1280 1107 944 654
For horizontal even surfaces dispersing towards the top, multiply per 1,3. For horizontal surfaces dispersing towards the bottom, multiply per 0,65. If the surfaces are insulated, the table’s data must be reduced of 25%.
Heat loss from walls (Q2) Usually the tank heat requirement is calculated then the choice of size of coil is made. Calculation of heat requirement with initial heating starting from cold. The heat required is given taking into consideration the following items:
Example: Hot water contained in the tank = 60°C Environment temperature Ta = 10°C Loss of calories = 527 kcal/m2
2) Compensation for heat loss from walls to the environment Q2
Vertical wall surfaces in contact with water: 2 (3 x 1,7) + 2 (2 x 1,7) = 17 m2 x 527 = 8.959 kcal/h Bottom surface: 2 x 3 = 6 m2 x 527 x 0,65 = 2.055 kcal/h
3) Compensation for heat loss from surface of the liquid to the environment. Q3
Q2 = 11.014 kcal/h
1) Heat needed to raise the temperature of the liquid from the starting temperature to working temp. Q1
4) Heat absorption of treated materials immersed in the tank. Q4
Raising of temperature of the liquid Q1 Q1=
Inserire immagine vedi Ita
Cs x P x ∆t H
P = Weight of liquid (Kg or l) Cs = Specific heat of liquid (for water = 1) Q1 = P x Cs x Dt ∆t = Thermal head of liquid between starting and final temperature (°C) H = Pre-heating time (usually 3 – 4 hours)
Example: 10,200 l water t1 = 10°C t2 = 60°C Dt = 50°C Preheating time = 3 hours
Loss of heat from liquid surface (Q2) WATER SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN °C
r ai
d ee sp
/s 1m V=
V=
/s 2m
/s 3m V=
MO
Q1 =
G26
1 x 10200 x 10 3
170.000 kcal/h
VIN
G
/s 4m V=
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Example: With a surface temperature of the uncovered water surface of 60°C and the surrounding air still we have a loss of 3,000 cal/h/m2. With the same surface temperature but with the air moving at 4 m/sec (aspiration hood) the loss rises to 7500 cal/h/m2. The tank evaporating surface is 6 m_ (3 x 2); with an overhanging exhauster hood we will have a dispersion of 6 m_ x 7.500 = 45.000 Kcal/h Therefore
It is usually accepted that the final temperature of the material reaches the temperature of the liquid it is immersed in. Q4 = P x Cs x ∆t P = Weight of material (Kg) Cs = Specific heat of material (kcal/kg/°C) ∆t = Increase in temperature of the material to be heated (°C)
FROM
BY
Q4 = 200 x 0,12 x 50 = 1.200 kcal/h Calculation of the surface of the heating coil Q5 Once the maximum heat required has been set, which in our case is: Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = Q5 The coil surface can be calculated using the following formula: Q5 S= K ( Ts – TL) Q5 = Total calories needed (cal/h)
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K
Lead
250
Stainless inox
580
Steam
Cast iron
Water
780
Iron
900
Copper
1000
Making reference to the above examples we will have: Q5 = 170.000 + 11.014 + 45.000 + 1.200 = 227.214 kcal/h Considering: average water temperature 60°C steam temperature at 4 ate = 152°C steel coil K = 900 S=
Example: Block of steel weighing 200 Kg, the specific heat of which is 0.12, to be raised to 10°C. Dt = 50°C
a
PRACTICAL VALUES OF THE K TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT BETWEEN FLUIDS THROUGH METALS (not countercurrent)
Q3 = 6 x 7500 = 45.000 kcal/h
Heat absorbed by the material treated (Q3)
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2,7m2
Using a steel pipe Ø 1”1/4, with a linear external surface of 0,152m_/m, we have to use 2,7/0,152 = 18 linear meters to create the coil. With steam at 4 ate which its latent heat is 503 kcal/kg, in order to satisfy these needs, the consumption will be as follow:
Q=
227.214 503
452 kg/h
This value refers to a pressure start-up which preheating is 3 hours, the maintenance will reduce about 1/4 of maximum value.
K = Overall heat transmission coefficient between steam – tube wall – heating liquid. (cal/h/m2/°C) Ts = Average temperature of heating surfaces (°C) TL = Average temperature of heating liquid (°C) S = Coil exchange surface (M2)
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ST
EA
M
SP
E
se
c
PIPE DIAMETER
m
/
in mm
STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM
ED
RELATIVE STEAM PRESSURE in Kg/cm 2
/h Kg
M EA ST
TY CI PA A C STEAM TEMPERATURE IN °C
Example: Steam pressure 3,5 bar. Capacity 1000 kg/h Fixed velocity 25 m/s Diameter pipe : 80 mm
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ST E
AM
CA
PA
CIT
Y K g/h
INT ERN AL
PIPE DIA ME TER
in m
m
LOSS OF HEAD IN KG/CM PER 100 METERS
STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM
Example: Steam pressure 3,5 bar. Capacity 1000 kg/h Diameter pipe : 80 mm Pressure drop: 0,3 bar on length: 100 m
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Steam capacity in Kg/h
Steam delivery through holes or nozzles
Example: Steam pipes with 11 bar pressare and hole or nozzle of 5 mm diameter. Steam capacity for each hole (nozzle) = 80 Kg/h.
FOR
12,5 Oø
m
Steam pressure in bar (Kg/cm 2)
STEAM DELIVERY THROUGH HOLES OR NOZZLES (capacity in kg/h)
Example: DN 50 (2”) tube. At a pressure of 4 bar, with speed of 25 min/sec, delivery will be 450 Kg/h
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breakdowns, steam leaks boiler bursts Reference is made to the classical event of a boiler bursting due to excess pressure, breakdowns, defects in construction or errors in running (e.g. lack of water) which have caused the formation of areas with less resistance resulting in the sheet metal bursting and the instant release of enormous quantities of potential energy contained in the boiler. With saturated steam each pressure corresponds to a certain temperature of the water. In an open container water usually boils at 100 °C whereas in a closed container (boiler) it boils at the temperature which corresponds to the pressure reached. At 1 atmosphere water boils at 120°C At 5 atmospheres water boils at 158 °C At 10 atmospheres water boils at 183°C In a boiler which produces steam at 10 ate there is a mass of water at a temperature of 183°C.
If for the above reasons a large hole forms in the boiler, the pressure would drop instantly from 10 ate to atmospheric pressure. At the same time the temperature of the water would drop from 183°C to 100°C, the boiling temperature of water at atmospheric pressure. In this way 183 –100 = 83 calories for each kilogram of water held in the boiler would be released; these calories would cause part of the water itself to evaporate. As in order to evaporate one Kg of water at 100°C, 539 calories (639-100) are needed, with 83 calories 0.154 kilograms (83:539) will evaporate, that is to say about 150 Kg of steam for each m3 of water contained in the boiler will be produced. As a kilogram of steam at atmospheric pressure occupies the volume of about 1725 litres, each litre of water (equal to 1 Kg) which evaporates from the boiler on the boiler bursting immediately tends to occupy the volume of 1725 litres.
GARIONI NAVAL srl V.le dei Caduti 3 - 25030 CASTELMELLA (Bs) - Italy phone +39 030 2681541 - fax +39 030 2680910 G A R I O N I N AVA L @ G A R I O N I N AVA L . c o m w w w. g a r i o n i n a v a l . c o m G
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SPEED m/s
steam
compressed air
thermal oil
water
CAPACITIES mc/h NAME FAMILY
I wish to receive the next issue of GARIONI NAVAL “TECHNICAL BOOK”
NAME
COMPANY ADDRESS TELEPHONE
FAX
Signature
E-MAIL Consent to the processing of personal data. In pursuance of art. 11, 20, 22, 24, and 28 of italian law no. 675 of 31 December 1996. I consent to the processing of my personal data by GARIONI NAVAL S.r.l. for the forwarding of information. I am also aware that, as per art. 13 of law 675/96, I can at any time access my personal data, request their modofication or cancellation.
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AA VV AL AL
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index GAS BURNERS
“
4
NATURAL GAS PIPES COPPER TUBES PRESSURE DROPS CALCULATION LIQUID PROPANE GAS TUBES LPG PIPE’S DIMENSIONING
“ “ “ “ “
5 6 6 7 7
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ “
8 8 8 8 10 10 11/13 14
FOR BIG NATURAL
GAS PIPELINE
STACKS HOW THEY ARE CLASSIFIED NATURAL DRAFT STACKS FORCED DRAFT STACKS CHOOSING THE SIZE OF THE STACK CHOOSING THE SIZE OF THE STACK LIQUID FUEL - TABLES BOILERS INSTALLED IN PARALLEL
FOR SOLID AND LIQUID
FUELS
BOILER ROOM CONTROL,CALIBRATION, PROTECTION, FEED AND SAFETY EQUIPMENTS
“
15
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “
17 17 17 19 19 20 20 20 21 22 22
PHISICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED STEAM PRATICAL EXAMPLES STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM STEAM DELIVERY THROUGH HOLES OR NOZZLES
“ “ “ “ “
23 23 24/27 28/29 30
BREAKDOWNS – STEAM LEAKS
“
31
MANOMETER SAFEETY VALVE LEVEL INDICATOR CALIBRATION PRESSURE SWITCH STOP PRESSURE SWITCH WITH MANUAL RESET LEVEL ADJUSTER (LEVEL GAUGE) SAFETY LEVEL REGULATOR WITH STOP FEED WATER PUMP FEED WATER GROUP BLOW DOWN
STEAM USE
