Transcript
HANDWORK IN
WOOD Sy WILLIAM NOYES, M.A. Assistant Professor. Department of Industrial Arts
Teachers College, Columbia University
NEW YORK
CITY
The Manual Arts Press Peoria, Illinois
aO
i"^'
COPYRIGHT
WILLIAM NOYES 1910
g^CI,A•i?3:^i4
Oo
ntY students
past present an6 future
a token of gratitude for belp
anb inspiration
:
FOREWORD This book
is intt'iided
and amateur, who
sional
woodworlc, but
jJriniarily for teacliers of
tlie
hopes that there will also be other workers in wood, profes-
aiitlior
The
will {ind in
tiring assistance of uiy wife,
almost
it
matter of interest and
successful completion of the book
is
profit.
due chiefly to the un-
Anna Gausmann Noyes,
has
avIio
made
of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof,
all
and
attended to numberless details.
Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and made l)y the following persons Mr. Chas. W. Weick of Teachers College, and Mr. W. F. Vroom Public School Xo. .5, of Xew York City, for revision of Chapters
suggestions in the text
of
IV and \
on tools and fastenings.
Mr. Clinton
VanDeusen X on wood
S.
revision of Chapter
The 1.
2,
3,
finishing.
Forest Service, Washingtou, D. C. for the originals of Figs. 5,
8,
7,
1),
and
28, 29, 31, 33,
The Xew York
1(1,
n,
17.
18,
State Forest Fish and
T. H. McAllister of
and
New York
Detroit Publishing B. F.
13,
21,
22,
23,
24,
26,
27,
54.
originals of Figs. 12, 14, 15,
The The
of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, for
Game Commission
for the
47. for the originals of Figs.
Company
Sturtevant Company,
1(3
for the original of Fig.
Hyde Park.
and 20. 6.
^lass., for the orig-
inal of Fig. 57.
Doubleday, Page
&
Co. for the original of Fig.
3(».
Mr. Louis A. Bacon, Indianapolis, Ind., for the claui])ing device
shown
in Fig 255.
Sargent
& Company, Xew Haven,
pany, Chicago,
ill.,
Conn., W. C. Toles & ComThe Berlin Machine Works, Beloit, Wis., A. A.
Loetscher, Dubuque, Iowa, and the Stanley Eule and Level Co.,
Xew
Britain, Conn., for electrotypes. Allis
Chalmers Company, Milwaukee, Wis., Clark Brothers, Bel-
mont, X. Y., The M. Garland Company. Bay City, Mich., The Pres-
cott
ComiiaiiT,
Menominee, Mich., for
illustrations
of
sawmilling
machinery.
And most
of
all, I
merous writers of
wish
to
acknowledge
whose books and
my
articles I
obligation to the nu-
have made free use, to
which references are made in the appropriate places.
CONTENTS. PAGE
CHAPTER
I
11
General Bibliography
4
Logging
? 30'
Sawmilling
III
The Seasoning and Measnring
IV
Wood Hand
V Wood VI VII A^III
IX
Types
of
Index
Shop
Strnctnres
Principles of Joinery
X Wood
of the
Joints
Wooden
Finishing
....
45.
123
Fastenings
Common
Wood
51
Tools
Eqnipment and Care Tlie
of
136 151
183 203
209
224
GENERAL BIBLIOGRArHY Adams. Heiuv. Joints in \Vn<>(I-^Vurh. London: GO Queen Victoria St. 1894. '06. Alexander. Jerome. 77/r (Inidiiifi and I'sv of Glue. Wood Craft, 5: 1G8, Sep. Bailey. Charles H.. .1 »s7»(/v of Manual Training Equipments. Manual Traindan. "05. in;/ Magazine. ():82. Barnard. Charles, Tools and Maehincs. N. V.: Silver, Burdett and Co. 1003. London: Whittaker and Co. 18!t2. Barter. S. M.. Woodn:ork. Benson. \\'. A. S., Elements of Handicraft and Design. London: Macmillan
and Co. lirannt.
18'J3.
W.
& Co.
i'ai)iler,
T..
H. C. Baird
Philadelphia:
and Varnisher.
(lilder
18!t3.
JSrunekeii. Ernest
nam's Sons. Clark. R. L.
Xorth Ameriean Forests and Forestry X. Y.
:
G. P. Put-
ISiMl.
Varnish and Fossil
h',
mains.
London:
('has. Letts
&
No
Co.
date.
Compton, A. G.. First Lessons IHSS. Taylor and Co. Crawshaw. Fred D.. I'rotilenis ual Arts Press.
Frederick.
X. Y.:
Furniture Making.
Blakeman.
Ivison,
Peoria.
The
111.:
;\lan-
Handbook for Lumbermen. Hardwood Lumber.
Kiln-drying
Philadelphia, Pa.
Wood
Craft.
0:
133,
486
pp.,
"07.
Fel..
Ellis.
in
W ood n'orki ng.
l!l()(i.
Disston. Henry, and Sons. Dunlaj).
in
George. Mod
on
Fred T.
dustrial
77/(
I
ii-lo-dS01.
April
2, H)4.
LOGGING. ers
and
clerks.
Here the books and accounts
are kept,
and here
is
supply the immediate
stocked with such goods as will
the "van/"
needs of the lumber jacks.
Fig-- 3.
Itasco County, Minnesota
Winter 'Loirgimr Camp.
Before Avinter sets in the main road carefully graded
from the camp down
down which
siding, or oftener to the stream
This road has to he as wide as carefully chosen,
labor
spent upon
is
it,
is
made
with corduroy, building bridges strong enough
and otherwise making
loads,
needed road
of
as
main
route
is
Much
rocks, leveling
up
carry enormous
to
passable as can
be;
of first importance.
is
from and much superior
inteivals alongside the
are cleared
it
good condition
quite distinct
is
At loays
later, its
The
25 feet.
as easy as possible.
away stumps and
clearing
railway
the logs are to be floated.
a city street,
and the grade
15, p. 1^, very
built, Fig.
is
to the nearest mill or
for
when
This main
to the tote road.
road, small squares called sJiid-
brush and in each of them two tree trunks,
On these the logs, when Back from the skidways into the woods the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called dray roads or travoy roads,- mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of "skids," are laid at right angles to the road.
cut later, are to be piled.
—
horses to pull a log thru. All these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. tools
commonly used
in logging are
shown
in Fig.
4.
When
The every-
ready for felling, the "fitter' goes ahead marling each tree
thing
is
to be
felled
and the direction
notch on that side.
Then come
in
which
it
is
to
fall
by cutting
the sawyers in pairs. Fig.
5.
a
First
HAXDWOKK
10
IX
A\
OOD.
w
Q
fl
BILL
HOOr\
QAPHT MOOh,
WCOQE
CROSb-COT
Fijr.
tlicy J'all.
clioi) a
and
(Ico))
easil\'.
on
Tools used
o]i|)o>itc
crosscnt-saw.
Tln'
handles so allixcd
to
The
cut
made on
is
can he \rv\ nai'iow.
in
side of
tlic
from the
tlicn
'riittlc-tootli.
steel, witli
n'Msli
-••
weigid of
its
fall.
tlie
'I'heii
the saw
fi'om is
tlie
saw cacli
tii-e
Ix'.u'iii
is
toward cuttino'
long,
a
as
the saw kei'f
is
well
it
is
wiili
a
long,
Hcxihlf
i-il)l)oii
hence the
it,
judleil
hack and
forth,
and
t(t
the
keid'
ti'Uid<.
])artly to
hinding the saw, and partly
of
icnioxcd
lie
within the
hehind
to
wliicli
end that they can
the pnlling stioke. and
As soon
trunk'
hogifing.
:^id('
the sawyers drive iron wedges into the tlie
CROWBAR.
SAW
keep direct
wedges
LOGGING.
11
driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. Just as the tree is
ready to go over, the saw han-
dle at one end
unhooked and
is
saw pulled out at the other "Timber I,"" the men cry out as a warning to any working near by, for the tree has begun the
side.
lean
to
Then with
slightly.
a
hastening rush the top whistles thru the
air,
and
branches of other
tears thru the trees,
and the
trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground.
ened
can
loggers
from shouting,
so
Even hardhardly
keep
impressive
is
the sight of a falling giant tree.
All this seems simple enough in outline, but the actual execu-
tion
requires
considerable
skill.
Felling Red Spruce with a Saw. Adirondack Mountains, New York.
Fig-. 5.
Trees seldom stand quite vertical, there is
is
danger of lodging in some other tiee in thick woods, and
therefore necessaiT to throw trees quite exactly.
so expert at this that they can plant a stake
Fig-. 6.
Sawing Logs
into Lengths.
it
Some men become
and drive
it
into the
llAXDWOKK IX WOOD.
12
ground by the falling trunk
On
it
with a maul.
happen in
falling trees.
as truly as if they hit
the other hand, serious accidents often
them
]\Iost
of
fjom
"side
of
falling
the
e.,
i.
come
winders,"
smaller trees struck by (he felled trees.
After tree,
into
log
Fig.
lengths.
paying due attention
to
the
;i\iii(ling
of
necessity
knots,
and
rotten
that
some
forks,
places, of
the
are eighteen feet,
7. Trimming' off Branches of Spruce Adirondack Mountains, New Yoriv.
a
mark
and saw the trunk
olT
6.
"falling"
the sawyers
so
logs
some
Fig.
sixteen feet,
teen feet, and
Meanwhile the
twelve feet in lengi:h. Fig.
7,
some some only
swam]>ei's trim otf the liranches,
a job requiring no little skill, in ordei' that the trunk
sliaved close ])ut not gashed.
llaulinfT
I'Mtr- ^-
four-
Spruce Logrs
Adirotidack Mountains,
to llu- Ski '•on
the
di'ive"
day, a good part of the time up to
Their boots are shod with "caulks." or
LOGGING.
Fi?.l5.
Fig-. 16.
I'he
Sleigh Haul.
Sacking the Rear.
17
UAXDWORK
- 18
IX AVOOD.
them fiom slipping on the logs, and they carry either The latter are similar to cant-hooks,
spikes, to keep
pike poles or peaveys, Fig. 17.
that except the y have sharp pikes at
So
their ends.
armed,
they
have to "ride
any kind of a log
any
in
water, to propel
a
hy
log
jumping on ,1
hy
with
hog Driving on
noe; to he skilful
in
the Ausable River.
of hardship
18.
one
a
ca-
Altho the logs are carried
craft."'
and courage
is
skill
and bravery.
reached when a "jam''
Sometimes one or two logs are caught
a
wav
to
accumulate behind them,
as to
as
pushing, pryiiig, and poling other logs from the
quarter deck of the same cranky
formed. Fig.
it
would
ing
by the river, they have to be "driven'' with amazing
The climax
the
punt-
feet, l)y Fig-. 17.
it
fash-
s{|iiiricl
ion
it.
rolling
he locked
or
jammed ami then soon till
the wliole river
in
is
such
other logs begin
is full
of a seemingly
Sometimes these jams can be loosened by beingA hundred men can pull out an pulled apart, one log at a time. amazing nmnher of logs in a day. The problem always is to set free Following or eut out certain "key'' logs, which lock the whole mass. inextricable mass.
is
a
a description
jam
l)y
Stewart Edward White of the breaking of such
:
The Clew were workinu lo<4'S
were crossed in such
Down
(Icspcrately. a
manner as
to
on
locl<
tlic
the
heap sonu-wiiero. twoThey son^ht
wliole.
those logs.
Thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys into
the
soft pine:
jerking,
pulling,
lifting,
sliding
the great
logs
from
Thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men coolly ])ickcd out and set adrift one by one. the timbers not inextricably From time 1o time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even indiedded.
their ])laces.
LOGGING. moved
a foot or
two
;
19
but always the practised rivermen, after a glance, "
bent more eagerly to their work.
*
"
Suddenly the six men below the
jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to
Fig-. 18.
Log- Jam.
Adirondack Mountain*,
bodies,
they
shore. * * *
New York.
In the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. " The crew redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. A sharp crack exploded immediately underneath. There could no longer exist any doubt as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. Then in silence a log shifted in silence and slowly but with irresistible force * * * other ""
—
logs
in
all
first slowly,
—
directions up-ended.
Then all became alive.
""
at once
It hissed
*
•»
down by the
*
face something crashed, the entire stream
and roared,
it
shrieked, groaned,
and grumbled.
then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted
At in-
ward and forward and downward; until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and shot out from under the jam. Far up-stream, bristling and formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * *
Then
in a
manner wonderful
spray, thrvi the crash and yell
to behold, thru the smother of
of timbers,
foam and
protesting the flood's hurrying,
thru the leap of destructioii, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore.
Sometimes cables have cial
rigging devised to
more
especially to save
let
to be stretched across the
the
men
do"\ra to their
chasm, and spe-
dangerous task and
them from danger when the crash comes.
HANDWORK
20
Fi-
Lolt-
together one hundred
requires
special
appliances.
the improved methods were in forms of transpor-
tation, the felling still being
25, l)ut
23
done by hand with very long saws, Fig.
the felling and sawing of logs in the forest
machinerv.
Fig.
2i).
Hauling
Big^
hogs by Donkey Enyme.
is
partly
HAXDWOUK
24
IX
WOOD.
To work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine mounted upon a truck whicli can be talcen readily from place to As the maximum power recjuired is not over ten-horse-power, place. the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. The saw can he adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence is
used for sawing into lengths as well as tor felling. Since the weight of
FiiUiiKj Iirds.
such that
with fall
if
wliicli
the impact of strikes the
it
preparcy
The
in
"tuiiis""
fi-oiit
of
l)ooiiie(l,
four or
of the *"turn".
iu(u-e.
The
and the return
winding the direct cable on retui'U cable is
when
they are
its
drum, the
used to haul back the end
LOGGING.
and
of the direct cable,
also,
straighten out the turn.
in case of
the skidway to the engineer
an
a
jam, to pull back and
Instead of a return cable a horse
is
done by a wire connected
electric bell, or
Sometimes these donkey engines are in
11
often
don-
to the
by telephone. relays, one engine hauling
a turn of logs to within reacli of tlie next one, the next until the sidino- is reached.
Fig-.
is
Signaling from the upjjer end of
used to haul out the direct cable.
key's whistle, by
25
SkidiUi at Work.
which passes
it
on to
Grant Count}-,
Arkansas.
Wheic
there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley
stretched and the great logs carried over suspended
from
may
be
it.
In the South a complicated machine called a steam skidder, Fig. drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding
27, equipped with
in the logs and then for loading them on the cars. It is itself mounted on a flat car. An improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely used both on the Pacific coast and of late in the Lake Superior region. It is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. Its '
most unique feature flat cars to
device,
is
that
run underneath
which
is
something
it
can be
it.
lifted off the track so as to allow
This feat
like that
is
accomplished thus
coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. legs,
:
A
used in elevating the bodies of
Then
steel
which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which
IIAXDWOTiK IX WOOD.
26
them
on the outward end of the railroad ties. is then folded np under it out of the The run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of way and cars can The derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs clearance. are attached to
rest
tniclv of the locomotive
l"'iy
Fig.
])rojection.
from
it
is
the
otf
carriage
it,
pieveiits
log on the carriage
The
the next one held.
The
hy steam.
also worki'd
is
log loljs until sto])ped
doul)h'-ai nu'd
which
Loy-FlipiJer.
Down
iage.
a log-stop, or log-loatler.
3!l, Fig-. 38.
sloping
floor
toward the saw-can
off-
sets the carriage one-eighth of
an inch so that entirely
dear
tlie
log returns
In
saw.
the
of
the same wav two ov three 1" Ixiai'ds are taken otf. the dogs are
then knocked
log
canted
tion.
This
the "steam long,
o\(Mis
done by means
nigger."
pel pcndiculai'
the
over
the
till
auainst
the
revolu-
half a
Fig.
log.
4tl,
ol'
a
toothed bar
which comes up thru engages
and the
(Uit,
and
tlie
lloor,
lui'ns
it
sawn side comes up knees
of
the
Im','-. 3'i.
riatre
cai'-
Logr-Stop nnd Loader.
By
IftiiiiK-
sleain into the cyliiiiler, the projectiiiy arm revolves, rolliiiir one loi,' over onto the car-
and
liol(linf,>-
the
iie.xl
one
till
wanted.
SAW^IILLING.
The
riage.
log
is
35
dogged again and a second slab and several boards
The log or "stock" as it is are taken off. the "nigger" then gives l-i", or 16" thick;
now it
called,
It is
dogged again, and
boards.
'This last piece
is
turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees, and
it
ing
lying on a sawn side.
it
except enough to
make a few
is
10", 13",
a qnarter-turn, leavall
sawn up
given a halfis
sawn up.
Each board as sawn off it is thrown by is the
board-flip-
per or cant-flipFig.
per,"
on
41,
to the "live
which
rollers,"
take
the
to
it
next
process.
Another
1
on
conies
g
a n d
carriage the
o
the
process
is
repeated.
The riage, i
saw-carFig.
43.
propelled
s
and
forward back by
a
pis-
ton running in a long cylinder,
into either end of which steam
can be turned Fiff. 40.
by the operator.
'i
he Steam Nig-g-er. The toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position.
As the sawn boards fall
off'
the log, they land on "live," that
which carry them along at the rate of 800
to
is,
revolving rol'ers,
350 feet a minute.
Stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever Avanted. as at the edger, Fig. 43, or the slasher.
A
"cant"
is
From
a squared or partly squared log.
the live rollers the
HANDWOUK
36 trans-
are
boards
IX AVOOD.
ferred automatically,
running gles
chains
by
44,
Fig.
an-
at right
rollers
the
to
and brought within reach
of
one-
boards
the
of
third of a
edger
the
About
man.
log have rough
and are
edges,
called
"waney." These must go thru the edger to
make
works
great speed.
trom band
with
He
Steam Caiil-Flipper. machine is used to
move cants, timber or lumber rollers to g^angs, mills, or else-
live
resaw
The timber
where.
is
dis-
charged upon skid rollers, as shown, or upon transfer
sees
chains
what can be
at once
made
Tliis
The edger
parallel.
man
Fig-. 41.
edges
their
out of a board,
places
it
in position
and runs
From
thru.
it
the edger the boards are carried to the trim-
mer, which
man's rule again." 6".
cuts is
The
to
length.
The lumber-
"cut so that you can cut
so-called 16' logs are really Id'
Tbe trimmer.
boards to Ti'
the
Fig.
45.
now trims
1". so that if desired
trimmer may be according to
The
The
be cut again.
still
set to cut at
any desired length
specifications.
tlie
l)oards
these
they can
are
now graded
into No.
and
1,
No.
as
2,
quality
to
etc..
Fig. 46.
run out of the mill, to be
stacked up in piles. Fig. 47. Big
timbers go directly from the saw nil
the rolls to
ihc
mill,
trimmed ofF-saw
The Fig. 42.
Log--Carriag-e, holdinir ,|uarler<-d lofT in position to saw.
,)t\
liy
back end of first
end
is
a butting-saw or cut-
which
tiinhcr (lend
tlie
where the
is
rolls
swings.
Fig.
48.
then slioved along illld
tllC
last
did
SAWMILLING.
37
Fig. 43. Double Gatigr Ed^er. This machine trims olJ the rough edg-e^ of the "waiiey" boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine.
r
^''-'^^-^X
-
ft:
n Ji^'*%
Fig-. 44. Automatic Steam Transfer for Timber, Lumber aud Slabs. The boards are carried along- by tlie cylinders, C C C, until they hit the bumper, B. This movement admits steam to the cylinder, CY, which raises the revolving- chains
or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required.
HAXDAVORK JN WOOD.
38
•a>,
Fiy.
45.
^»^,^A^^^f^•
Automatic Gang Luinber-Tiimmer. It may be to any desired length.
Fig.
4(1.
Lumber Sorting
Fig.
47.
Slied, Virginia,
Logs and
I.unitir.
set to cut autoiiiatically
Minnesota
SAAVMILLIXG.
trimmed by the butting-saw
to
a
39 length as
definite
and
sjieeified,
shoved ont.
One speed.
of the
From
most remarkable features of the modern mill
the time the log appears
the last piece of
till
its
is
it
goes
racing out of the mill, hardly
more than
I
minute may havo
a
ela]:sed.
A
large part of the problem
sawmilling
of
the
is
class
sawdust.
mills,
shavings
It
is
Cut-off-Saw. This saw trims the ends of timbers.
and
tubes
to
there
is
to
considered
From
as
much
contain
waste,
the live rolls, on which
all
band-saw, the slabs are carried
off
circular-saws
apart. slabs
This slasher cuts into
4'
1"
u])
the
placed
lengths
suitable
lath or fence-pickets. Fig. 49.
can
they
be
resawn
a
these
In
all
first
together
with
planing-mill
burned for
is
fuel.
the
carried
in
large
boiler-room
and
mechanically supplied
The slabs, once is now utilized. material falls from the main the
fires.
material that
the
by transfer chains, and by another
set of five rollers to the "slasher," Fig.
of
is
disposal
first of
sucked up from the ma-
chines Fig-. 48.
this
(if
coml)ined)
the
is
The
of the waste.
50,
which consists of
a line
for
Or IG"
into
lengths for shingles or fire-wood.
From
the "slasher" the
4'
1"
lengths are carried on by travel-
ing
platforms,
chains,
etc.,
to
the lath-machines, Fig. 51, where Ten saw (.anfr Lath Bolter. This Fig-. sawn up, counted as ^ niachuie cuts up material leng-thwise imoiaths. sawn, bound in bundles of 100, trimmed to exactly 4' in length and sent off to be stored. The shingle bolts are picked off the mov-
they ^
are
men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine. Fig. where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to
ing platforms by 52.
4<'.
HANDWORK
40
Fig.
50.
IX WOOD.
Slab-Slasher. This machine cuts up the slabs into for lath or fence-pickets.
leiijjfths
suitable
SAWMILLING. Shingle-bolts are also
be packed.
41
made from crooked
or otherwise
imperfect logs.
Of what 53,
is left,
a good part goes into the grinder or
which chews up
all
"'liog,''
Fig.
sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for
Figr. 51. Combination Lath-Binder and Trimmer. With this macliine tlie op-
erator can trim the bnndles of lath, sinipU' bj' tilting' the pacKingr frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between the saws, thereb3- trimming both ends at one
Fig.
fuel to suiDplement the sawdust
if
necessary.
dust and such fine dust that this
If there
Hand is
is
in
Sawmills
in
which
Band-saws make
so
often necessary.
any refuse that cannot be used at
is
Shinsrle-Machine
used
desired to utilize slabs and trimming's by sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw shingles from prepared bolts. it is
movement.
little
52.
This machine
all
scrap-pile, Fig. 54, or to the "consumer," the tall stack
it
goes to the
shown
in Fig.
37, see p. 33.
Boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn,"
i.
e.,
are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. this process, only the central boards
because the annual
rings cross the board
low pine flooring that
sawn
more
is
of
the
the
grain. Fig. 55.
slash-grained
boards
flooring
should
be
is
more
They warp
evenly.
Yel-
rift-
than edge
annual rings makes
more even the
valuable
because
slash-sawn,
is
By
would be radial or "rift" boards.
But, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. less
they
a
Where used,
laid
so
that the outside of each board will be
up in order that the ^
ner rings <^
mav -
not "shell
in-
out."'
Edging Grinder or Hog Itcutsany ^'^,:^l kind of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain conveyor or blower.
HANDWORK
42
IX WOOD.
In sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first ^'quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is There are various methods of cutting quarteied logs, as desired. illustrated in Fig. 5G.
In making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they be cut radially in the log. in order that the staves be as non-permeable to water as
|)0ssi'ble.
Fig-. 54.
Fiff. 55.
S. lan-l'ili-.
OsciUa, Georgia.
Slash Grain and Conib-(iraiii Flooring
*
SAWMILLING.
43
7Fig-. 50.
Methods of S .wing Quartered
SAWMILLING. Eeferences
:
Trout, Gassier 11: 83, 184.
Woodcraft
For
giiioral
5:
5(3.
May
'06.
l)il)liogiapli_v see
]\
4.
Losrs.
/a
44
HANDWORK
IN WOOD.
Chapter
III.
SEASONING. The seasoning duces weight, after
it
is
Decay can
of
wood
is
important for several reasons.
increases strength,
it
re-
worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. also he prevented hy suhmergence and hiirying, if hy so
The
doing logs are kept from fungal attacks.
Lake dwellings, which are
Rut
under water.
in
Wood under
age.
jn'ehistoric
a
water lasts longer than
The wood
pieces as will be convenient for
is
a ten
to
dried in
l)e
green, to as thin
an inch hoard
four inch plank, and more
a
inch timber.
of seasoning:
Natural or air-seasoning
respects the best.
when
size of the piece,
drying more than four times as fast as
There are various methods
wDod has
cut up,
or iron
steel
use later, for the rate of drying-
its
depends largely upon the shape and than twenty times as fast as
the Swiss
of
piles
good preservation, are of
of
state
for almost all purposes
order to he preserved.
(T)
It
prevents changes in volume
it
the most c(unmon, and in
is
In this method, the
wood
some
and reg-
carefully
is
ularly piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as possible
from sun and
rain, but with air circulating freely
of the boards, Fig. 47, see p. 38.
employed,
and
i.
e.,
at intervals
strips of
wood
To accomplish
on
all
sides
this, "sticking"
between the boards.
In this way the weight of the
superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warpirrg. pile is
roof
skidded a foot or two
made
off
the grourrd and
is
is
best dried rapidly so that
it
The
protected above by a
of boards so laid that the raiir wi'l drain
Fire-Avood
is
are' placed crosswise close to the ends
off.
will check,
making
air
spaces which facilitate ignition, but luml)er needs to be slowly dried in
cool air so that the fibers
may accommodate
change of form and the wood check as
little
themselves to the
as possible.
Good
drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better. 45
air-
IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD.
46
is a much more rapid common use, Fig. 57.
Kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning
(•?) I
than air-seasoning and
cess
drying
now
is
more complete,
in
wood
proTlie
from 10^/c to 20^, of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than S^f as it comes from the kiln. It will, however, reabsorb some iiioistuie from the air. wiien exposed to it. also
is
The wood
of conifers, with
shrinks more evenly and leaved trees, and hence air-drying,
Oak
for while air-dried
and dried
other hardwoods
week or even
in a
moisture, the
are
wood
rapidly than the
wood
of broad-
often put into the kiln without previous
wood
the most diihcult
is
very regular structure, dries and
its
much more is
retains
dried
ra])idly
less time.
When
dry properly.
to
witlioiit
"case-hardens,"" tliat
it
and
surrounding
sutficient
the outer part diies and
is.
shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this
forms a tlie
sliell
Hardwood lumber
lioneycomhing. to six
time.
months.
l)ef(U'e
tendency
t1ie
wood around
or case of shrunken, and often checked
interior which also checks later,
is
^"liis
interior checking
commonly
is
air-dried
For the sake
being kiln-dried.
to eliminate yard-drying,
of
called
is
from two
economy
in
and substitute kiln-
Kiln-diying of one inch oak. takes one or two weeks, quartersawn boards taking ov.v and a half times as long as plain-sawn. The best method of drying is that which gradually raises the temperature of both the wood and of tlu' water which it contains to the drying.
|)oint at
not to is
which the di'ying
let
This
lieated.
about
tlu'
done by retaining the moisture
is
canvas aic hung in
all
newly
may
hiiildings
on the
iniu-r
orates from the outer >uiface.
ail-
Tlieic
|)i'inci|)]e is ai'e
the chai'ge
vaporized
the same hung with
is
made
Curtains of ])rinci|)1e
that
luuslin.
The
surface of the curtain and evap-
In
in kiln-drying are along
common
howt'ver, the
practice,
often lU'glei'ted.
two methods
method.
(Ui
are
Improvements
the line of moist air o])eration.
first
the surface
take ])lace rapidly.
aiound the lumbei'
plastei'ed
irioisture is al)sorbe(l
luoist
When
wood, by means of wet steam.
peinieah'e to moistuii'. drying
windows
(lare is therefore taken
to take ])lace.
is
the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture
In
in
the
the loads going in at one end
opei'ation. tlu' progressive
piogressive, ol'
the
process
is
method and continuous,
the kiln, and out at the other, the
temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that in
passing fiom the green to the dry end, a load of lumber
is
first
SEASOXIKG.
47
moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. the process
one
is
new
This gives the best results with high grade lumber
admitted.
is
In the cliarge system,
intermittent, one charge being removed before a
for special uses.
A
modification of hot-air-seasoning
is that which subjects the moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the combustion of fuel.
wood
to a
(o)
Small pieces of wood may be
seasoned by being
effectively
and then diied. Tlie process seems to solving out albuminous substances and thus allowing
boiled in water
(4)
Soaking in water
freer evapora-
weakening.
Its effect is probably
tion.
consist of dis-
is
sometimes used as a good preparation
Previous soaking hastens seasoning.
for air-seasoning. insist that tindjer
is
improved by rafting.
Eiver
common
It is a
men
practice
to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months before they are '"mined out."" They are eargerly sought after by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. Ebony is water-soaked in the island of Mauritius as soon as cut. Salt water renders wood harder, h.eavier, and more durable and is
sometimes applied
to sliip timbers, but
cannot be used with timbers
intended for ordinary ])nrposes, as the presence of
salt
tends to absorl)
atmospheric moisture. (
5
)
Boiling in
oil
re
is
sorted to for special purposes, both for
preservation and to give strength.
The
are so treated.
oil
For example, the best handserews
also prevents glue
from
sticking, the
most
frecpient cause of injury to handserews.
(6)
There are
a
number
of "impregnation"'
ing timber, and their piactice
is
methods of preservOf the various
spreading rapidly.
preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chlorid
have proved most
efficient.
The purpose
is
to force the preservative
into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting un-
Such impregnation methods double or
der pressure. of railway ties.
It is
electric wire poles,
Wood
now being
treble the life
used with great success to preserve
mine-props, piling, fence-posts,
preservation has three great advantages,
etc. it
prolongs the
life
of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of
species that once were considered worthless.
and abundant
loblolly pine can be
For example, the cheap
made, by preservative methods,
take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for
many
purposes.
to
HAXDWOIJK IX WOOD.
48
PKACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
FOl!
rnder the hasty metliods piovalent conies to the shop well seasoned, and stei;idai' sizes
1)oard
thick,
Koai'ds ]" or moi'c thick are sold by the "i)oard foot"" whit'h lent to 12" s(piare
ma\
sjiecial sizes.
l)y
and 12" long,
wide and
I.ogs
planks, which
sizes Ys"
*
HAXDWOKK
5U
IX WOOD.
THE SEASOXIXG AND MEASURING OF EeFEREXCES
AVOOD.
:
SEASOXIXG. Fur. Mull.. Xo. 41. pp.
.5-12.
von
Boiilgev. pp. 66-70.
6:
133,
Wood
80-88.
Scliieiik.
Wodii
Duiilap.
Feb. For.
Cntft,
Cniff.
0:
31.
Nov.
'06.
"07.
Circ.
Xo.
40.
pp.
For. Circ. Xo.
10-16,
13!).
Herty. Baiter, pp.
Afjric.
3!)-.53.
Yr. Bk., 1905, pp. 455-464.
JIEASURIXG.
Building
Siekels, pp. 22. 29.
Trades
335, 340. 357. C4oss.
p.
12.
'For general bibliiii>raph3' see
Tate, p. 21.
p. 4.
Pocketbook,
pp.
Chapter IV.
WOOD HAND The hand
tools in
common
TOOLS.
use in woodworking shops may, for
Cutting;
2,
Chopping; 4, Scraping; 5, Pounding; G, Holding; Measuring and Marking; 8, Sharpening; 9, Cleaning.
7,
convenience, he divided into the following classes:
Boring;
1,
3,
1.
CUTTING TOOLS.
The most j^rimitive as well as the simplest of a tools for the wood into parts, is the Avedge. The wedge does not even 1
dividing of
cut the wood, but only crushes enough of
main body
its
to split the
wood
apart.
it
with
As soon
edge to allow
its
as the split has be-
gun, the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides
The
bear against the split surfaces of the wood.
runs ahead of
split
wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided. It was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs of wood, and the great change from- primitive to civilized methods in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. The wedge follows the grain the
of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the
The edge
worker.
is
and improvement upon the wedge somewhat independent of the natural
a refinement
and enables the worker
to be
grain of the wood.
In general, is
to separate
path.
it
nuiy be said that the function of
All such tools act,
into two parts
portions apart. actions
all
cutting tools
one portion of material from another along
;
first,
second, by the
wedge or the
two made, both of these The edge must be sharp enough to
If a true continuous cut
must occur
a definite
by the keen edge dividing the material
together.
is
l)lade forcing these
to be
enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising
them, and the blade of the
tool
must constantly force apart the two
portions in order that the cutting action of the edge
The
action of an ax in splitting 51
wood
is
may
continue.
not a true cut, for only
lIANDWOIiK IX WOOD.
52 the second process
The
taking place, Fig. 59.
is
in front of the cutting edge anticipates
which opens
split
cutting and therefore the^
its
surfaces of the opening are longh and torn.
When
knife
a
pressed into a
or
i)iece of
chisel
is
wood
at
angles to the grain, and some distance from the end
right at
wood, as in Fig. GO, a
of the
(•(nitiiuioiis
cutting
action
])revented,
because
soon
the
apart
the
made by
the
hhide sides Fiyr.
Wedye
cut
advancing edge, and the knife is
it is
force
the
t)0
Edtre Action.
Action.
cannot of
is
brought to
In this case,
rest.
practically only the first action which has taken place.
Both the
and the
actions, the cutting
together to produce a true continuous cut. in contact with
The edge must always
ha-\e
to Ije readily
the grain. Fig.
|)lace either fllong
The
bent out of the
liending
the
of
aside
smaller the taper of the wedge.
is
thin enough and
way without opening
may
This cutting action
cutting edge.
in fi'ont of the
sjdit
This can ha[)i)en
been cut.
oidy Avhen the material on one side of the blade
(il,
or across
it.
Fig.
shaving will require
On
be
must always be
the solid material, and the blade
pushing aside the portions which
weak enough
must take place
splitting,
a,
take
iVi.
less
force
the other hand, the wedge
the
must
be strong enough to sustain the Ijending resistance and also to sup])oit
In other more acute the cut-
the cutting edge.
woi'ds, the
ting edge, the easier the work,
and hence the wedge thin
as
is
sti'cngtli.
This
wav
hollow
finin
is
made
vai'ies
as
with
consistent all
the
ground
I'az-
For
soft
angle
(or
Fig-. 62
Fig-. 61
ors
to
cold-chisels.
wood,
the
cutting
bevel,
oi'
l)ezel
)
of
gouges and plane-irons, it
must
be
.greatei-.
to (50° for trun metal.
Edge and Wedge Ac-
Edge and W^edge Action With the Grain,
tion Across the Grain
chisels. is
small, even as low as 20°;
For metals,
it
varies
from
5-t°
foi'
for
hard wood,
wrought
ii<)u
WOOD HAND
53
TOOLS.
Ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut
desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the
actual edge.
There are two methods of using edge straight cut,
direct pressure;
l^y
tools
:
one, the chisel
oi-
the other, the knife or sliding cut.
The straight cut. Fig. 63, takes place when the tool is moved into the material at right angles to the cutting edge.
Examples working
are
action
the
:
and
tools
metal-
of
planing
machines,
rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the
plane
board
when
held parallel to the edge of the
is
being the
with
line
and
planed),
chisel
is
pushed
The knife
sliding
or
oblicjuely
to
its
Fig.
64,
moved
for-
cut. is
edge,
cutting
either along or across the grain.
well rials,
illustrated
such as If
etc.
is
in
length.
its
takes place Avhen the tool
ward
chiseling,
directly
cutting soft
in
l)read.
It
is
mate-
meat, rubber, cork,
That
an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging.
sliding action
is
tliis
than the straight pressure can easily be proved
easier
with a penknife on thin Avood, or by planing with the plane held at
an angle motion.
to,
rather than in line with, the direction of the planing
The edge
The reason
of the
cutter
Avhy the sliding cut
then sHdes
is easier,
is
into the
material.
partly because the angle
wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely, and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with
of the bevel with tlie
'very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut like a saw.
once. is
it
acts
In an auger-lht. both methods of cutting take place at
The scoring nib
cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip
thrust directly into the Avood.
The
chisel
and the
knife, one Avith the edge on the end,
other Avith the edge on the side, are the original forms of
all
and the
modern
cutting tools.
The
chisel Avas at first only a chi])ped stone,
around stone,
later
it
was made of bronze, and
then
it
still later
came
to be a
of iron,
and
IJAXDWORK
54
now
made
is
it
tologists as a
into the ax and
cuts
made by
In
of steel.
and
celt,
early foini
its
adze for
driving and paring.
In the modern
it
known by paleon-
is
had no handle, but later developed chopping and hewing, and the chisel for
at first
was simply a development
itself
IN WOOD.
chisel, all the
It
is
quite likely that the celt
of the wedge.
grinding
is
done on one
This
side.
constitutes the essential feature of tbe chisel, namely, that the back of tlie blade
is
kept perfectly
Blades vary in width fi'om
on the end of which
and the face
flat
the cutting edge,
is
is
ground
Xext
IG inch to 2 inches.
1/
is
to a bevel.
to the blade
Xext,
the shank. Fig. 65.
as in socketed
there
chisels, is
the
to
i-eceive
socket
the
handle, or, in
tanged chisels, a shoulder
four Firmer-Chisel.
Fiii-. 05.
tang which driven
the handle, which is
to
is
usually nuide of
bound
ai)])le
The most familiar its name from a
is
suited
hand
for
pounding,
general
foi'
the pniier-clnscl
is
the fact that
The
(See below.)
paring-chisel. chisel
wood.
I'orm
get
is
into
The handle
lower end by a ferrule.
at its
and
sided
-
pressure
or
is
.
Fig.
(iT),
Avhich
is
said
firmer or stiffer than the
firmer-
being
tool,
utility
it
mallet
paring or for light mor-
tising.
Different
named:
are
chisels
of
varieties
(1) according to their uses; as
paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortisechisels,
turning-chisels,
carving-chisels,
etc.
The
jjtiriiifj-rliisc].
lumdle speciallv over l)lade,
iis
Fig.
slia])ed
movements, and
wbich
in the best
GG,
lias
a
to give control a
I'orm
long is
Itr-r
tbin
bev;'led
on tbe two edges to facilitate gi'oovin».
Fi«-.
<>('
Paring'Chisel.
Fifi-. I)"
Fifr. 08
Framing--
Mortise-
Chisel.
Chisel.
WOOD HAND
TOOLS.
55
IIAXDWOBK IX WOOD.
56
Held in tins way the Paring with the except the plane.
rliisel
has no equal for paring
chisel
is
act as a guide.
cutting
chaiufers.
sto])
(See
p.
method used
the
in
By holding 185, Chapter VIII.) the cutting edge ob'iquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut, the etfective "sliding
cut"
Fiff. 70
ChiseliiifT
ol)tained. Fiff-
is
Fi-r. 71.
Out a Oadi
(First Step").
2.
In
siaring.
A
a dado, Fig.
rhisi-liin/
tvpical TO.
foiui
the chisel
Chiseling' Out a Dado (Second Step).
of sidewise chiseling
The work may
])laced
l)e
In-Ill
the
ill
chisi'l
'I'lii'
with the side up
\ise.
is
as
the cutting out
is
im the bench-hook or
which the
fi'oui
same umnner
held in the
is
<>-!:.
gi()(j\'e
pushed
to be cut.
is
dii'ectly across
somewhat
the gi'aiu, the blade being
inclined to the upjjcr surface so as to
cut
off
with
corner next
a
After
keif.
a
saw
the
few cuts thus made
the chisel
incline(l
alternately
both ways, the ii.
well,
In if
ciid-irood,
clilscliiif/
it
is
rest the piece to
|)ossil»'e, to
he triiMiiied Hat on the cutting board
or on
done Fit;-.
72.
Perpendicular Chisclint
a
in
])iece of
this
way
waste wood. is
liendicular chiseling.
handle
is
grasped
Work
often calle(l
in
Fig.
"]'!.
])er-
The
the right hand.
WOOD IIAXD thumb
it
the left hand, the back of which rests on the
in place.
thumb and eling
thumb and work and downwards the
up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the
first finger of
holds
57
TOOLS.
first
As the right hand pushes the chisel hand control its motion. When
finger of the left
chis-
well to stand so as to look along
it is
Incline the chisel to-
the line being cut.
ward you, and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther corner for cutting, pushing the handle both down and forward at the same time, Fig. T3.
Or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with
the
thumb
of the left
hand
at
the same
time that the right hand ])ushos ward, the effective sliding cut
End
chiseling
and
force
onlv
it
down-
obtained.
considerable
requires
therefore
is
thin
shavings
Fig-. 73.
End wood.
chiseUng-
should be cut time.
off
at
a
Or the mallet may
be used with caution. In
order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very sharp.
Even then
the lower arris (corner) is
likely
tered
oft'.
prevented Fig-. 74.
the work
down
to a perfectly is
often
Pariiijtr
a Corner
to
be
splin-
This can be l)y
clamping
Round
tight with a
handscrew
smooth cutting board.
It
advisable however, to set the
piece upright in the vise
and pare
thin shavings horizontally. Fig. 74.
off
In
and perpendicular chiseling are common methrounding a corner, both
ods.
this
In both cases care should be taken
from the side toward the end and not into the grain, lest the piece S]ilit. Fiar. 75. In horizontal end parto
cut
Rig-ht and Wrong- Ways of Perpendicular ChiseUng-.
Fig-. 75.
IIAXDUORK IX WOOD.
58
ing. Fig. 74, in order to prevent splint-
tering,
well to trim
it is
down
the arrises
diagonally to the line and then to re-
duce the rest of the end surface.
In
all
hand
chiseling,
material
each
at
back gradually
A
much
foim of mallet chiseling
typical
mortise. Fig. 76.
a
The
.'iii.)
]).
dicular
chisel
is
mallet. at
is
(Sec
held perpen-
the left hand, while the right
ill
hand drives hlows with the haiumer should never he and
work
to
to the line.
the digging of alsii
hut
stroke
wise
a
is
it
])recaution not to try to cut out
]>.
the
iMi.
By rocking
)
same time giving
motion while the edge
The
inal'et.
(See
used.
the chisel a twisting
it
kept on the
is
wood, the edge can he stejiped to the exact
])]ace
taken
to
ally, Fig. is
The
Mallet Chiselin^r.
76.
Clamped Down on With the Bench
each
Piece
die Bench Hoi>U.
to
only
cut
sidi'
Care
desired.
work hack
])art
)
and
.
to
he
gradu-
way thru from
the case of a
(in
tise-and-tenon
sliould
to the lines
thru mor-
keep
the
cut
faces perpendicular to the surfaces.
In sharpening
a
chisel
flat.
The
kept peifectly to
it
is
l)evel
of first importance that the hack be is
first
giound on the grindstone
an angle of about 20°.
and
great
taken
care
keep
to
should
he
edge
the
straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade.
After grinding essary
to
whet
and other edged jilso
First
see
of
chisel
p.
(See 121.)
there
is
on the stone.
an iron box be used, Fig.
7T. the oil iih
that oil
nec-
is
tools.
under oilstones,
]»leiity
If
it
the
l)v
is
obtained sim-
liirning ^
tlie
stone
^. ^'-'
..
,,
^^
„., '' ting- a „, Plane-Bit. ,
WOOD HAND over, for
rests
it
on
a
pad of
Place the beveled edge lie flat,
which
felt
to see if
it
does
an angle slightly more
at
it
was ground, Fig.
it
kept wet with kerosene.
is
on the stone, feeling
flat
then tip np the chisel and rub
obtuse than that which
59
TOOLS.
The more nearly
78.
the
chisel can be whetted at the an-
gle at
which
better.
In
much
was ground the
it
rubbing,
of the stone
so as to
wear
it
The motion may Fig.
forth
25".
case
This whetting tuins
or it
spiral,
straight, unbeveled side,
rubbed, then is
it is
is
held perfectly
turned over and the
be back
so as to put
any bevel
on
all
flat
its
on one
side,
in
and
either
flat side.
chisel, that is, the
on the whetstone and
way
nund^er of times,
a
but the chisel should never
e(]ge,
at
but
rubbed again on the stone.
then on the other,
a
))e
in
tipped
Finally, the edge
side.
touched up (stropped) by being drawn over first
evenly.
should be steady and not
flat
l)evel
necessary to leverse the chisel in this
order to remove the wire
times,
down
wire edge over on the
a light
In order to remove this wire edge, the back of the
It
as
GrindiniLr Aiig-le, 20";
78.
Whetting- Angle,
rocking.
use
possible,
as
is
piece of leather a few
still
continuing to hold
the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect.
To
test the sharpness of a
draw the along feel
it,
tip of the finger or
if
it
taken,
it
enough
to cut thru,
will
The gouge
be sharp, and
a
it
will
care be
if
little,
not
but just enough to be
felt.
score
is
lightly
If the edge be dull,
Fig. 79.
smooth;
whetted edge,
thumb
the
skin
form of
a
chisel,
the blade
and hence the edge When the bevel is on the outside, curved. the common form, it is called an outside bevel of
which
is
concave,
gouge or simply a "gouge," Fig. 80 if the bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside ;
Pig.
79.
Testing the Sliarpness of a Chisel.
bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge. Fig. 81.'
^Another confusing nomenclatui'e (Goss) gives the name "inside gouges'" to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and "outside gouges" to those with the cutting edye on the outside.
IIAXDWOBK IN WOOD.
hO
me,
tools
('ar\in,L;-
properly
speaking,
and are of different shapes for
cliiscls.
all
facility in
r;iv\ing.
Vov
oi'diiiai'v lii'inly
,L;ri|i|)iMl
les
strong
so tbat a
II]).
The same way as
ovci'
gouging. Fig.
it.
the blade
8'3,
is
by the left hand with the knuck-
garallel to the vise screw,
and the board inclined away from the
The is
not in danger of splitting.
after
worker who stands
start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line,
it is
The
sawn part way thru,
The
board, however, has to be reversed
in order to finish the
hacJc-saw or tenon-saw, Fig. 90,
a rib of steel
along the back, which gives to
bench-hook.
To
the edges of the
liel])
cut
may
cut.
it
its
name.
little
Since
or no
it is
set.
he he'd either in the vise or on the
start the shai]).
saw
a fine crosscut-saw, with
is
intended for small accurate work, the teeth have
In sawing, the wood
upright.
and the board
it
saw and is
well
at the to
same time
make
a
little
to
keep
groove
i
HAXDWOEK
66 with
the
on
knife,
IN WOOD.
waste
the
side of the line to he f(Ulowe(l,
cutting the side of
groove
tlie
next to the line at right angles
The saw
to the surface.
91.
Fig.
In starting the saw
cut,
saw
the
dro})S
groove.
into
directly
holding
hand
tliis
slioiild
hy
guided
l)e
auaiust
the
the
of
tliund)
side
saw just ahove the
of
teeth.
with Bench-Hook.
left
the Cntil the keif
attempt
to
with
well
St a
i^
hilt
saw
is
extend
When
is
in a
is
held in
is
sawing
the
at
made only wood. Then
across the wood.
(|uite
the l)ack-saw
I'x'gin
i.
not e.,
J'aised
at
the
as the
gradually lowered, the kerf will
wood
the
'II. Startintr a Saw Cut Troutrh Cut With Knife.
handle should be
the
farther edge of the
—
the saw
ted.
resting clear across the
the start
that
1
It is hetter
the saw level,
to start
the teeth
wood, so
Fig-.
is
held so that the teeth just touch the wood.
should
Back-Saw
Usintr the
Fig-. 90. till'
tlie
end of the saw
uj).
hack
with
is,
handle
the
and gradually drop
Watch
the front and
92.
end up.
vise,
as in crosscutting. that
farther corner
the liandle.
Fig.
used for ripping,
the lines 2.
Direction of the
Back-Saw
Fig-.
'i3.
"^'4.
Dovetail-Saw
Compass-Saw.
WOOD HAXD
TOOLS.
67
buckling, and Avith a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the
The
curves. is
teeth are a cross between the rip
and crosscut
teeth.
It
used in sawing curves.
The
tuniiiKj-sair, Fig.
!).5,
is
a
narrow saw,
saw
stretches the it
frame, which
set in a
tight, so that
works as a tension saw
The
62.
p.
made
so that the handles
hold
the
blade can
the frame.
(cf.
frames
best
are
which in
revolve
The turning-saw
is
used chiefly for cutting curves.
A
14 inch blade, 3/16 of an inch
wide
is
a
good
The
use.
of a
size for
teeth
are
Usino- a Turning-Saw.
those
rip-saw, so that they
quite likely to tear the
Fig-. 95.
ordinary
like
cutting across
the
lowance should
1)6
grain.
made
are
wood
in
Al-
for this
and the surplus removed with a spokeshave.
The turning-saw may
l^e.used to cut on eithei' the
pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward or
away from the worker.
The
])ulling cut
is
generaUy
puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut.
should gras])
frame
Till us au'
Fig. 95.
wh
axis,
tlie
i
c
as
kept
right
made hy revolving
at
angles
the
board.
should
Care be
taken
not
to
twist
the
blade.
To
file
and
set a saw, the
saw
is
fastened
first i
n
Both hands
the frame on the blade as an
h
to the surface
of
it
near the end of the blade as possible,
should ahvays be
better, as
„.
„,
Fig-. 96.
„ ^rSaw-Vise.
HANDWORK
68
the saw-vise, Fig. 90, with the
IN WOOD. up.
tei'th
a tiat file or a saw-jointer. Fig.
running
then top-jointed by
It is
back and forth length-
!»;,
along
wise
the
tops
them
teeth to ))ring
the
of
to a level.
After jointing the saw should
For
be set.
ery
alternate
tlie
direction of
winch After the saw
disc.
forwai'd stmke. which should
and
The
the
is.
are
nk'tl
is
done with a triangular
hand and is
its
point in
a])plied only
on the
b;.'
the
the
set,
the
workei-
tlie
Fig-. 98.
otli. etc.. '.M,
4th.
is
tikMh
(Ith. etc..
in filing a rip-saw the
ami then
The
one.
tor each
filing
saw
is
reveised and the
should move exactly pei})endicularly
tile
is,
The
directly across the teeth.
done on the hack of the teeth, the
of the next strokes,
tlie
liled.
is
to the plane of the saw blade, that filing is
S.-iw-Set.
iMery alternate
first.
tooth, 1st. od.
other
anvil,
shouhl
having
teeth
from
away
set
the
the direction of the set.
in
that
on
lih'
by the
set
instrument
being
fde
tooth
the
letuin stidke. cut
the
even,
above
raised
its
the
an adjustable eccentric
Piessure
left.
bent in
is
is
the right
iield in
is
the thund) and fingers of the
long
This
is set. it is filed.
which
144. p. 90.
Fig.
file.
tooth
against
piisliing
A Saw-Joint ir.
Vig.'n.
is
in
Ev-
necessar}^
Fig. 98.
phniger
purpose a saw-
this
set.
file
just touching the face
coutinued. with one. two. or three
is
tooth, as the case
may
re(piire.
or just until
each
tootli is shai']). J 11
v.ard
the
filing a crosscut-saw. the file is held ])ointing
the
set.
))oiiit
of the saw.
The angle
is
the
sides
(d'
remove the wire an edge
lile
to the blade
is ;
dett'rmined
tool,
and
the trv\\\
vdiS^'.
its
It
aie
riibhed
l)y
the hori-
the angh' of the ])oint
bv the jieipeiidicuhir inclination of the
deterniiiie(|
to
tile
to-
should cut in the direction of
of the cutting elo.
Test with try-s(|uare. jtressing the block of
face.
with two distinct pencil marks.
Fnd.
Finish
Plane one narrow side stiaigbt and square
the ti'y-S(piare against the working face.
3.
and smooth.
Test with tiy-s(piaie.
shavings.
distinct pencil
a
Working
'i.
Plane one l)road side
]»laiie set to c-ut tine
tlic
chisel
woikinu' face, a plaiu'-bit. a
1),
slijilit
onds of tho edge than (p.
.")!•).
and workimz'
")-•),
cinw n in
may
he given
the middle.
eda'e, it
I),
6-T,
hy rubbing a
Strop in the same
WOOD HAND
73
TOOLS.
using a sharp knife point and the tiy-sqnare.
Saw
just outside this
D, 5-6-7, with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, D, beyond the gaged line and plane true, E, Fig. 103. line,
Fig. 103.
5.
Width.
this edge 6.
Plane
The Order
Thickness.
Mark
gaged
line,
E, 1-3.
Test
face, F, Fig. 103.
the
around the piece, F, 8-9-10. G, Fig. 103.
of Planing- a Board.
to the center of the
from the working
6,
thickness
Plane
Test this face for
with the marking-gage
to the center of the
flatness.
gaged
all
line,
llAXUWOltK IX
74 In
a
\VUUL).
the order to be followed
\v(»i(].
graphically represented in
is
H, Fig. ]{):]. The surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are to be planed. The advantages of this order are these: by planing the working face
a broad surface
first,
secured to which the others
is
By
true.
width
])laning the
is plaired,
may
be nurde
ends before the
the danger of splitting
fragments can he avoided by
olf
chisel-
ing the corner of the unfinished edges, C,
and D,
a,
h.
Fig. 103, into a buttress.
planing the ends and the width be-
I|v
foie
the thickness
face
is
secured
planed, a dressed
is
around for gaging
aM
In following this order and markings are
the thickness.
iiicasiiKMiifuts
all
made
di csscd
a
oil
tlieie
If
face.
be any "wind""
the ])oard, this should of
may
This
all.
l)e
l)e
twist in
n\-
discovered
first
done roughly by sight-
ing acioss the broad side of the board, 104,
I'^ig.
of
Or FiR
104.
sijfhti.iH- for
Wind.
and more accurately by the use
"wiuding the
^,|.^j^^,
sill
sticks," see Fig. 205,
face
j|j„,|f
long corner
|,y
may
tilting tlic i)lane
vd'j^c
p..
113.
be tested with the
and resting
it
on
its
on the
board, wliih' the worker looks between the board and the plane toward the
light.
It
is
e\ident that the plane must be turned in \arious
and that
directions to test for wind, :i
board only as long plane
the
stiaigiif
same
The may
as
be
Fig.
|iiii|!')se.
used
be Id.").
wide as
tested
tiy-s(piare
e-
oi'
If
in
any
or for
the
there be
the board, this should
in
once be taken out of one face by
])laning 1
down
n stai
should
t
iiig
bcai'
the plane
is
Fisf. 10.^.
the high corners. to
TesUTi(r
from Edg-e
to Kdire.
plane, the worker
down on
the knoh
at
the front end of the plane.
well on the hoanl, he >liouhl hear
down
eipially
When on both
HAND
^VOOD
knob and handle, and should put
all
TOOLS.
75
as the plane begins to pass off the
pains
convex
a
thus,
will be avoided, the
which
is
ginners.
the
will Fig-.
Planing- an Edge.
lOt).
so
taking surface
making
of
a common error of beOn the return stroke,
plane
tilted
board he
By
the pressure on the handle end. Fig. 106.
should
be
lifted
or
that the cutting edge
not be dulled by rubbing
on the Avood.
This
is
especially
important on rough and dirty boards, as
work.
it
and in fine work, as it saves the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it
saves the cutting edge,
If the plane tear the
should,
it
is
because the planing
is
"against the grain".
This can
often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before begin-
But even if it l)e not noted beforehand, a stroke or show the roughness. In such a case, it is necessary simply turn the wood around.
ning to plane.
two to
will
The accuracy tested,
of the
work
as
it
progresses should frequently be so that it
can more
to detect inaccuracy, Fig. 107.
As each
and the eye should constantly be trained
and more be depended upon surface
is
trued,
it
should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set
to cut fine shavings.
In planing a very cross-gTained piece of wood, there are several
methods to use for securing a smootli
The frog of the plane should moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter is a mere slit. surface.
be
In the ordinary plane
is
necessary to
remove the cutter in order
to reset the
it
frog, but in the Sargent plane
Stanley "bed rock"" plane,
by
and the
can be
set
set-screw at the rear of the frog.
a
Xext, the cap should cutter projects or,
it
in
technical
should be p. 53.
):)ut
l)e
very
set so that the little
language,
set "fine."
A
l)eyond
the
it,
cutter
sliding cut, see
should be taken with the plane, and sometimes
essary to
move the plane neaidy
it
may
be nec-
at right angles to the general direction
1IAXD\V01!K IX WOOD.
76
By
of the grain.
The
scrai:)ers,
chokino- of a plane
may
It
means even refractory
tliese
See also
well smootlied.
p.
of the throat by shavings.
is tlie st()i)i)age
be due sim]dy to the fact that the cutter
is
sometimes due
to tlie
dull or that
is
it
In a wooden plane chok-
])rojects too far l)elow the sole of the plane.
ing
wood can be
pieces of
91.
crowding of sliavings under some part of
When the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly choking may result. The frog should be far enough forward
the wedge. )jlaced
so tliat tlie cutter rests squarely
Choking may. and cap does not
down
fit
tight
it.
on the
does, take place because the
between tbese two irons and choking soon
sharpen
cap. so tbat
tlie
The
fit
may
(<]^^v
of
tile
be nuide
the ])lane.
tbe clamp
is
it
using tbe
for grinding, after is
turned
up tbe
caj)
lias l)een slid
it
l)e
cap-screw and slide
where
now
is
Some
turning
cajis
are
can be held fast
it
free
and can readily be
entirely removed, for instance,
along tbe cutter
and then
unbuttons from tbe cutter.
slot liefore
juring tbe edge.
it,
loosen
first
edge bit any part of tbe plane,
at ligbt angles to tbe cutter,
until tbe cap-screw
tbe
The edge
needs to
it,
Carefully remove tbe cap
clani]).
tlie
jiains not to let tbe
ca))
to
screwed in place.
is
it
c'ani]) as a screwdi'iver. loosen the
Wlien tbe
whetted.
is
with the cutter.
the cutter, in order to sharpen
and remove
turn of tbe ca]i-screw.
remedy
'I'be lit
keep tbe cutter sharp than in
to
the ca]i back along tbe slot in the cutter, liy a
the cap
if
tighter by rul:)bing with a screwdriver the
more important
To remove lever
and cutter taking tlien
still
results.
edge nuikes a close
its
cap down on tbe cutter after
In no tool
This happens
cutter.
In conse<[uence. minute sbavings are driven
nicked or uneven.
l)c
upon
commonly
)uost
slot, as before, it
slid
Tbe
down
danger of in-
to prevent tbe
is
now made with
the slot
object in sliding
liuttoidiole
tlu:'
at
tbe u])])er end of the slot.
After sbarpening, (see under sbai'])ening. versed for replacing tbe cutter. tbe cap-screw dropped
cutter, slot, till I
and turned into
Tbe cap
]>.
IIT.) the order
into tbe slot, tbe cap
screw
is
slid
up the the slot
Then
until the cap
turned tight.
In rephicing the cutter to
band
re-
down
is
tbe edge of tbe cap comes quite near tbe edge of tbe cutter.
the left
is
angles to the
set at right
line witii tbe cutter, an;).
order to avoid
in
s})lintering the precautitui should
be taken to trim
on
a corner
oft'
the undressed edge, as directed
on page To. or else the planing iiiiist
be done
from
cut UsiiifjT tin- Block-Plane and Beiich-Hook.
Fig-. 100.
is
much
edges
l)oth
The
towai'd the center.
sliding
than
easier
the
straight cut. and hence there
constant
a
is
temptation to turn
the ])lanc at an angle pcihai>s at an ex]>cnse of the flat surface desired.
using the l)ench-hook the
In
to
]>iece
be block-planed
is
placed
with tbe working edge against the block, with the end to be planed
and Hush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which
to tlu' right
lion
it
hand,
is is
held with tbe placed on
planing, the
left
riglit
lo
tbe
plane
tbe (
is
forwaid
|tushe(|
'onsidei able pi'aclict' 'I'be x(
Fig.
to tbe
side of the plane
against
I'iglit
llal
I
iih-jildiw
is
is
back'
plane.
The
Held
until
in
the end
it
this position is
smoothed.
necessai'y to baiidle llie block-plane well.
a slioit
11(1, is (|uile cui\('d.
and
tlu'
on the bench and presses
against the beiicb-liook and work.
left
In
woi'k iirndy against the block of the
llie
somewhat
it
hand holds the
])osi-
block-plane, held in the right
side on the bench facing toward the W(U'k.
its
band bolds
beiicb-hook, pressing
The
hand.
left
It
obuie is
in
wliicli
the ciown of tbe cutter.
used jo icduce surfaces rapidly.
WOOD HAND The
79
scHitch-pJanc, Fig. Ill, has a toothed c-utter whicli scratches
fine lines along its course.
wood which
is
Some
tropical
used to roughen surfaces of hard
woods are
Cutter of Scrub-Plane.
Fig-. 110.
i
It
are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue
not adhere well.
can be
TOOLS.
educed only hy
so
Scratch-Plane and Scraper-Plane.
Fig, 111.
It is also useful in {preparing
a scratch-plane.
wood which cannot be
the surface of a very cross-grained piece of
planed without chip])ing. rections,
it
By
first
would
hard that their surfaces
scratching
can then be scraped smooth.
It
carefully in all di-
it
is
a^so called a
semper-
accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inThis serted in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. from unduly lowering some portions plane-stock ])revents the scraper plane, because
of the sniface.
The
See also veneer-scraper,
p. 1)1.
designed for use in
rttbbetin;/- or rebating-plane. Fig. 112, is
cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the Ijack of
Fig.
112.
Rabbet-Plane
the picture-frames. is
Fig-. 113.
Molding-Plane.
In line with Ihe right hand corner of the cutter
a removable spur to score the
wood
so that the
shaving which
fol-
ITAXDWORK TX WOOD.
BO
mav
lows
be cut out clean and not torn out.
guiding fence
called
is
it
In the form shown
the right or left side. there
]\'2.
Fig.
With the
This may he
pllctslcr.
a
a(l.
Gerinaii (iinilet-
Bit.
'H
14,
m
I 131
Fig.
131.
132
133
134
135
13(i
Plug-Cutter. Fig. 132. Ceuter-Bit. Fig. 133. Foerstner Auger-Bit. E-fpausive-Bit. Fig. 135. Reamer. Fig. 130. Rose Countersink.
Fig. 134.
WOOD HAXD GimJefs and
TOOLS.
85
they cnt away material, but
drills are alike in that
unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet the cutting edge of the drill
Tirist-d rills. Fig. 12(5, are very hard
They
metal.
work.
while
side,
and may be used
are therefore useful where there
nails, as in repair
on the
is
on the end.
is
Their
in drilling
danger of meeting
is
by a special
sizes are indicated
drill
gage, Fig. 220, p. 117. Twist-hits, Fig. 137, are like twist-drills except that they are not
hard enough to use for metal.
Both
in 32nds of an inch.
Their
twist-bits
on the tang
sizes are indicated
and
have the advan-
drill-bits
tage over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood. Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care
being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that
wood and there will be clearance. German gimlet-hits, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering well. The size is indicated on the tang in 33nds of an inch. They
the edge will meet the
are useful in ])oring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes.
They cannot
be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced.
Bit-point
drills.
Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are
expensive.
Auger-hits, Fig. 130, have several important features. centers the bit in
its
motion, and since
screw draws the auger into the wood.
it is in
Two
The spur
the form of a pointed
sharp
on either side
nil)S
score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are
then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the of auger-bits
Thus
9
is
means
a
One
do this
is
is
sight first
to be taken in using auger-bits.
A
to bore perpendicularly to the surface.
to lay the
work
flat,
is
perpendicular
l)oth
difficult pieces, l)y a
a
test
may
fellow Avorker.
precaution
is that, in thru l)oring. the lioles
side, lest the
and
tlie
l)e
made
The
sense of per-
(3) Another
should not be bored quite
wood be splintered
the spur pricks thru, the bit should
also be
plumb-line, either by the
pendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated.
thru from one
to
side of the work, to see
The
ways.
with the try-square. Fig. 137, or with worker, or in
good way
either on the bench or in the vise, and
from the front and then from the
that the bit
size
diameter of 9/lfi".
There are three chief precautions (1)
The
tool.
indicated by a figure on the tang in Kiths of an inch.
off
on the back.
When
removed, the piece turned over,
l)oring finished. i)iitting the spur in the hole
which
is
pricked
HAXDWORK
86 tliru
l)Oi'iiig
111
from
tlie
IX WOOD.
side.
iii'st
seldom necessary
It is
to press
against the knolj of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur will
])nll
the bit thru, especially in soft wood.
reaches nearly thru the board,
the knob
if
when
Indeed, as the bit
gently pulled back, then
is
the spur pricks thru the bit will
This avoids
be ])u]led out of its hole.
the necessity of constantly watching the
back of the board to see (o)
tbni.
making
for dowels or in
For
piece.
blind mortise,
a
this
purpose an auger-
may
bit-gage, Fig. 219, p. 11(5,
wood
or a block of tliru
whieli
is
be taken not to bore thru
caic should tlic
the spur
if
In stop boring, as in boring
be used,
of the proper length
may
hole has been boi'cd,
a
be slijiped over the bit, or the length of
may
bit
noted
l)e
and
boring,
before
then the length of the i)rojecting por-
deducted, or
tion
needed be Fii,'-
\^l.
I'-iiil;-
a Guidi-
a
ill
counted on
stiiiig
around
mark on small
trial
it
is
a
l)it,
or
of turns
may
depth
Tying
piece.
making
a
chalk
a
folly.
with an auger-lht hie. Fig.
sliai|»riUMl
1-12,
p.
90,
hie witb two na.ri'ow safe edges at one end and two wide
tlat
The
safe edges at the otiiur.
that the diameter of the cut of the
a
Try-Square as rjoriii^.
Auger-bits aie a
number
tlie
to reach the re(pured
The cutting
iiit.
li])
"nibs"* should be filed
may lemain
on the inside so
as large as that of the
body
slundd be sharpened from the side toward
tbc spur, care Ijcing taken to ])reserve the original angle so as to give clcaraJice.
If
shaipened fi'om the
u])])er side,
that
is,
the side toward
tbc sbaid\', the nibs will ti'ud to becom(> shorter. 'J'lie
tliat
foi'cibly
whicli
is
auiicr-bils.
useful for cutting }dugs with which
l-'ig.
i;!2.
woi'k'
on the samt'
])rinci])le
as auger-bits,
tbc spurs ha\'c no screw, and hence have to
into the wood.
arc useful
is
beads of screws that are deeply ct)untersunk.
Ccii/rr-hils.
except
Fig. 131,
ji/iii/-ciill('r.
to cover tbc
for soft
likely to
Sizes are given in l()ths of an
wood, and si)lit.
in
Tliey
boring large holes ai-c
in
])uslied
l)e
incli.
tliin
They
material
sharpened in the same way as
WOOD HAND Foerstner
87
TOOLS.
Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are
hits.
The size is indiThey are useful in boring into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appli-
centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. cated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch.
ances.
Expansive-ljUs, Fig. 134, are so sizes
made
as to bore holes of different
by adjusting the movable nib and cutter.
There are two sizes, 1^" and the
the small one with two cutters, boring from Y^" to large one with tliree cutters boring from %" to 4".
They
are very
on particular occasions,
useful
but have to be used with care.
E earners,
Fig. 135, are used
enlarging
for
They
made.
already
holes
made
are
square,
half-round and six cornered in shape. CoiUltersinls,
Fig.
reamers in the shape of a cone,
and are used
countersink
The
is
to
Fig
130, arc
Washer-Cutter.
138.
flat
make
The
holes for the heads of screws.
rose
the most satisfactory form.
ivasher-cutter. Fig.
138,
is
useful not only for cutting out
The
washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood.
size
is
ad-
justable. 3.
The primitive
celt,
which was hardly more than
dift'erentiated into three
53, the ax, Fig. 139,
The ax has
also
CIIOPPIXG TOOLS.
modern hand
a
and the adze, Fig. 141.
been differentiated into the hatchet, with a short
handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle
with two hands. is
wedge, has been
tools, the chisel, see above, p.
Its
shape
is
an adaption
to its
is
long, for use
manner
of use.
oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow
and
It also
axman may feel and guide the direction of the The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it
in order that the blade. left
from slipping thru the hand. beveled edge. at
anv
ane'le.
This
is
In both ax and hatchet there
is
a
two-
for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood
HANDWORK
88
IX WOOD.
There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two ax,
the hitter used chiefi_Y in lumbering.
shaped ax for splitting wood.
As among
There all
also
is
tools,
there
bitted
a
wedge-
is
among
axes a great variety for s])ecial uses.
Fiy.
13'i.
Ax.
Fig.
140.
Shiiitrliny Hatchet.
Fig-. 141.
Car-
penter's Adze.
Tlic hatchet has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails,
and
a
notch
f(n-
drawing them, thus comlnning three
The shingling liatchet. Fig. 140, is The ailze, the carpenter's honse
a
tools in
one.
type of this.
adze. Fig. 141.
side, since its use is for straiti'htenino- snrfaces.
is flat
on the lower
*
References (1)
WOOD IIAXD
TOOLS.
WOOD HAND
TOOLS.
89
:
Cutting.
Smith. R. H., pp.
Goss, p. 22.
1-8.
Chisel.
Barnaid, pp.
44-50.
Barter, pp.
93-9().
Griffith,
Goss, pp. 20-26.
.i!)-73.
pp.
Seidell,
Sickels, pp. 64-67.
14.1-147.
Wheeler, 357, 421, 442.
.5.3-04.
pp.
Knife. Selden. pp. 26-28, 158.
Barnard, pp. 48-58.
Saw. Goss, pp. 26-41.
pp. 20-27.
Griffith,
Barnard, pp. 114-124. Selden,
pp.
41-43.
Sickels, pp. 76-79, 84.
Smith, R. H.. 43-55.
179-182.
Disston, pp. 129-138.
Wheeler, pp. 400-473.
Hammacher,
p]).
300-300.
Plane.
Barnard. Selden.
i)p.
pp.
Smith. R. H.. pp. 10-31.
74-80. 11-20.
Larsson,
105-175.
(2)
19.
Wheeler, pp. 445-458.
Hammacher,
(Griffith,
pp.
377-400.
pp. 28-45.
Boring Tools. Barnard, pp. 125-135.
Selden. pp. 38-40. 141-144.
Goss, pp.
Wheeler, pp. 353-356.
53-59.
Griffith, pp. 47-52.
(3)
p.
Goss, pp. 41-52. Barter, pp. 96-109.
Sickels pp. 72-75, IK!.
Chopping Tools. Barnard, pp. 80-88.
^For general liibliography see
p.
4.
Chapter IV, Continued.
WOOD HAXD
TOOLS.
SCRAPING TOOLS.
-t.
Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only
smooth
or
al)ra(]e
surfaces.
Files. Figs. l-tS-l-tG, are
teeth. These teeth are cut
formed with
when
metal
tlie
a series of cutting edges or is
soft
and cold and then
tlie
^
Fifr. 142. FifT. 144. Fig. 146.
Auger-Bit-Filf.
Three-Square Siiis-Je-Cut Double-Cut File.
File.
Fig.
tool tiles,
is
hardened.
There are
each of whicli
148.
Fig. 143. Single-Cut Blunt, Flat. Bastard Fih Fig. 145. Open Cut. Taper. Half-Round FiKv Fig. 147. Cabinet Wood-Rasp. File-Card.
adajjfed to
is
thousand varities
in use at least three
its ])articular purpot^e.
measiii'ed from point to heel exeliisive of the tang.
(1)
according to
tiieii'
<-ross-sectioii tliiaiout
)
.
outlines into Miiiit.
and
taju'i-:
(
"i
90
)
(i.
They
c.,
Lengths are are classified:
Iiaxing a
accoiding to ihe
ot'
uniform
.-^hapc of theii'
WOOD HAXD
TOOLS.
91
round
cross-section, into flat, square, three-sqnare or triangular, knife,
or rat-tail, half-round, etc.;
(3)
according to the manner of their
serrations, into single cut or "float" (having single, unbroken, paralchisel cuts across the surface),
lel,
(having two
double-cut,
sets of
chisel cuts crossing each other ol)liquelY,) oj^en cut, (having series of parallel
tlie
rig. u'K of a Rasp Tooth. Cross-Section of a Siiig-le-Cut
Diagram
cut
Rasps, Fig. 147, differ from
made by
second
form,
'^"'mill
a
is
according to rough, bas-
as
smooth,
cut,
The
smooth.
mon
File.
(4)
fineness of the cut,
tard,
and
having one or more
and
uncut surfaces;
I
staggered,)
slightly
cuts,
safe edge, (or side,)
file."
flat,
a
and
dead
very com-
tapered,
single-
fllf.
files
in that instead of having cutting
made by making indentawhen the iron is soft. The difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 14!). It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be teeth
lines, coarse projections are
tions with a triangular point
taken to
file flat,
not letting the tool rock.
the forward stroke, for that a flatter surface
Both
files
is
more
is
the
way
It
is
better to
the teeth are
made
file
only on
to cut,
and
likely to be obtained.
and rasps can be cleaned with a Tliey are sometimes sharp-
file-card. Fig. 148.
ened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are discarded.
Scrapers are thin,
may l)e
flat pieces of steel.
They
may
be rectangular, or some of the edges
For scraping hollow surfaces curved
curved.
venient shapes are shown in Fig. 150.
Fig-. 150.
Molding-Scrapers.
Con-
scrapers of various shapes are necessary.
The
cut-
ting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along their edges.
shavings.
When
properly sharjiened they take
off
not dust but fine
Scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained
and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc. There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or han-
pieces of wood,
dles,
such as the scraper-plane. Fig. 111.
and box-scrapers. that the blade
may
The
p.
veneer-scraper. Fig.
79, the veneer-scraper,
151, has the advantage
be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in
IIAXDWOKK
92 the middle of
l)Mek. just
tlu'
IX WOOD.
an ordinary scraper
;is
wlieii
is
lield
in
the hands.
Jn u^e, Wlicii
FliS-
seraper
tlic
l-">v.
sciaper
ilic
])iis1i(m1.
lield
is
may
he eithei'
I
'tim^^lffm ^^-
on the hack side.
chatter and
'^"^
'%^m\
iMr
-•*^-^^*'*
hy
sh'ghtiy,
so
thiiinhs.
When
Usinpr a VeneerScraper.
1
is
the scraper
as follows:
The
held in a vise.
smooth one.
edge of the
to the
end
(d'
i'i]i:r.
set
oil
('i\^j:i'
oil
till
Sipiare
coiners
ill
of
1.-).-).
l-dg.
the \isc
i'dg.
steel,
jigaiii
t
ill
position
llic
no in. is
is
)nc
Hist
method
of
sliai peiiim;"
hrought
to
the desired
smooth. Hat
tie. tlie scraper, while i.
e..
the Hie. a
l^;!.
and moved sidewise from end is
(|uite
to
with the sides.
S(piare
till it
the sides
;iri'
hiight and
smooth along
is
the stone and
along
all
'jdiell
the
is
it
put
ami hy meanor
done
h\"
steel at a
or
lied
so as to hiiin a
sciaper
Hue
'iit
over
liinr.
This
h
Usinjr a Cabinet-
Fig-. 152.
Scraper
tipping the scrajier
slight
sharp corner,
To
|ndlci|
the
hoth of these corners aic
(••irel'iilh'
is
Then
hiirnishrr.
a
is
theie ale two slcirp
rilhhed
edge.
of
theic
that
Hat on the oilstone and ruhhed. Hrst on one
laid
is
i:)4.
l-dg.
a
the edge
until
side and then on the other,
the
howt'd hack
is
pics^urc
then carefully diaw-filed.
is
scia|'ei'.
the sciaper.
Tlien the sciaper
tilted
(one hand at each end) directly at light angh's
held
is
with
liliiig vi\^j:v
is
This mav he done either hv giiiKhng on
shape, sti'aight or eiiived. the grindstone or hy
cd.
CVi'lStMh <
the scraper
It
of the co;ncis digu-inu'
lisle
Fig-. 151.
])id
oi-
the I'niward and the thnndjs
nil
^MHj^H^MHHVi
IM
pushed
(h-ndy in hotli liands, the lingers
angle with the edge and rulihing
j-'ig.
1
I'esharpen the scia]ier
time, hut onlv to
it
lirinly
along the
•")(;.
flatten
out
it
is
not necessaiy to Hie
the e^ ft. to 8 ft. The separate parts are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip
C
HANDWORK
102 into which
and the
the screw D, on the other end of wliicli
fits
slide
IX WOOD.
F
with
its
dog G, which engac-
Any
bar. 1)e
r^ t!'p
-
part,
is
the crank E,
notches on the if
broken, can
rophieed separately.
('
makers'
also
Uitudscrcirs,
I •on called
clamps and carriageclamps, Fig.
177,
are
useful in certain kinds of work, as
in
and
gluing in special
in wood-carving.
clamps
need
blocks
])laces
All iron of
soft
wood to be placed between them and the finished work. Pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, are a convenient 174.
Adjusting- Handscrew.
ordinary purposes the smallest
I'oi'
especially
for
pieces
drawing of
size is sufficient.
work.
fine
double-] lointed
properly
device
two
tacks,
are con-
filed,
venient.
The Fig.
hench-liDol-.
17!'.
is
firndy
small
work
when
holding
bench
saves
from
b
mai'i'ed.
should
I)e
arc
chiseled.
also
It
etc.
of
])ieces
they
sawn,
being
sinijilc
a
for
device
e
the i
n g
The
angles
ke])t
exactly
siral
B
ffln Fiy.
1''2.
Sled
lieiicli-Kule.
J
WOOD HAND
TOOLS.
107
The one
work.
mon
in
most com-
nse in school shops,
is
a
Some
two-foot, two-fold rule.
instructors prefer to have pu-
use a four-fold rule, be-
pils
cause that Back
Fig-. 103.
of Steel
Square, Brace Measure.
form com-
the
is
monly used
in the
ing trades.
Steel bench-rules.
Fig.
are
193,
woodwork-
satisfactory
in
work because unbreakable and because thev do
school
not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules.
They need
to be burnished occasionally.
The
steel
useful, not
but
also
square,
Figs.
for
a
number
which are stamped on but
tlu'
one in most
or "body" 24"x2"
is
191,
196,
is
100.
and tables There are various forms,
of graduations
it.
common
use consists of a b ade at right
number
for this
Sargent's trade
Tt includes
graduations in hundredths,
thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, of
197,
and a "tongue," l()"xl^",
angles to each other.
form
193,
only as a straight-edge and try-square,
and eighths
an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square
measure, and the Essex board-measure. Another instead
of an
dredths graduation has a rafter-table.
which the name of the maker the "face,"'
and the reverse
The brace-measure
is
is
numbers
side is
upon called
side the "back."'
to be
set
The
stamped,
found along the center
of the ))ack of the tongue. Fig. 193.
the two equal
style,
Essex board-measure, and the hun-
It is used thus:
one above the other rep-
resent the sides of a square, and the single to their right, represents in inches
number
and decimals, the
E. g., |^ 76.37 means that square the sides of w^hich are 54" would have a
diagonal of that square. a
diagonal of 70. 3T".
For determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse) of a right angle triangle, when the other
two given sides are not equal, the foot other steel square
mav
rule, or an-
be laid diagonally across the
HANDWORK
108 blade and
IX WOOD.
arm, and applied
directly to
proper grad-
tlie
uations thereon, and the dis-
them
between
tance
ured on the
rule.
meas-
If the dis-
tance to be measured use the
feet,
is
in
1/12" graduaFace of Steel
Fig-. 194.
on
tions
the
back
of
Square, Octag-on, "Eig-htSquare," Scale.
the
square.
To
use the octagonal
(or
8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which of
tlie
is
along the
c 'liter
face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the
nuiulier of spaces in the scale to correspond with the
number
wood is square, and from the center point, on each Connect the points thus obtained,
of inches the piece of
lay this distance off
edge of the board.
diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon will he had. E. g., on a lioard 12" square. Fig.
1 !>.-).
find
A.F).('.r)..
the centers of each edge.
Xow
with
the
dividers take
spaces
S-square
Lay
12
from the scale.
otf this dis-
on
tance side
from
each
A" B"
A'
as
A,
B'
from
B,
etc.
Xow
connect
A"
with B', B" with (".
(•"
with
D',
A',
and
D" with the
octagon
obtained.
1"5. Method of Using the EightSquare Scale on the Steel-Square.
Fig.
In making S(]uare
timber octagonal, the same method butt, ter
is
sawed laid
true. olT.
When
is
is
])iece
used
on
a
of
the
the distance from one cen-
the marking-gage
may
be set to the
—
-
---to
—
IIANDWOKK IN WOOD.
110
board to bu meas-
If the
ured
longer than any
is
fig-
ure given, divide the length parts and
into two of
result
add the
the two ^larts
obex-
taiiKMJ
se})arately.
For
aiHi)le.
for a
'i-\'
l)oard
and lo" wide.
=13: 24'
add
—take
to
Fig-. 197.
Square with Rafter Table.
Steel
long
I'^'xlo" ]l'xi:r' =
it.
n'
11'
total.
11".
A
good general rule
to think
is
fii'st
whether
or not the problem can be done in one's head
without the assistance of the square.
The
table
is
made,
as its
name, Board-Meas-
ure (B.M.) implies, for measuring boards, which are coin
moldy 1"
1" thick. tlic
thick.
iiiiilti})ly
For material more than
the B.^F of one surface by
miiiibcr of inches thick the piece measures.
The
rafter-table
is
found on the back of
the body of the square. Fig. to
it
1!»7.
Auxiliary
are the twelfth inch graduations, on the
outside edges, which
may
represent either feet
or inches.
By
the "'run" of the rafter
izontal distance Avhen
Fig.
Ifi8.
it
is
is
meant the horfrom the
set in place
The "Run" and "Rise" of a Rafter.
from the ridge
end of
its
foot to a i)lumb line
end,
i.
e.,
one half the width of the building,
Fio;.
198.
Bv
the
''rise''
of the rafter
is
meant
the porpendicidar distance from the ridge end
WOOD HAND
TOOLS.
By
to the level of the foot of the rafter.
ratio of the rise to twice the run,
building.
In a
the building:
^
i.
e.,
to
Ill the jiitch
pitch, the rise equals the run, or
in a 1/3
pitch
the
,1:0.
l,]?l,r.l.i?l,i,l,ii'l.i.l.ia.i.l.iPl
rise
4-4
is
is
meant the
the total width of the
1/3
the
^
the width of
width of the
HANDWORK
112 lot
nearest the widtli
)er
1" thick.
The
(measined
in inches)
whicli
•?()().
fn/-s(ju(irc. V\u:.
IX WOOD.
is
lum-
for
most commonly used for nieasuiing
accuracy
the
angles,
width of
various
at
right
of
al^o convenient for
is
testing the
» ^
B.M.
gives the
a
Ijoard
along
places
its
making short measurements, and as a guide in length, tor
laying out lines with a pencil knife at right angles to
or
\
sill fat-e
\ai'ious
l)y
the
A
oii\ fiiicnt
^M^L^
-
idiial
of
hlade.
the
for
size
indi-
hench and lov ordinary
has a hlade
use
a
sizes are
and are indicated
length
tlie
The
or etlge.
(>"
long.
It
Using- the Try-Square.
Fig-. 203.
is
have
also well to
one large one with
in the a
shop
12" hlade.
In testing the sipiareness of woi'k with the try-square, care must be taken to see that the head rests firmly against
which the
test
made, and
being
edge
the
is
203.
The
shiudd
be
teste(l
liuiidtei'
of ])|aees
Fig.
same
way:
The
the piece. is
scril)ing
hoards.
good
in
method
till
the suiface fiom tlie
hlade touches
a
the
is,
it
along
try-square
use
in
across
lines
Fig.
down
edge at
slid
great
of
also
slijjjM'd
tested.
that
should not be
llini
204. is
to
A put
the point of the knife at the beginning of the de-
^^"..^(14.
ScriliinLT
with Kiiifc
by Try-Scjuare.
sired
square
slide
line.
along
until
the it
touches the knife-blade: against
tli«'
vi\:j:i\
then, holding the head of the square firmly
draw the knife along, pressing
it
lightly
againsr
WOOD HAND the blade, holding 1
it
TOOLS.
113
To
prevent the knife from
ijerpendicularly.
iinning aAvay from the bhide of the try-square, turn
edge slightly
its
towards the blade.
The
miter-square. Fig. ^01,
is
a try-square fixed at an angle of 45".
The
sliding
T
level.
Fig.
203, has a blade adjustable to
any
angle.
It
may
be
set
from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from a
either
given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. Windiiig--Sticks, 12 inches Long-.
Fig-. 205.
used
is
similarlv
the
to
It
T-
square. Winding-sticl-s, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of
exactly the same width thruout. there
are used to find out whether
in a Ijoard.
This
is
done by placing
parallel to each other, one at one end of the board,
them at
any twist or "wind"
is
They
other end.
the
By sighting
across
and the other
them, one can readily see
whether the board be twisted or not. Fig. 206. The blades of two framing-squares may be used in the same manner.
Compasses or
diviilcrs.
Fig. 20;, consist of
and having sharpened
joint,
points.
A
divider which can be accurate'y adjusted
can
be
two
legs
turning on a
convenient f(n'm
by set-screws.
is
the wing
A
pencil
substi-
tuted for the re-
movable
point.
They
are
for
describing
circles
for
used
and
spacing,
arcs,
for
measuring,
for
subdividing
dis-
tances, scribing.
and
Fig.
201).
Method
of Usintr the Windiiifr-Sticks.
for
In scribing a line parallel with
a
given outline, one leg
follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, the desired line.
Used
in this
way they
are very convenient for
marks mark-
ing out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point.
HANDWOKK
114
The beam-compass. ning on a beam which
IN WOOD.
Fig. 308, consists of two trammel-points run-
may
used for describing large
be
made
of any convenient length.
A
circles.
pencil
may
It is
be attached to one
point.
and
Calipers, outside
inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the
accurate gaging of diameters, as in Avood-turning.
iat=^
Fig-. 207.
Winytd
Dividers.
The marhing-gage. on a beam or bar,
to
the face of the head
is
to a flat,
Inside Calipers.
it is
fixed by
means
of a set-screw.
is
a steel spur or point,
edge toward which the gage
is
little
to be
ject
about y^" from the beam.
it is
likely to be, the graduations
them
which should be
rounded and sharpened on the moved. Fig. 212.
It should pro-
If the spur be at all out of place, as a beam will be unreliable. Hence when setting the gage and always
on
entirely
it
is
to
measure with the rule from the head
to the spur. Fig. 213.
In use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on corner,
r
On
a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing.
sharp edge, a
best to neglect
Fi.
(iiigcr-tiit-giif/r.
Fig.
convenient tool
a
is
tor
measuring the depth of holes boied.
poses to
but
the
which
oi'diuary
foi'
length
i»ro])er
a
bole
is
]uir-
wood sawn
of
block
a
bored,
thru is
a
Fiir. 217.
Knller M(lI•li^e-GaKt
satisfactoiy substitute. Scrcir-
find
ii-irc-gagcs,
Fig.
220.
are
usefid
in
measuring the
lengths and sizes of screws and wire wlien lifting or ordering.
The
spirit-level,
and the
/iliinih-liin'
which
it
has largely replaced,
are in constant use in carpeiiti'iing. but are rarely needed in shopwork.
=^^
Fife'. 21X.
Scratcli-Awl.
Fig. 219.
Aujfer-Bit-Gag-e
WOOD HAXD TOOLS. Blacl'board in a
The The
etc.,
are convenient accessories
woodworking classroom. 8.
and
triangles,
coiitixisse-s.
117
griuclsfoiie
soft.
for
The grinding
SlfAKPENING TOOLS.
woodworking
tools
stone should run as true as possible.
Fitr. 220. a.
is
best
when
rather fine
surface should be straight and never concave.
Screw-Gag-e.
can be made true by
It
Screw- and Wire-Gages. b.
c
Wire-Gag-e.
Twist
Drill-Gag-c.
using a piece of 1" gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone
when run to
dry.
Power grindstones usually have truing A common form is a hardened
them. Fig. 221.
devices attached steel screw, the
thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they both revolve, shears
off
the face of the stone.
always be wet when in use
and
l)otli
to carry
oft'
The
suiface should
the paiticles of stone
and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to its temper would be drawn, which would show by its turning blue. But a grindstone should never stand in water or it would rot. steel,
keep the tool cool, as otherwise,
HANDWORK
118 It
is
well to have the waste
cisternlike hox settle
under
it,
IX WUOU.
from the grindstone empty into a
Fig. 221.
In this box the sediment will
while the water overliows from
it
into the
snch a box, the sediment will be carried into and
The box
is
to be em^jtied occasionally, before the
drain.
may
Without
clog the drain.
sediment overflows.
WOOD HAND holder.
The
119
TOOLS.
tool-hokler consists of four parts:
(1) a strip C, 1^^"
and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. The forward end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the main board A. Its length is determined by the distance thick,
Fig. 222.
Grinding Device.
from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole It is better to use in A, into which the rear end is to be inserted. as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down.
Fig. 223.
be serviceable; (8) a strip, D, of the same width thick, and 15" to 18" long; (3) a cleat, E, ^"x^",
the stick will as
A
and
still
%"
nailed across
Holder for Grinding- Cnisels or Plane-Bits
D;
(4) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass,
F,.
WOOD.
llAXD\VUi;K IN
120 Hroiuid
wiiR'li })asses
farther end of
tlie
D
two
tlie
C and D,
striptr,
aiid
by staples or screws.
is
fastened loosely to
is
held firndy in place by the pressure applied to the bad-; end of D,
The
ground
tool to be
slips lietwi'L'n this loop
which thus
acts as a lever
Anv
l)e\cl
desired
bv cboosing
tlie
suu'
\)v
on the tool to
ohtainiMl
hole in
L'oiward or
just iiig the tool
strip C,
and
on the fulcrum K.
iiuiy
pi-o[)er
and the
A
for
backward
llic
in
or by ad-
('
As much
chunp.
tlie
sliai'peneiK
])e
end of
l>;ick
pres-
be |)ut on the tool as the driving belt will stand without
mav
sli})i)ing off.
A 1^"
simjtler bolder for the
still
tliick
l)lanc-bit
"2"
and
into
fits
firndy in })lace (t
l)y
only,
})liUic-l)it
cut in the sliape
wide,
the saw-kerf the hand.
By
K. and
'^'^o.
The
easily
held
in Fig.
gi'inding
in
wood
stiip of
a
is
shown
(i
is
inserting the rear end of the stick
may
into a higher or lower hole in the hoaid A. any desired angle
G
be obtained.
is
shown
in ])osition
in
Kig.
"i'M.
The
All such devices necessitate a ))eifeetly true stone.
wbieh the
features are. to have a rigid support against
pushed hv
mav
tlie
revohing
essential
may
tool
be
stone, to liold the tool at a tixt'd ang'e which
be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stoiu' with etui-
The wheel should
siderable pressure.
levolve toward the edge which is
sons.
It
easier to bold the
of
edge
lessened.
is
|)roducing
becomes
tends
is
stone
the
if
awa\'
from the
t'dge.
stone
does
run
there
is
a
not
as to
stone
the
tendeney
this
\iite(l
the
wire
a
The edge
thin,
away from
^|)ring
and
and
thus,
danger
it
Atracite (.rintler.
is
steadily
tool
Fig-. 224.
ground, for two rea-
heiiig
aggrarevolves If the
true
e(»nse(|uent
and
danger
of digging into the stone with
the tool
wbieh
awav from the
is
lieing
alj^r.
sharpened, the stone would
The grinding should
suiface reaches the cutting edge and there the edge.
If the gi'inding is continued
gained, and
a
h-tter
levolve
eontiniie until the
ground
is
no
briglit line left
beyond this
hea\v wire edge will be lormed.
]>oint.
along
nothing
is
WOOD HAXD
A
TOOLS.
121
very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold
"AgacUe grinder,' has a number of different shaped g-rinding made chiefly of carborundum. The oilstone. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is done on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. Tlie fine white ones are called Arkan-
as the
'
stones
sas stones,
and the coarser ones Washita
woodworking
for ordinary
tools.
stone, Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even
made in medium grade It is
use.
Oil
an
artificial
stones.
The
reconunended for ordinary shop
used on oilstones for the same pur-
is
When
pose as water on a grindstone.
stone becomes hollow or uneven by be trued by rubbing
it
on
a
iise,
an
oil-
may
it
Slipstones, Fig. 225, are small oi'stones, fit
^'^- ^^^-
siipstone.
Hat board covered
with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over
in order to
oilstone,
more quickly than the natural
several grades of coarseness. is
Tlie latter are better
stones.
The India
a l)\x'k of
made
wood.
into various shapes
different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc
Files are used
for sharpening saws,
augers, scrapers, etc.
See
above, p. 00. 9.
The in
Fig.
One may
hcncJi duster. 1()6,
p.
essential if the
Buffer.
Bristle
98.
shop
CLEANINC4 TOOLS.
is
be noted hanging on the bench
to be kept tidy.
Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft
available, a buffer
made
of
valuable for ^Dolishing tools.
many
thicknesses of cotton cloth
The addition
the
Empire Implement
is
is
very
of a little tripoli greatly
facilitates the cleanina;.
'Made by
shown
brushes for cleaning the benches are
Co., Albany, N.
Y
—
HANDWORK
122
HAND
AVOOD
TOOLS.
IN WOOD.
Continued.
References:* (4)
Scraping Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Wheeler, pp. 465, 473.
(5)
(7)
I,
pp.
Selden. pp. 31,
Sickels,
C^oss, p. 60.
70.
p.
]ip.
414, 428-432.
182.
61-74.
Barter,
111,
156.
128.
p.
Punching Tools. Barnard,
p.
29.
Wheeler,
p.
433.
Selden. p. 161.
Gripping Tools. For holding work: 63.
p.
Sehh'U. pp. 140, 147, 186, 194.
Wlieeler, pp. 65-75, 475.
For holding other
Ihiiiiniaclier,
]ip.
286-291.
tools:
Goss. pp. 56-59.
Selden.
143.
p.
Measuring and Marking Tools. Goss, pp. 9-20. Griffith, jip.
Tate,
pp.
Pocketbook. pp. 234-
Selden, pp. 149. 150-152, 175.
Sargent's Steel Squares.
21-25.
Sharpening Tools. Barnard, pp. 136-142. Sickels,
BiiihUiiri Troflcs
9-19.
Hodgson, The Steel 8(iyare. Wheeler, p. 465.
[9)
Hodgson,
Barnard, pp. 24-47.
Goss.
(8)
Selden, pp. 149, 177,
Pounding Tools.
Wheeler,
(6)
pp. 71-75.
Griftitli,
pp. 80-85.
Wheeh'r, pp. 480-488.
^'For general hihliograpliy see p. 4.
Selden, pp.
Goss, pp.
153,
39.
162,
64-69.
172.
180.
Chapter V.
WOOD The following
means by which
are the chief
fastened together:
and
FASTEXIJvTGS. wood
pieces of
are
nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges,
locks.
NAILS Nails, Fig. 226,
may
which they are made;
may
be classified according to the material of copper, and brass.
as, steel, iron,
be galvanized to protect
them from
Iron nails
Copper and brass
rust.
are used where they are sul)ject to
nails
much danger
of corrosion, as in boats.
may
Nails
9
also be classified according to the
process of manufacture nails,
and wire nails.
as,
;
Cut
plate of metal in such a
the nail
is
cut nails, wrought
from a
nails are cut
way
that the width of
equal to the thickness of the plate,
and the length plate. In the
of the nail to the
third
dimension,
width of the the
nail
is
wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at Unless properly driven, such nails
the head. Cut nail, cominon. b. Flat-head wire nail, No. 1, comFig-.
220.
mon,
c.
a.
Finishing-nail,
or brad.
ai'e
likely
driven
to
they
the wood, but
split
are
very
In
firm.
if
properly
driving,
the
wedge should spread with and not across the giain.
Wrought little or
as
when
no temper, clinched.
are of the
Wire
nails are
are
if
and have sort.
They
as cut nails.
made from drawn
headed, and roughened by machinery.
hold nearly
steel,
without breaking,
Horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this
same shape nails
worked into shape from hot
so that they can be bent over
steel
They
wire,
and are pointed,
are comparatively cheap,
not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely
displaced, can be bent without breaking, 123
and can be clinched.
JlAXUWOIiK IX WOOD.
124 Nails ajo also as,
common
thr
to
aci-ordiiio-
classitic'd
their heads;
of
sliajic
and hrads or finishing
ilat-lieads,
oi'
Flat-heads
nails.
are used in ordinary work, wheie the lieads are not to he siud\ in
the
wood
or "set."
Koine nails get their names fiom their
uses;
s])i'eial
as, shingle-
nails, trunk-nails. l:)oat-nails. lath-nails. ]»i(tnic-nails. harrel-nails, etc.
The
size of nails
thiee])enny nail
a
long, a tivejienny nail
penny,
Init
twelveiH'nny nail
a
long, a t\venty|)enny nail
'i/'i"
ing that "tenjienny"
pound.
are sold
'File
size of cut
This
example,
that (U'igina ly
is
nails
is
is
nail
2" long.
ailded
is
1^"
is
In each
f(U-
'4" long, a sixteenpcnny nail
4" long.
for
nails,
Anothei' explanation
-5
is
is
'4"
t<'n])('iniy
For
to "penny."'
fourpenny
a
long, a sixpenny nai
l-)4"
is
words, from thiecpennv to
othei'
a
1'4" long,
is
the
l)y
old iioiuencdatuie for cut nails
'i'he
which certain numhi'is arc picfixed
also survives, in
example,
indicated hy the length in inches, and
is
wire for wire nails,
size of the
ten})ence
i-ost
looo of such
usually
still
i;-
explained as mean-
is
hundred.
a
nails
weighed
so indicated.
Xails
the pound.
l)y
The advantages
and
chea]).
easily ap-
and the work can he separated, the
The disadvantages
with difficulty.
and
of nails are that they are quickly
plied, they are strong
are the a])pearancc and, in
some
hy driving
them
cases, the insecurity.
The holding power wood
into the
of nails
than
at other
inclination
when dri\cn
inci'cased
and sonu'
Yig. 227. Tack.
he a
They
l)utty.
Tdcl's,
"ouiu-e."
or,
they hind
gi eater f(U'ce
confined for
all
the
than
with
a
small
to
nails.
iiisl(ad of flat so that
is
to
he
they
The may
filled
with
painted,
with
and the ho'e
nailset
where the wood
fin-
finishing nails,
from comnion or llat-headed
made round
easily
si't
plug,
driving some at
aic used for intei'ior finishing and othei' nice work.
j-'ig.
flat-hea(le(|. a
By
in straiglit.
in di-tiiu-tion
lieads aie
where several
another,
at
The term hrads was once ishing nails, l)ut is now used
'
tacks,
he
wood together with much
])ieccs of
as.
nuiy
right angle. es])ecially
unite two i)ieces of wood.
nails oiH'
*pp
a
soi'l
Foi'
•.'•??,
vary
gimp.
in
size
and shaiie at-cording
iouiid-hea(le(l.
of small
example,
staple. a
Their
to their use;
and douhle-jiointcMl ov nuitting size
t\vo-(miiee tack
is is
imlicaied hy the
word
'4" long, a three-ounce
AVOOD FASTENINGS. tack
is
^"
long, a four-ounce tack
Yz" long, etc.
7/16" long, a six-ounce tack
is
is
This term once meant the numher of ounces of iron
make 1000
required to
125
tacks.
wood thin material, such as Tinner's tacks, which are used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. Wire tacks, altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks because they lack a sharp point, which is esTacks are useful only in fastening
to
veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc.
sential.
Corrugated fasteners, Fig. 328, or fluted are used to fasten together tAvo pieces
nails,
of
wood by driving the fastener
half of
Their
it
will be
size is indicated
number
so that one-
on each side of the
joint.
by the length and the
of corrugations, as Yz" , four.
Figr. 228.
They
Corrugated
Fastener.
are often useful Avhere nails are impracticable. Glaziers' points are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten
glass into sashes.
SCREAVS (a)
Wood-screws, Fig. 229,
Avhich they are bright,
— the
made;
common
finish,
tinned, or bronzed.
ing,
may
be classified by the material of
as, steel or brass.
— blued
Steel screws
may
be either
by heat or acid to hinder rust-
Brass scrcAvs are essential wherever rust
Avould be detrimental, as in boats. (b)
ScieAvs are also classified by shape;
as,
flat-headed, round-
headed, fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed screAvs.
Flat-heads are most
commonly
shapes for particular purposes.
used. There are also special Eound-heads may be used either for
decoration or where great clraAving power case, Avashers are
commonly
from sinking into the head
filling the
a trifle besides.
is
desirable.
In the
inserted under the heads to prevent
Avood.
latter
them
Oval-heads are used decoratively, the
countersunk hole, as
Avith flat-heads,
They
in the interior finish of raiJAvay
are
much used
and projecting
They are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest. The thread of the scrcAV begins in a fine point so that it may penetrate the wood easily Avhere no hole has been bored as is often the case in soft wood. The thread extends about two-thirds the length of the screAv. Anv longer thread Avould onlv Aveaken the cars.
IIANDAVORK IX WOOD.
126 screw where
it
most needs strength, near the head, and
need friction with the piece thru which Tlie size of screws
(less
does not
indicated by their length in inches, and by
is
made, using the stand-
the diameter of the wire lidin wliicli tliey are
ard screw-gage. Fig.
it
passes.
it
'-^-^. Flat-head Wood-screw, a. c. FiUisterRound-head Wood-screw. d. Oval-couiitersunkhead Wood-screw. head Wood-screw, e. Drive-screw, f. Squarehead (lag-or coach-) Screw.
tlie
Then
tight.
tbe
all
Fifr.
strength
b.
driving,
in
goes toward drawing tbe pieces together,
frietion.
exerted
not
overcoming
in
hole must be deep enough, especially in bard wood and
The
for l)rass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking
the screw.
Soap
of screws.
Where
may
iirst
and
dee])
is
often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving it
enough
to insert a ]ihig of
plug-cutter. Fig. lot.
witb a
luost
of
\\\
'-(Irive-sci cws."
wav across tbe bead,
is
place.
in
Fig.
is
If
cut out witb a
pains are taken
inconsi)icuous.
be driven into ])lace witb a
then
a
few
tinal
tbis brinks tlu' tibeis of tlu'
sci-ew(lri\('r. but
tbeir bobl.
may
length, and
its
in
tbus I'onued
In rough woik. tbe screw tbi'u
wood, wbicb
and glued
S4.
]).
to iiiatcb tbe grain, tlu' scar
nu'i'
beads do not show, a hole
desiral)le tbat tbe
is
be bored with an auger-bit large t'uougb to receive the head
'l'l\\
c
tlu:
slot
ham-
turns be given
wood and weaken^ is
a'l
tbe
may
not
not cut
older tbat tbe blows of tbe baiunu'i'
close tbe slot.
Tbe ad\antage^ tbe
woi'k
can
of screws are. tbat tbey are very strong
easily
be
taken
apai't.
If
tbey loosen
and tbat
tbey
can
be
WOOD
The disadvantages
retighteiied.
127
FASTE^riXGS.
that they are expensive, that
are,
they take time to insert, that they show very phiinly. and that
tliey
do not hold well in end grain. BOLTS Bolts with nuts are useful where great strength
is
There
desired.
are three chief varieties, Fig. 230.
having either
cheaply
are
Stove-holts
flat
made
bolts
(cast)
or round heads with
a.
slot for
the screwdriver, like ordinary screws.
Carriage-holts the part of the
distinguished
are
shank which
by having
near the head,
is
square.
Machine-holts
have
square,
hexagonal,
or
similar
to
button heads. Fig.
Macliine-scrctts,
are
231,
and are meas-
stove-bolts, but are accurately cut
The
ured with a screw-gage. flat-head, h. round-head,
countersunk-head,
all
c,
varieties
are,
a,
fillister-head, d, ovalFig-.
with slots for screwdriver.
plates
and
panel-irons.
either iron or brass
These
are
made
230.
a.
Stove-
bolt, b. Carriagre-bolt. c.
Plates^ Fig. 332, include corner-irons, straight
Machine-bolt.
of
and are used in fastening
legs to the floor, in
stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc.
Dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from 3/16" to 1" They are commonly made in diameter, and 3(i", 4"3", and 48" long. Doirel-rods.
of birch or maiflc, but
and
is
ma])le
is
more
satisfactory as
it
shrinks less
stronger than biich.
Dowels are used
as pins for joining boards edge to edge, a
for
substitute
tenon
part
as
joints.
There udice
and
mortise-and-
is,
to be sure, a prej-
against of
dowels
on
cabinet-makers
the
due,
jns^ibly, to the willingness to
have is
Machine-scre-ws. a. Flat-head. Fig-. 231. d. Ovalc. Fillister-head. b. Round-head.
couutersunk-head.
a
it
appear that doweling
device
of
inferior
me-
But doweling is cheaper and quicker than ten-
chanics.
HAXDWOKK
128
many
oning, and there arc
jnst as satisfactory and,
IX WOOD.
places in
if
wood construction where
it
is
Certain
properly done, just as strong.
parts of even the best furniture are so put together.
Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels.
and driven into brad-aAvl
They
are dipped in glue
holes. a r e Wedges commonly used in
construction
door
between the edges of tenons
and the
mor-
of
insides
are
Avhich
tises
slightly
beveled,
No. 34, Fig. 366,
c.
end
Panel-iron
of
may Xo.
ceive the wedges,
Xo.
fox-tail joint,
Fig.
o.").
M36.
Or
179.
p. Straight plate,
The Mind wedge
a
the
tenon
be split to re-
used in the
is
Fig. 266.
?,(l
GLUE
—
kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds, animal Animal glue is made of l)ones and trimmings, cuttings and licsliings from hides and skins of animals. Sinews, feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. Cattle,
nine
is
glue and
an
infci'ior
glue.
fisli
calves, goats, pigs, hoi>('s,
The
best glue
lime water until fatty the glue
The
The
is left.
and
best
and
oi'
])a]-tly
i)i'odiict i<
clearest
etc.,
is
ch-aned, boiled
eaten out and only
down and
"'osseine.'"
liy
is
tion
This material together with hides,
has the gelatin or g'ue extracted
is
called
a
taken from
alone or mixed a'rcat
Sometimes
"run." llie
same
with
and leaves
sold as a glue stock,
i)y
as
many
kettle of stock,
other runs
variety of commercial glues.
as
again and Fach extrac-
i)oiling
again, just as soup stock might be boiled si'veral times.
ai-e
dried.
leaching the
the lime salts
ilissolves out
Such leached bone
the gelatinous matters.
sinews,
hides of oxen, which are soaked in
decayed matter
h(me glues are obtained
hones with dilute acid which
under the name of
rabbits, all yield characteristic glues.
made from
is
ten or tiftccn
runs
and each may be finished
from other
stock,
resulting in a
WOOD FASTENINGS. Manufacturers use many
running
129 such as the viscosity or
tests for giue^
the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of
test,
the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength
set,
(tested be-
tween the finger tips), water absorption
(some glues absorb only once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or ad-
much with
This latter varies so
hesive tests.
what may be good glue for one Putting
inaterial
different materials that
poor for another.
is
from grade
these things together, glues are classified
all
The higher standards from 60 and
10 to 160, 10 being the poorest.
upwards are neutral hide
glues, clear, clean, free
from odor, foam, and
The lower standards are chiefly Ijone glues, used for sizing straw hats, etc. They are rigid as compared with the flexibility of hide glues. For wood joints the grade should be TO or over. For grease.
leather,
nothing
are better
The of
best glue
an amber
for glue
is
a
and becomes
swells
is
test
jelly-like.
Poor
sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white
somewhat weakened thereby. tissue of flsh.
bladder of
air
and sturgeon.
may
liquid glue
made either from animal or fish glue. The made in Gloucester, Mass., one of the greatest
be
is
markets in the country.
alwavs ready, but odor.
it
made from the scales and muscular sort of glue made from the viscera and
Liquid glue
fish
till
spots,
good practical
is
certain flsh, as cod
LePage
A
or no smell.
little
in water
it
Glue
it is
Fish glue Isinglass
and has
swells without dissolving the better the quality.
it
glue dissolves. in color, but
from
transparL'ut. hard in the cake, free
is
color,
to soak
is
The more
than loo should be used, and special cements
less
still.
is
Liquid glue
very convenient because
is
not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive
Liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-
ge'atinizing, which can be done by several
by the addition of oxalic,
nitric, or
means
:
as,
for instance,
hydrochloric acid to the glue so-
lution.
To prepare
hot glue, break
cold water to cover
it
well,
it
into small pieces, soak
until
it
is
soft,
heat in a glne-pot or double boiler. Fig. 243,
the glue it
is,
the better, as too
many
it
in
enough
say twelve hours, and p.
148.
heatings weaken
The
it.
fresher
When
used
should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream,
so that it will
fill
the pores of the
wood and
so get a grip.
Two
sur-
faces to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated
IIANUWOKK
130
IN
WOOD.
by a mass of glue. It is esseutial that the glue be hot and the wood warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the Glue holds best on side grain. End surfaces are forced together. grain can be
made
Pieces thus sized and
pores.
by sizing with thin glue to stop the
to stick only
dried can be glued
the ordinary
in
Surfaces of hard wood that
way. but such joints are seldom good.
are to be glued should iirst be scratched with a scratch-plane. Fig.
Ill, p. :9.
To make waterproof
glue, add one part of potassium bichromate
and be an insoluble
light
harden when exposed
It will
to fifty i3arts of glue.
Before applying glue to the parts
General directions for gluing^ to be fastened together,
rarily
without
glue,
to
it
should not
1)0
that
see
it
glued in place, its
soon as possible.
parts
When
fit.
Since hot glue sets quickly^
applied to get the parts together as
is
To
learn to work fast but to keep cool.
One must
is
wise precaution to apply wax,
is a
expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the is
it
the panel, in panel construction,
as it
them tempo-
to assemble
the
all
edges before insertion.
necessary after the glue
is
good plan
a
is
desirable that a certain part,
soap, or oil to
and
to the air
liquid.*
])i'ocess
begun, clam^Ds, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the
blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet,
and all other appliances likely to be required. Whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each For example, in assemstep can be taken Avith more deliberation. try-square,
bling framed pieces that are doweled,
it
is
well to glue the dowels
making tenons of them, assend)ling when haste is
were.
into one set of holes beforehand,
as
Time is thus saved for the final The superfluous glue around the dowe's should
imperative.
Likewise in gluing
wj)
framed
separately: as, the ends of
a
whole may be assembled.
When
be carefully Aviped
pieces, sections
tabh',
it
may
off.
be put together
and Avhen they are dry then the
the pieces are together the joints
should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no tAvists.
A
good Avay to insure squareness,
is to
insert a diagonal brace on
the inside, corner to corner, as in Fig. 294, p. 195.
For "For ;Chap.
reci|i('s
for tliis ;uul other yhies,
s]iccial diicctiniis. for jKirticular
\'ir.)
s^ee
Woodcraft,
joints, seo
Such
May
a
"07, p.
brace 49.
under the A'arious joints,
WOOD FASTENINGS. should be provided when
way
to insure squareness
tlie is
tiial
assembly
to pass a rope
131 is
and then by twisting the rope,
posite posts,
toward each other until the frame
is
to
draw these corners
square.
The superfluous glue may be wiped
off at
once with a
cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood.
few minutes until the glue thickens, olf
with an edge
than to
let
Another good
made.
around two diagonally op-
much
warm damp
Or by waiting
a
of it can readily be peeled
Either of these ways makes the cleaning easier
tool.
the superfluous glue harden.
The work when glued should remain
hours in the
six
least
at
clamps to harden.
HINGES Hinges, Fig. 233, are made in several forms.
The most common
are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of wliich are long
strap-shaped
;
the Tee-hinge, one leaf of whicli
other strap-shaped;
is
a
Initt,
the chest-hinge, one leaf of which
right angle, used for chest covers;
is
bent at a
the table-hinge used for folding
the piano-hinge, as long as the joint;
table tops with a rule joint;
the blank hinge or screen-hinge which oj^ens both ways hinge,
and
and the
which opens only 90°
;
;
the stop-
and the "hook-and-eye'' or "gate"
hinge.
Fig-. 233.
a.
Butt-hinge,
The knuckle two
leaves. Fig.
b.
Tee-hing-e. c Chest-liiiige. or Screen-hinge.
of the hinge
234.
is
d.
Table-hinge,
e.
Blank
the cylindrical part that connects the
The "acorn"
pin that passes thru the knuckle.
is
the head of the "pintle"' or
Sizes of butts are indicated in
inches for length, and as "narrow;" "middle," "broad" and "desk" for width.
The pin may
be either riveted into the knuckle as in
box-hinges or removable as in door-butts.
Sometimes, as in blind-
HANDWORK
132 hinges, the pintle
is
IN WOOD.
fastened into one knuekle, but turns freely in
the other.
A
butt-hinge
may
be set in one of three iwsitions, Fig. 235: (1)
Where
it is
door.
Here the knuekle
desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a is
set well out it
is
open
from the wood.
flat
ter of the
and no more. |)in
is
Where
Here the cen-
in line with the out-
side surface of the wood. likely to rack the
two positions. to
(2)
desired to have the hinged portion
This
is
less
hinge than the other
(3)
Where
it
is
have the knuckle project as
possible.
HINGING
desired little
as
WOOD FASTENINGS. no gain, of course^ shallow,
and
If the hinges are set too
an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a
it is
If they are set too deep the screws
dee]3er.
little
cut in the frame.
is
133
a piece of
may
be loosened
paper or a shav-
ing inserted underneath along the outer arris of the gain.
LOCKS
The
chief
the
are:
the
ture,
parts its
IjoJi.
of
lock
a
essential fea-
the
selvage,
plate
which appears at the edge of the
door
drawer,
or
the
hox,
which contains the mechanismincluding spring,
the
etc.,
tumbler,
the
tvard.
into
key-pin,
or around Avhich the key
in-
is
serted, the strike, the plate at-
tached
opposite
(often left
out
the as
in
selvage,
drawer-
locks, but essential in hoolv-bolt
and self-locking locks,) and the escutcheon, the plate Pig. 235. Three Positions of Hing-es. around the keyhole. Locks may be classified: (1) According to their uses, of which there are two types, (a), Fig. 236, For drawers, cupboards, tills, locks,
wardrobes, and doors.
In these the bolt simply projects at right
angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of the lock,
(b). Fig. 237,
For
desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes
sliding
and
In these, the bolt in-
doors.
cludes a hook device of some kind to resist
pressure
perpendicular
In some
selvage.
locks,
to
hooks project sidewise from the others
the
bolt
engages
the
the hook or
in
bolt, in
hooks
or
eyes attached to the strike. TT V, 236. oi^ Fig. Bolt.
1.
TjT^ Rim-lock. for Drawer. I
1
^^
seivagre.
2. 4.
Key-pin.
3.
Bo.x.
According (3) o to the ^ ' plicatiou. ^
as
rim
locks,'
method
apof r i
which are
fas-
HAXDWORK
134
lened on the surface, and
edge of
a
IN WOOD.
which are mortised into the
iiiurtise locks
door or drawer or
])ox.
INSERTIXG LOCKS
-To
measure the distance from the selvage
insert a riiu-Iocl'.
kev-pin. locate this as the center of the keyhole,
the lofk has of
door
tlic
lock
the tliat
If
I'eceive
hox has to he gained
it.
in,
If
do
Cut the keyhole
shape
with
a
to the
keyhole-saw
or
small ehisel.
Fasten the lock in place,
and
is
if
mark
there
its
'i'o
bore
and
to the
the hole.
gain ont the edge
drawer to
oi'
to slide.
|)ro|)ei'
the selvage, iinish
a selvage,
l)ore
next, taking care that the bolt has
room
Morlise-lock, for Box.
and
insert a
tlie
a
strike
or
place and mortise
face-plate, it
in.
inortisc-lock, locate
keyhole,
mortise in
the
and box
the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the es-
cutcheon, locate and mortise in the strike, and screw
it
in place.
WOOD FASTENINGS.
135
WOOD FASTENINGS References
:
Hammaeher &
Schleniiiier.
Catalog No. 151. Nails. Griffith,
Goss, p. 153. Purfield.
Wood
Craft, 5:
181.
Wood
pp. 75-78.
Craft, 5:
103.
Wheeler, pp 428-433.
Park, pp. 129-135. Tacks.
Wheeler, pp. 429-433.
Goss,
Sickels, p. 70.
Barter, pp. 84-86.
p.
155.
Screws. pp. 78-80.
Goss, p. 155.
Griffith,
Wheeler,
Park, pp. 136-140.
p. 476.
Barter, p. 86.
Dowels. Sickels. p. 104.
Goss, p. 153.
Wheeler,
p.
Griffith, p. 02.
374.
Wedges. Goss, p. 151.
Glue. Sickels. p. 106.
Goss, p. 156. Rivington, III, p. 432.
Wheeler, pp. 391-396. Alexander, Wood Craft, 5:
Barter, p. 82.
Standage,
Wood
Park,
141-146.
jjp.
Craft, 7: 48.
Griffith, pp.
80-83.
Hinges.
Wheeler,
Sickels, p. 118.
For general bibliography
see p. 4.
p.
402.
168.
Chapter VI.
EQUIPMENT AND CAEE OF THE SHOP. Tool equipment.
The
choice of tools in any particuhir shop best
comes out of long experience. Some teachers prefer to emphasize certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. The following tentative
list is
suggested for a full equipment for twenty-
may be added for the teacher. from Discount Sheet No. 1 for Catalogue of Tools, No. 355 issued by Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City, dated 1908, and four students.
The
One bench and
its tools
prices given are quoted
are correct at the present date
Aggregate orders, however,
(1910).
are always subject to special concessions, and
it is
suggested that be-
fore ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for whicli special figures will be quoted.
There are good benches,
and
vises,
tools of other
makes on the
market, but those specified below are typical good ones.
Following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils, one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other
more elaborate
to cost
approximately $750.
$400 TOOL EQUIPMENT. INDIVIDUAL TOOLS. $204.00 24 Manual Training,' School Benches H. & 8. -L," fa $8.50 41.76 $1.74 each 24 Stanley Jack-rianes. No. 5. 14", 22.32 9.3e each 24 Disston's Back-Saws. No. 4, 10", 2.21 12 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No. 2, %", handled and sharpened.
@ @
Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No.
2,
1/2",
24 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, No.
2.
1".
12
24 Sloyd Knives, No. 12
24
7,
handled and sharpened.
2.68
handled and sharpened..
7.31
6.50
21/2"
Hammond's Adze-eye Claw-Hanuner. No. Try-squares, No. 5%, <>"
3,
7
oz
4.90 5.32 4.86
24 Beech Marking-Gages. No. 04^2 136
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 24
Boxwood
Rules, No.
137
12" long
3,
$
1.80
12 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752
1.50
12 Bench-Hooks
2.00
12 Bench-Dusters, No. 10
2.70
Total for individual tools
$309.86
GENERAL TOOLS 6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No.
22", 10 points
7,
2 Turning-Saws in frames, 14",
M.
1 1
Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6", iron back
1
Stanley Miter-Box, No.
14",
45 8.20
651/2
1.56
Stanley
1
Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78 Stanley "Bed Rock" Plane, No. 603
1
6 Iron
1.06
.48
1
No.
Fore-Plane,
1.74
240
2 Stanley Block-Planes, No. 6
2.22 1.10 1.58
Spokeshaves, No. 54
1.42
1
Veneer-Scraper, No. 80
6
Each Molding-Scrapers, No.
1
Scraper Steel, Richardson's,
.70
2
and No.
.90
7
.10
Bastard Files, K. & F., 8", handled 3 Half-Round Files, K. & F., 8", handled 3 Flat
3 Rat-tail Files,
4 Files, K.
6",
F.,
1
Auger-Bit-File
1
File-Card, No.
F., 8",
33 .36
13 .14
1
Empire Tool-CTrinder Grindstone, No.
1
India Oilstone, No.
1
Soft Arkansas Oil Slipstone, No. 6 Copperized Steel Oiler, No. 14A,
2.80
with stone
11,
box
in
0,
15.00 .95
%
2 Disston's Sliding
T
Bevel, No.
3,
18
pint
Stanley Miter-Square, No.
1
Sargent Steel Square, No. 2 Pair Starrett's Winged Dividers, No. 92, 8" Chisel, No. 2, %", handled
1
1
16,
14,
46
10"
Buck Brothers' Firmer-Gouges, No. 8, 1" Buck Brothers' Gouge, No. 10, inside bevel, regular sweep, %".
4 Barber's Braces, No.
23
6"
1
3
55
slim taper
1
1
45
handled
1
1 •
&
K. &
6.75 6.75
& Co H. S. & Co F.
Dozen Turning-Saw Blades, Hack-Saw Frame, ISIo. 50
1
$
22", 8 points
7,
6" sweep
60 69
75
20 1.29 .
.
.43
3.52
Barber's Ratchet-Brace, No. 31, 12" sweep
1.62
1
each of 2/32", 3/32", 4/32", 5/32", 6/32" Set Auger-Bits, R. Jennings"
4.46
1
Clark's
1
5 Gimlet-Bits,
1
Expansive-Bit,
small
40 .57
HANDWORK
138
IX WOOD.
2 Screwdriver-Bits, V/', round blade. No. 10. 4" 3
Rose Countersinks, No.
$0.32
^"
10.
.68
30
6 Brad- Awls, assorted l"-liL'" 1
Hand-Drill, No.
Extra
Drills, 2 each of No.
50,
C 1
55,
107. size. 10,
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45,
1.42
Screwdrivers, 4"
.96
Screwdriver, 12"
.54
.42
Nailsets, assorted
Bar Clamps,
6 Carpenter's Steel
3
9.60
ft
10"
12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No.
16,
12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. 4 Carriage-Maker's Clamps, 6"
171/2,
4.79
6"
3.42 1.32
1
Automatic Miter-Clamp
1
1
Pair Pliers, No. 200, 5" Coe's Monkey- Wrench, 10"
1
Glue-Pot, No.
1
Parker's Wood-working Vise, No. 276
1
Gas Stove, 99A
1
Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154, 5"
1
Glass-Cutter, No.
3 Flat
1.-),
(iO
New Century New Century
6 0. K.
2.45
51/2
1-80
21
60 82
3
Varnish
8.07
55 .88
27
10
No.
Brushes.
54,
\V2".
hard-rul)l)or-l)nund
(
fin-
96
shellac)
Cheap Brushes. 1", tin-l)ound (for stains). "EE" No. 5 6 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters 6 Enamel Cups, i{. pint 1 Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41
,90
6
1.80
1
(
-60
17
$114.97
Total for general tools Total
for
individual
309.86
tools
$424.83 42.48
Discount for schools, 10 per cent
$382.35 $150.00
Lockers for individual work
$750 TOOL EQUIPMENT
TXCLUDIXG
1
BENCH AND SET OF TOOLS FOR INSTRUCTOR AND INDIVIDUAL TOOLS
25 Manual Training School Benches. Hamniacher, Schlemnier & Co.'s
'M" with Toles'
(luick-aitiiig Vise
25 Stanley Jack-Planes, No. 25 Disston's Back-Saws, No.
5, 4,
14",
@
im side,
$1.74 each
10", (a 93c each
(a
$20
$.i()0.00
43.50 23.25
,
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. 25 Buck
Brothers' $•2.21
25 Buciv
139
Firmer-Chisels,
%,",
liaiulled
and sharpened,
@
Firnier-t'hisels,
i/^".
handled
and sharpened.
@
doz
Brothers"
$
$2.68 doz 25 Buck Brothers' Firmer-Chisels, 1". handled and sharpened, $3.25 doz 30 Sloyd Knives. No. 7, 21/2" blade (6 extra) $4.90 doz 25 Hammond's Adze-eye Hammers, No. 3, 7 oz.,
@
5.58 7.61
$.3.65.
@
8.12
@
10.21
@
$1.40 doz 25 Round Hickory Mallets. No. 4, 25 Hardened Blade Try-Squares, No. 51/2, 6",
@
64i/o,
25 Beech Marking-Gages, No.
@
25 Steel Bench-Rules, No. 300D,
@
8",
@
2.91
$2.66 doz
5.57
$2.43 doz
5.07
$4.80 doz
36 Faber's Measuring Compass, No. 1752
25 Maple Bench-Hooks, 25 Bench-Dusters. No. 10,
10.00
(12 extra)
4.50
$2.00 doz
@
4.61
4.18
$2.70 doz
5.63
$640.74
Total for individual tools
GENERAL TOOLS 6 Disston's Crosscut-Saws, No. 6 Disston's Rip-Saws, No.
22", 10 points
7.
$
22", 8 points
7,
6.75
4 Turning-Saws in frames, 14"
3.48
1
Doz. Turning-Saw Blades, 14"
1
Compass-Saw, Disston's No.
1
Stanley Miter-Box, No.
1
Disston's Dovetail-Saw, 6".
2 Coping-Saws, 1
Gross
No.
1.06
10"
2,
.27
240
8.20
iron
back
.48
40
110
0"
1.00
65%
4.68
Coping-Saw Blades,
6 Stanley Block-Planes, No.
No.
2.22
1
Stanley Fore-Plane,
1
Stanley Rabbet-Plane and Filletster, No. 78
6
1.10
"Bed Rock" Smooth-Planes, No. 603 or Sargent's i\djustable-Frog Smooth-Plane
3.16
2 Stanley's
12 Extra Jack-Plane Cutters
(No. 5)
2"
,
3.60
1
Stanley Beading Rabbet and Matching Plane, No. 45
1
Stanley Router-Plane,
6 Iron
No.
71
5.85 '
6 Pattern-Makers' Spokeshaves, applewood, small. 2 Drawing-Knives, ^^'hite's No. 31, 6"
li/4"
1
Stanley Adjustable Scraper-Plane, No. 112, with toothing cutter..
1
Veneer-Scraper,
3
Each Molding-Scrapers. No.
2 Dowel-Pointers,
No.
2,
1.60 1.43
No.
7
.45
00
1
1 1
Iron
Screw-Box, French,
1.52
.70
80
Dowel-Plate Scraper Steel, Richardson's
1
1.37
1.42
Spokeshaves, No. 54
No.
6.75
^"
30 •!*'
1.80
HANDWOliK IX WOOD.
1-40
&
4 Flat Bastard Files. K.
8", liaiidlcd
F.,
4 Half-Round Files. K. &
F.,
8".
4 Rat-tail Files. K. &
8",
handled
F.,
$0.60 72
liaiidled
44
4 Files, G", slim tajier
36
2 Auger-Bit- Files
25
No.
1
File-Card.
1
Empire Tool-CTrinder No.
1
({rindstdiie,
2
India
1
Soft Arkansas
()i'stones.
2 Copperized
14
1
(
2.80
11.
(iron
No.
2!)
)il
Steel
18 .46
T
1
Sargent Steel
1
Pair
pint
Vi;
Bevels. No.
Stanley Miter-Sqnare, No.
1.38
(i"
3,
10"
10.
60
No. 2
Sqnare.
3 Serateh-Awls.
60
Starrett's winged, No.
1
Try-S.piare,
1
Mortise-Gage,
No.
77
70
:^V2.
8"
!)2.
1.50
4"
Collier's,
'rraiiiiiiel-l'oints, \uek
3
Eaeh outside-Bevel Gouges. Bu( k P>ros." I'^irmer, No. 8 handled -j" %" 1" and sliar])ened: V^" Addis' Carving-Tools, round maple handles. No. 11, 5/32" Addis" Veiniug-Tools, round maple handles. No. II. 1/16"
1/1(1".
17
3
2,
1/8". 3/16". 3/8". 3/4".
,
3
No.
Bros."
^
1
1
handled and sharpened: /2"
4.42
.
.
Gouges, regular sweep. No. 10. %" 6 Barber's Nickel-Plated Bi-aces. No. 14, 6" sweep
7
No. 31.
Katehet-P.raee,
K;",
Ki"
8
Eaeh
1
Eaeh Foerstner's Auger-Bits, %",
Kussell
12/16", Clark's
.Teiniings"
13/16".
Auger-Bits,
14/16". Vo"
Expansive-Bit,
15/16", ,><^",
IVs" 3 Buck Bros.' Rose Countersinks. No. 1
1
Washer-Cutter.
1
Plug-Cutter,
No.
4 6
1
1
Dowel-Plate,
1
10/16".
11/16", 6.19
Vz"
1.79
57 10,
5,^"
78 65
350
32 Vo".
round blade, 4" long
Sci-ewdrixcr.
12"
Screwthixcr,
8"
Screwdrixcr,
'^Vo".
ca-t
1.00
16/16"
to
Each Brad-Awls, liamlled, 1", \%". New Century Screwdrivers, 4"
New Century Xew Century New Century
1
genuine,
y^"
2 Screwdriver-Bits.
1.62
4.18
.'
2
06
5.25
12"
sweep 3 Eaeh (Jerman (Jindet-Bits, 2 32". 3 32". 4/32", 5/32". 6/32" 3 Eaeh Pu^sell deiuiings" Auger-Bits, 3/16", 4/16", 5/16". 6/16". Barber's
06
1.29
3 Inside-Bevel
1
3.55
vleel
\^-j"
32
60 .96 .54 .36
s'im
.16
30
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.
141
K. Nailsets, assoiU'd 1, IG", 3/32", 1/8" Bar Clamps, 3 ft 2 Carpenter Steel Bar Clamps, 5 ft 12 Aldrich's Oiled Handscrews, No. IG, 10" 12 Aldrieh's Oiled Handscrews, No. 17 V-;, G"
42
G U.
9. GO
6 Carpenter Steel
Clamps, (i" 1 Automatic Miter-Clamp 2 Doz. Acme Pinch-Dogs, %" 1 Glue-Pot, No. 3 1 Gas Stove, No. 99A
3. GO
4.79 3.42 1.32
4 Carriage -Makers"
30
82 55
,
CO
Monkey-wrench, 10"
1
Coe's
1
Glass-Cutter, No.
G F'at
1-80
Varni h
27
10
I'luslus
Xo.
.")4,
IVo".
havd-iul>lici-li()\nid
(for 1-58
shellac)
12 G 1
1 1 1
Cheap Brushes, tin-bound, (for stains), EE, Enameled Cups, 14 pint Maple Yard-Stick, No. 41 Pair Blackboard Compasses or Dividers
1"
1.80 .60 -17
1.50
50
Blackboard Triangle, 4.5° Blackboard Triangle, 30°xG0°
50
$189.83
Total for general tools
METAL WOHKING T00L8 1
Bench, No. L, without vises
1 1
Parker's Wood-working Vise, Hand- Vise, No. 1230%, 4"
1
Hay-Budden Anvil,
1
Riveting-Hammer, Atha, 4 oz
1
Rivet-Set,
1
Cold-Chisel,
3/g"
cutting edge
11
1
Cold-Chisel,
5/^"
cutting edge
.15
Cape-Chisel,
^"
cutting edge
.13
1
No.
10
•$
No.
54 3.07
lbs
.32
27
4
1
Round-nosed Chisel, %" Pair End-Cutting Nippers, No. 154. 5" Pair Compton's Metal Snips, No. 12, 2"
2
Pair Flat-nose Pliers, No.
1
Die-Holder, No. 11 Die, 5^"xi4", 6/32"
1
1
1
1
Hand-Drill, No.
Extra ]\Ietal
4.5,
.50,
180()yo,
.G3
58
rV
32
2.45
51/2
No. 107, 2 each, Nos,
55, GO
No.
Countersink,
5y^"
6 1
Melting Ladle.
1
Soldering Copper,
3"
10,
l.i.
20,
2.5,
30,
35.
1.42 15,
Hack-Saw Frame, No. 50 Hack-Saw Blades, 8", H. S. & Co
1
13
88
27
Drills, Morse's
40, 1
8.00 8.07
27()
_,
.18
43 25 19
1
lb
.31
HANDWORK
142 1
Mill Bastard Fik-. S",
1
Mill
Smooth
File,
G",
1
Square Ba.stard
1
Half-round Bastard
1 1
1
1
safe edgi-, handled..
handled handled
8".
File,
IX WOOD.
File, 8",
handled Slim Taper Saw-File, G", handled Hound Bastard File. 4", handled Atha Mat'hinisfs llaiiiincr, Ball-peen.
.8.3 (1
oz.
.38
Total for metal working tools Glue and Stain Bench Lockers for individual work for 3()() pupils Nail and Screw Cabinet
$29.95 $ 15.00
360.00 35.00
$410.00 Individual Tools
$040.74
General Tools
189.83
$830.57
Discount for
scliools.
10 per cent
83.06
$747.51 Cabinets,
lockers,
410.00
etc
$1,157.51 Till-:
gciicfdl
77/ r
are
is
of
woodwoi.-kixc; shop
tiiJ'
ai-rtnii/cii/rnt
sourcv or soui'fcs of
tlie
nf
I
liiilit,
he
raoni.
and the
Tin-
sliown in
hench,
windows
n.
Fig.
By
•v^'5y.
also faces
Jie
one
this
The eom-
arrangement, as eaeh worker faces
set of
The advantage
at his left.
windows and lias anotlier set of tins arrangement is that it
easy to test one's work with the try-s(|nai'e hy lifting
Another arrangement, shown
light.
tage, that there are no
hench and Iris
factors
iiii])()i'tant
linrs of travel.
arraugenient of heiiehes wliere two sides of the room are lighted,
inoii
liis
CAi;!-:
left
tlie
woi'kei'
When
hand.
the latter
is
in
]>.
is
holding
liis
to the
Fig. "^oS. lias this
advan-
it
is
it
lying on the
ruU' or try-square
on
it
the windows are on one side of the
ence to their distance
I'l-oni
the general lines of traxc!. tool-rack. 1o the
cannot
with
room
the more advantageous ari'angeinent.
In detei'iniidng the ])Osition of the heiiches, especially with
aisles
is
up
shadows on the woi'k wlien
all
of
he
each other, thought
ti-oui
the indixidual henches to the general
linishing-tahle. to the lockers, etc. w
idi-
refer-
should he given to
enough hoth
loi'
Even
if
all
llie
passage and for woi'k, one
wider one thru the center of the room mav solve the
difficulty.
Where
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.
143
rooms are c-rowded, space may be economized b}' placing tlie benches in pairs, back to back, c and d. Fig. 338. In any case, room should always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teacher's
bench, for the sake of making
it
easy for the pupils to listen and
to think.
The
Tools.
rangement
Every shop soon has
of tools, but there are
t==l
its
own
traditions as to the ar-
two principles always worth observ-
144
]lAND\V()j;lv
Where
other.
the
reacli.
the top.
Siicli
etc., at
must
lack
brought within
iieuds
by phuing
WOOD.
IN
an arrangement
tools, is
the
all
tools
ean be
like files, screwdrivers,
shown in Fig. 239.
to the imlividiial benches, those withoiTt liigh backs are to be
As
piefcrreH. not onlv because of
Fiff.
theii'
convenience when
General Tool rack
230.
to woi'k on large inect's, like tal)le tops,
interfere with
the light, but because
look ovei' the room to mi'iit
lii.uh,
Ix'
hmg
is
kept
benches and
set'
complete,
tlie genei-al
it
it
in
is
is is
tlie
backs do not
easier for the teacher to in order.
If
the e(|uip-
an easy matter to glance over
rack to see that evei-ything
is
so that
]n the open method, everything
em])tv ]ilaces can be discovered readily.
convenient one. and, besides,
tlie
tools
all
the
in ])lace.
In general, there are two mctliods of keeping guard over
open and the closed.
desired
a School Shop.
and because
that everything
is
it
is
tools, the
kept in sight
This method
is
a
are always easily accessible.
In the closed method, the tools are kv\)\ in drawers and cases where is suitable where pu])ils are '^I'his method l)e locked up.
thev can
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP. equipped with individual
common
tools for each
sets
of cutting tools.
may
not be discovered immediatelv.
ease, the
This method has the
advantage that things are out of sight, and loss
In such a
common drawer and
bench are kept in a
dividual pupils' tools in separate drawers.
145
if
indis-
they disappear their
()n the other
hand, where
HANDWORK
146 help somewhat
form
;
a
more
efficient
IX WOOD.
method
is
to
of each tool on the wall or board against
pils will see that,
In spite of
all
when they
paste or paint the
which
it
hangs.
A
precautions, some tools will disappear.
cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools,
Fig-. 241.
All
Pu-
will not stop to read a lal)el.
is
plan to
to require
Inexpensive Locker for Unfinished Work.
Then
at
the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance
is
a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses.
returned pro
There
is
I'ata.
diversity of practice in
the distrihution of tools on the
general case and on the individual benches.
Some
tools,
like
the
EQUirMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.
147
plane and chisel, and try-sqnare, are so frequently in use that each
As to others, the demand must deOne other consideration may be expressed by
worker must have one at hand. termine the supply.
the principle that those tools, the use of which
is
to be encouraged,
should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use discouraged, should be kept remote.
Some
well to keep in a separate locker to be
is
tools, like files, it
had only when asked
^r-V \\^6M\^6^]^6'^
to be
may
be
for.
CD
Si' 4
-i Si."
4
-/&
5'6
Fiy. 242.
A
A More Expensive Locker
cabinet of drawers, such as that
nails, screws,
and other fastenings,
is
for Unfinished
shown
Work.
in Fig. 240, for holding
both a convenience and a ma-
terial aid in preserving the order of the shop.
As
for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared
with vaseline, which
is
cheap, and put away out of the dampness.
The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To c^ean them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing wbeel on wliich has been rubbed some tiipoli. They may then be
of
polished on a clean buffer without tripoli.
The
Locl-ers.
ahuost in(lis])ensab]e
In order ]»art of
to
maintain good order in the shop, an
the equipment
is
a set of lockers for hold-
HAXDWOUK
148
ing the unfinished work of pupils.
WOOD.
rS'
An
inex})ensive outfit
simply of sets of shelves, say 5" apart, 12" deep, and
1
iii('
(])anclcd)
may
cost
at
the rate of $1.00 per
compartment.
There should, of course, be using the
sho|).
Where
a
separate coiupai'tiiient
foi'
each
]Mipi!
possible, there should niso he a special table
EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.
149
Where strict econuni\- must be practiced, a for staining and gluing. good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose. A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc.
Where no
may
cloth
staining- table
is
possible,
be provided to lay over
temporary coverings of
any bench which
oil-
convenient for
is
the purpose.
Care of hrmlics and materials used in finishing wood. should be kept in glass or pottery
aluminum
or
receptacles
but not in any metal like
which plan
darkens
tin,
good
bottle
a
untouched
wide-mouthed
A
it.
have
to
is
fresh,
Shellac
foi'
shellac,
jar
for
a
that
been diluted and and an enameled cup for There should also be a
which has used, use.
special
the
brush,
time
Fig.
using,
of
that the brush
is
At
244.
soft
and
quickly and softened in a
Sliellac Utensils.
Fitr. 244.
see
first
jiliable.
little
If
it
is
stiff,
alcohol in the cup.
can be soaked
it
Tliis alcohol
may
Then pour out
then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking.
from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar, carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may a little
some fresh
also be
poured into the
little shellac
brush
may
jar,
What harm and the The import-
which should then be covered.
remains in the brush and cup
will
do no
be left standing in the cu]) until required.
ant things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only, (indeed, to
it is
a good plan to label
them
"SHELLAC ONLY,")
keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in
rate.
it
In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup
quently used,
it
is
is
to
lie
fre-
well to have cups with covers thru which the
brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage
jar.
Varnish brushes need to he cleaned thoroly after each using. they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great ficultv.
and
will not evapo-
If dif-
*
llAXDWOKK IX WOOD.
150
Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing witb ;
water and then haying them
flat in a
box.
Cups
in
which the water
stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water.
Brushes for oil stains are most easily kept in good con-
&
Devoe
l)y
witli
filled
a
(sold
101
Reynolds,
C)
partly
turpentine.
The
X. Y.
St.,
in
545,
Fig.
l)nisb-keeper.
Fulton
hung
being
by
dition,
same brushes may
also be used
for filkTS. Oil
stains should
back
into
their
tles,
and
the
bi'
in
wiped
out
When
they
bad condition, they can readily after a pre-
tlean('(l
soaking
liminary
in
may
treatnu'nt
brushes,
but
soaking too
be
they
if
long
lu'istles
file
a
strong-
The same
solution of potash.
tion,
poured
respective bot-
cups
witb cotton waste. get
1)6
in will
given are
the
to left
soluFig. 245.
be eaten
Brusli-keeper.
off.
EQL'IPMEXT AND CARE OP THE SHOP References
:
Murray. Year Rook 1900. Bailey,
,1/.
T. Ma.
gaged, lay the its
first
the
the
across
member line
leg,
of
of
dowel-holes,
)tt'
as follows:
is
the end
dowel
side
so
the [loints
that 1)
the
first
face
one arris
and F,
so
member on lies
to get the
:
THE COMMON JOINTS. inserted is
from the
side of the second
155
member.
It is very strong
used in bencli construction, wooden machinery,
No.
A
11.
plain butt-joint, Fig. 264,
is
and
etc.
mem-
one in which the
bers join endwise or edgewise without overlapping.
It
used on
is
returns as in ordinary boxes and cases.
A
A^o. 12.
glued and hloclrd joint. Fig. 264,
and rubbing a block
in the inside corner of
butted and glued together.
It
is
made by gaiing
two pieces which arc
used in stair-work and
is
cabinei:-
work, as in the corners of bureaus.
No.
A
13.
hopper-joint.^ Fig. 264,
a butt-joint, but is peculiar
is
in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on
account of the pitch of the
The
etc.
difficulty in
It is
sides.
used in hoppers, bins, chutes,
laying out this joint
angle for the edges of the pieces.
is
may
This
to obtain the proper
be done as follows
After the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper
and lower edges of the end pieces
to the correct bevel
Lay out the pitch
the pitch of the sides.
on the outside of the end
pieces.
From
as
shown by
of the sides of the
hopper
the ends of these lines, on
the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with
Connect these lines on what will be the
the knife and try-square.
Saw
inside of the hopper. lines thus scored.
The
off
the surplus
side pieces
and the parts are then ready
may
wood and plane
to the
be finished in the same way,
to be assembled.
HALVING- JOINTS
A is
halved joint
is
one in which half the thickness of each member
notched out and the remaining portion of one just
fits
into the
mem-
notch in the other, so that the up23er and under surfaces of the bers are flush.
No.
IJ/.-
A
cross-lap joint, Fig. 264,
is
a halved joint in
both members project both ways from the joint.
mon
joint used in both
cross each other in the
The two
pieces
This
is
which
a very
com-
carpentry and joinery, as where stringers
same plane.
are
first
dressed
exactly
to
the
required
size,
method of making duplicate parts, see Chap. IX. p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across tbe other in the position which they are to occupv when finished and mark plainly their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished. either separately or by the
Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y. on one
HANDWORK
156
and from
arris,
upper
jxtiiit
tliis
From
X.
piece,
IX WOOD.
lay off on this arris half
point square across
this
tlie
Y
width of the
with the
Ixuife
Lay X again in its pk^ce, exactly along the line Then nurrk with the knife on Y the width of X, which
and try-square. just scored.
may
From
then be removed and the second line squared across Y.
these two lines square across both edges of Y" to approximately one-
Xow turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if
half the thickness. it in the
one piece
is
gaged so as
Cut
gaged so
as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be
and the
to be cut proportionately less,
marks, Fig. 91,
p.
saw accurately
GG,
to the
gaged
out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and Tl,
The bottom
When
A
same way
made,
well
pounded together but
Xo. 15. the
fit.
and
lines,
chisel
p. oO.
of the dado thus cut should be fiat so as to afi'ord
surface for gluing. to be
joint will
groove on the waste side of the knife-
a slight triangular
will
lit
a cross-la}) joint
middle-lap joint or hid red
as a cross-lap joint, l)ut one
joint in only one direction.
It
is
does not need
under pressure of the hands.
tight
tee,
Fig. 2Go,
member
is
projects
made
in
from the
used to join stretchers to rails as
in lloor timbers.
Xo.
All cml-tiiii joint. Fig.
Hi.
cross-lap joint exce])t that the joint is
used at the cornei's of
To make an
and
sills
end-lap joint,
positions, faces up,
and mark
is
plates, also i)lace
knife point, on the
joint, except that tlie
joint l)e
must be adapted
X
is
(
at
these points with
a
)
sharp
Xow
proceed as in the cross-lap
to this line.
to the is
I'abbet.
made.
piecei^.
Fig.
265, the
The rabbet should therefore Tbe rablx't at the end of tlie
cut not the entii'e width oC the piece Y, but only the width
the lap,
frames.
members in their relative Mark carefully on each memeach member slightly 1/1 (>"
In an enddiip joint on mt)leted
plowed before the joint
])iece
of
17.
It
sometimes in chair-seats.
gaged line runs around the end and the cut-
must be done exactly
Xo.
as a
under side of the upper member, and on the
upper side of the lower member. ting
way
end of both mend^ers.
the
jilainly.
Square across
overlap the other.
nu\de in the same
at the
ber the inside corner, allowing the end of to
is
Jii.').
— c-f=a-e.
This joint
is
used occasionally in picture-
THE COMMON JOINTS. No.
A
IS.
157
dovetail hah-ing or lap-do retail, Fig. 265,
made
dle-lap joint with the pin able to resist tension.
dovetail in shape,
and
is
is
a
mid-
thus better
used for strong tee joints.
It is
A
herded hairing. Fig. 265, is made like a middle-lap joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so No.
19.
It is very strong
that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. above.
It
was formerly used
in
when loaded
house framing.
MODIFIED HALVING JOINTS
A
No. 20.
nolelieil
portion of one timber.
height occupied
by
265,
is
made by
used where
it
is
Fig.
joint. It
is
upper timber.
tlie
cutting out a
desired to reduce the
Joists
notched on to
are
wall plates.
A
No. 21. other.
too
It
eliccl-ed joint or
double notcli, Fig. 265,
is
much.
A
No. 22.
cogged or corl-ed or caulked joint. Fig. 265,
by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower
From
'"cog" uncut.
to receive the cog. tlie
in
upper beam
is
the u[)i>er piece a notch
A
cogged joint
is
made
leaving a
})iece,
cut only wide enough
is
stronger than a notched because
is
not weakened at
its
point of support.
It
is
used
heavy framing.
A
No. 2S.
forked tenon joint. Fig. 265,
folk in the end of one lit
made by
is
from both the timbers so as to engage each used where a single notch would weaken one member
notcbcs
cutting out
is
into the fork, so that neither piece can slip.
down
made by
cutting a
member, and notching the other meml)er It is
to
used in knock-
muntin to a rail, Avliere it is muntin should run thru and also that the rail be
furniture and in connecting a
desired that the
continuous.
No.
A
21/.
r8).
tliis
joint,
ealled
\' .
lirst
at tbe (le|itb to
the bevel-s(|U;i!'e
at
I
lay out
tlius:
wbicb
tbe do\etail
At-ross tills
on tbe inend)er to
(A B.
one end s(|uare a line
uieniber
is
to be dadoeil
be [iroper angle for a do\'etail. Fig.
this angle on tlu' edij-es of the meinbei'. as at
('
1).
Cut
a
in.
"i-lO.
Set
Score
groove with
THE COMMON JOINTS. a knife
A
on the waste side of
A C
ont the interior angle
Then
Saw
B.
159
to the depth
A
C,
and
chisel
D.
lay out the other menil;)er,
X, thus
:
mark with
the knife the
proper place for the flat side of
Y, square this line across the face and on the edges as for a
Lay
dado.
simple
Y
thickness of
/A
/f
JK
JK
i
the
out
on the face of
X
by superposition or otherwise and square the face and edges, with
not
but with
knife
a
Xow
the
edges.
with the bevel-square as
ready
D
on
depth
required
lay out the angle
set,
a
Gage the
sharp pencil point.
al-
A C
on the edges of X, and across
C
the face at
score a line with
Cut out
knife and try-S(|uare.
grooves
waste
the
in
simple dado, and
saw saw
to the proper
the
proper
as
rout
in
out
complete,
a
angle.
the fit
the
for
depth and Chisel
at
or
MiThing focfj->^
waste and when
the pieces together.
No. 29. A f/ain joint. Fig. 266, is a dado whicli runs only
Fig-. 250
Laying- Out a Dovetail Joint.
member, X. In order to make the edges of both and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner In book of the other member, Y, is correspondingly notched out. partly across one
members
flush
shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado.
A
gain joint
is
same way
laid out in the
as the dado, except that
the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one
edge
is
made
squared and gaged to the required depth.
in the waste for starting the
ing, the blind end of the gain so as to give play for the
depth.
To
chiselino;
is
saw
Knife grooves are
as in the dado.
Before saw-
to be chiseled out for a little space
back-saw in cutting down to the required
avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and
out of waste
mav
be carried on alternatelv, a little at a
]1AXD\V()KK IX WOOD.
1(30
time,
till
the
depth
r('(|uiiv(l
depth of the cut
amount from
means
hy
is
of
reaclu'(h
The
a trial stick. Fig. -^51.
p. 83, facilitates tlu'
It
use of the router. Fig. 122,
cutting, and insures an even depth.
MOKTISE-AXD-TEXOX
The tenon wood
easy to measure the
is
small nail ])rojeeting the proper
a
in its simplest
OIXTS
J
form is made by dividing the end of a and cutting out rectangular pieces on
into three parts
piece of
both sides of the pait
mortise
and
tenon
tenon
is
nuide
is
deeper
slightly
The
long.
than
the
sides of the tenon
and of
and the
"slioul-
the mortise are called "cheeks" Depth jrayp Fig. 251. for Dado.
The
the middle.
in
left
the rectangular hole cut to receive the
is
tenon are the parts abutting against
(k'rs" of the
the mortised piece.
Xo.
A
SO.
only two
sides of the tenon beam.
ends of studding or other upright
A
Xo. SI.
Fig. 2(50.
iHorflsc-mnl-fnitJii.
.^ti(h
made by
})ieces to pi-event lateral
Fig.
iiiiirfisr-iiin/-irn.
}).
arrises at the
be used for
end of tbe tenon
to
Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a
sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife nuirks on the finished
Then
piece.
locate the sides of the mortise
from the thickness
of the
tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. the case of like tenons, set the
In
there are a nuudjer of mortises
gage only twice for them cuttliKj the
tiiDrlise,
on the bench.
solid
if
Tliis
all
in
alike,
all.
fasten the piece so that
fiist
may
As
be done either in a
will rest
it
vise or
l)y
a
handscrew, or by c'amping the Ijendi-hook firm'y in the vise in such
a
way
tail
Then
that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece.
ta])
the l)ench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be beld tightly
down on
the bench.
common
See Fig. 76,
p. 58.
up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining holes whose centers folow the center-'ine of the mortise and It is
Avhose diameter
to loosen
is
slightly less than the width of the mortise.
care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 13T.
no deeper than necessary.
Dig out the portions
auger holes and chisel
thin
off
the knife-lines, taking care tise
back to
its
ami
wood between the the gage-lines and to of
This may be tested
l)y
placing the
against the side of the mortise and standing a'ongside
try-square with
Take
8(i,
rhe time to keep the sides of the mor-
all
perpendicular to the face.
chisel
slices,
]).
it
Finally test the tenon in the uiortise noting carefully where pinches,
if
The
anywhere, and trim carefully.
tighter
danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger
Many
a
head resting on tbe surface.
prefer to dig mortises without
purpose a uiortise-chisci. Fig.
(is.
]>.
T^A.
first is
it
fits
will be the joint.
boring holes.
desiral)le.
it
without
For
this
The method
is
llAXDAVORK IN WOOD.
162
—
whicli to begin at the middle of the mortise, phicing the chisel should be as wide as the mortise at right angles to the grain of the wood. Chisel ont a \^ shaped opening about as deep as the mortise,
—
work back
and then from
this hoh'
out the chips.
Work with
dle except the last cut or
Xo. SS.
In
the tenon
v^6G,
rabbet
is
Xo.
A
ends of the mortise. rabbrted pieces, Fig.
on
joint
as much shorter ou one side than the other as the
wedged niortise-aiid-tenon
joint in whicli after the tenon
driven
is
Fig. 26(i, is a thru
joinf.
wedges are driven in
lioiiic,
The wedges The sides of
between the tenon and the sides of the mortise. dipped in glue
prying
the chisel toward the mid-
Jn Fig. 33, ab=cd.
wide.
SJ/.
at the
niortisc-aud-fnioii
a is
two
to eaeh end. occasionally
liat side of
the
oi-
wliite lead before l)eing inserted.
mortise nuiy be slightly dovetailed.
It is
are
the
used to keep a tenon tightly
fixed as in wheel s})okes.
Xo. So.
.1
inuh/cd inoiiise-ond-tenon joint, Fig. 366,
may
also be
made
))v
driving the wedges into saw kerfs in the tenon instead of
along
its
sides as in 34.
It is
used in ornamental joints as well as
in carpentry.
Xo. 36. in
A
tenon. Fig.
fo.r-titil
which the mortise
width of the tenon.
is
•iiKi.
blind inortise-and-tenon
a
is
made slightly wider
Wedges
a)e di'iven
saw kerfs in the tenon
then when
before inserting into the mortise;
wedges spread out the tenou and make
is
it
used in strong doors and also where the moi'tised in place so that a
Xo. o7.
A
wedged niortise-r.nd-tenon
dorctail niortisc-inul-lcnon
.
driven
home
out the mortise.
fill
it
the bottom than the
at
into
member
is
already
impossible.
is
Fig. 3(i6, is a thru
inor-
tise-and-ten(m beveled on one side so as to form half a dovetail.
corresponding side of the mortise
enough side a It is
used to tenon a beam into
is
beveled
The
and made wide
It is also
a
post especially where the post
is
used in machinery frames which are
of wood.
Xo. ]iin
also
so that when the tenon is ])ressed well up against its beveled wedge may be di'iven into the s])ace left on the straight side.
fixed against a wall.
made
is
the
It is
-iS.
A
/linncd niortisc-dtid-tcnon. Fig. 267,
diiven thru ho'es hored thiu the mortised
tenon to keep them from di'awing as in bridges, in
wagon-making,
in
a])art.
it
is
is
one in which
beam and thru
a
the
used in heavy framing
window-sash,
etc.
THE COMMON JOINTS. No. 39.
A
163
keyed niortise-aiid-tenon, Fig. 267,
is
one in which the
tenon protrudes thru the mortise far enough to receive a removable key and thus be drawn up tight to the mortised member. It is used
and in ornamental and in other mission furniture.
in work-benches
The keyed mortise-and-tenon be
out
laid
is
made
knock-down bookcases
as in a thru mortise-and-
before cutting the tenons the holes for wedges
tenon, except that
should
joints like
from the shoulder
thus:
measuring
of the tenon, locate
measurement the Deduct from this 1/16" and square a fine pencil -line across the face and opposite
by
superposition
or
outside of the mortised member.
This line will be the inside of
side.
the hole for the wedge, and the 1/16" is
deducted to make sure that the key
wedges
the
against
mortised
member.
On
the upper surface of the tenon, lay
off
toward the end
tlic
width of the
wedge at this point, A B, Fig. 253, and square across. On the under surface, lay off the width of the wedge at this point, C D, and square across. Gage the sides of the wedge hole on both upper and lower surAfter cutting the mortise and tenon, l)ore and faces of the tenon. chisel out the hole for the wedge, taking care to cut the side
the end on a bevel to
No.
A
Jf-0.
fit
tml- tenon or shoulder tenon, Fig. 267,
the tenon proper
is
toward
the wedge.
quite thin but
is
is
one in which
reinforced by a thicker shoulder
The upper shoulder is beveled. The object of this form is to weaken the mortised member as little as possible but at It is used in the same time to increase the strength of the tenon.
called a "tusk."
joining tail beams to headers in floor framing.
No.
A
Jf.1.
double mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 267, consists of two
tenons side by side in one piece fitting into two corresponding mortises.
No.
It
is
used in joinery, as in door-frames, but not in carpentry.
If2.
A
haunclied mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 267,
cutting away part of the tenon so that that part of shorter than
the rest.
The haunch
o-ives
it
the tenon
is
made by much
will be
great lateral
IIAXDWUUK iX WOOD.
164
and saves cutting
strene,'th
mortise hole.
so large a
It
is
used in
panel construction, as where the rails are Joined to the stiles of doors. First i)!ow the groove in all the ineinl)ers. This should be of the
The groove
third of the thickness of the frame.
deep as
it
which
as the thickness of the tenons,
same width
Lay out
wide.
is
antl cut the
ordinarily one-
is
is
approximately as
tenon the width of the entire
The mortise should wood outside it will not come enough to the outside on narrowed tenon is Hence the shear out. rule is tluit the tenon The piece. mortised insure stiength in tlu' But groove. I'ail. minus the of width the should l)e one-halt the
piece, minus, of couise, the depth of the groove.
too near the end. or the ])ortion of
enough of the tenon
left
is
full
width
This
outer end of the mortised piece.
width of the mortise to the
oii
is
iill
up the groove
is
at the
The
Jiaiuwh.
called the
equal to the width ot the groove,
its
length
Before asscnd)ling the panel frame, put
width ot the tenon.
soap or tallow
to
the corners of the paiu'l to ])i'cvcnt
its
glued
l)eing
to the frame.
No.
Table or
J/-i.
table construction, Avliere it
eled
is
A
Jj.!/.
to the
and
Xii.
it is
It is
is
Sometimes, as
"illT.
J
in
is
It
used where the
is
bev-
rail.
ninrflse-onil-teni)n
lionseil
"housed'" into the other. Jpi.
Fig.
.
haunch does not show, the haunch
edge of the
the wlu)le of the end of one mend)er
Xo.
in/
one in which rail
is
a
cheek
is
connuon
s/iii-jdlnl or I'lnl or o/ieii
.
let
in
Fig.
is
thinner than the
desiralde to keep the mortise near the niidd'e of the .1
'i'l.
i
liori'-foeed tenon. Fig. '^(iT, is
cut from only one side. stile
ho imr/i
the sake of stitfening the rail, or in ])laces
desirable that the
from the tenon
Xo.
hi per
for
"iliT,
is
stile.
one in which
in foi- a short distance or gi'ill
work and in
railings.
nntrlise-iinil-tenon, Fig. 26T,
what w(udd remain if a moilised mend)er were sawn ofp along one memher. W'inihnv screens and other light frames
side of the tenoned
such as those for slates and
This joint multiplied then
cal'eil
is
foi'
[trinting ])hotographs
have this
joint.
used for small machine-made boxes, and
is
eoriier hirlrimj.
|)(»\i;ta]l .loix'rs
"Dovetail"
when looked mei'eiv tails.
refi'rs to
the shape of the pi'ojeetions of one member,
at bi'oadside.
These
|)idjeeiions are called dovetails, or
THE COMMOJf
165
JOINTS..
The projection^? on the other member are called tenons or pins, and the spaces between both tails and tenons are called mortises or sockets.
A
No. 47.
Fig.
fliru siiKjlc dovetail,
except that instead of a tenon there
is
2'6'^i,
similar to a slip-joint
a dovetail.
is
It
used in win-
is
dow-sashes.
No.
A
Jf-S.
alternate tails
in tool-chests
To make
thru iimttiple dovetail, Fig. 2GT, consists of a series of
and tenons which fit one another closely. and in other strong as well as fine boxes.
a
thru multiple dovetail joint,
first
sharp pencil around the ends of both members
X,
of the dovetail's and the pins, d e on
The
member. into as
Divide this
many
S(|uare lines with a
and
Fig. 250,
1
m
member may,
(1/32") greater than the thickness of the
be slightly
line,
d
e,
used
to locate the inner ends
distance of this line from the ends of each
sired,
It is
on Y. if
de-
other
on the member to be dovetailed, X.
From
equal spaces as there are to be tails (dovetails).
the division points of these spaces, a b
c,
to the right
and
left
lay
off'
one-half of the greatest width of the mortises to be cut out, and also the same distance from d and from
The
e,
as at f f f f
strongest arrangement of dovetai's
width to the spaces between them, sake of appearance they
may
and g g g
to nuike
Xo. 48,
as in
much
be as
is
p.
g.
them equal 267.
as four times as
in
For the wide as
the spaces, but ordinarily should not be wider than 1-34". Set the bevel-square so that it will fit the angle A B C, Fig. 250, in a right angle triangle, the long side of which is 3" and the 159, p. This is approximately an angle of 80° or a little short side ^".
more than one
to five.
this angle to the
From
end of the
the points
piece.
h
angles on the other surface.
Mark
(the mortises), as on
X
and
at
e.
With
side of each line line
from d
to f
a
Fig. 250,
i.
in Fig. 250. f,
g
and
to
may
in-
and across the edge at d p. G6, cut on the mortise
f, etc.,
and
also along the cross
Chisel out the mortises taking care to
keep the line d-e straight and square. the mortises
off
and repeat the dovetail
Score with a knife point the
to the cross line, d-e,
e to g.
and g g g g lay
plainly the parts to be cut out
dovetail-saw, Fig. 93,
down
f
Carry these lines across the end
at right angles to the surface,
ner ends of the mortises, d to
f f f
The ends (not
be slightly undercut to insure a tight
the sides) of fit.
Fasten the other member, Y, upright in the vise so that the end to be tenoned will bo flush with the top of the bench, and with the work-
HANDWORK
166
Place on
ing face toward the bencli.
member
IX WOOD. it
the working face of X,
(the
already dovetailed,) taking care that the inner ends of the
mortises are in line with the working face of Y, and that the edges of
members
the two
same plane,
are in the
witli a knife point
as
along the sides of the
X
on
tails
Y
Scribe
in Fig. 350.
on the end of
Y'
(f'-j'
Y
from the vise and square down these lines to Score with the knife point the the cross line 1-m (j-n and h'-o). inner ends of the mortises of Y (n-o). Saw with a dovetail-saw on the mortise sides of these lines, chisel out the mortises and fit the and
Remove
g'-h').
When
parts together.
Where
glued together, the joints should be dressed
there are several parts to be
made
off.
alike, it is necessary to lay
X
member. This may be used as a templet for laying out the others and they can then be sawn separately. Or all the X members may be clamped carefully together, with one X already laid out, rights and lefts in pairs, and edges and ends flush, the depth nuirk gaged all around, and then all sawn at once. The dovetail joint is also made by first laying out and cutting the members having the pins, and tlien su])erposing this on the piece to be dovetailed, and scribing around the pins. Xo. J/9. A lap or lidlf l)Und dovetail. Fig. 267, is a dovetail joint out the dovetails on only one
in
which the
tails
on one member do not extend entirely thru the
thickness of the other member. fronts of drawers If the joint
and other
It is
fittings
to be used for a
is
drawer bottom should be cut or See also drawers,
joint.
p.
used in joining the sides to the
where only one side
at least laid
190,
191.
p.
On
the
same marking from the C4age the
joint.
distance on both broad surfaces of the drawer sides,
Lay out and cut the
seen.
out before laying out the
and Fig. 287,
end of the drawer front, gage the depth of the front ends.
is
drawer front, the groove for the
dovetails as in a thru dovetail joint,
taking especial care to have the groove for the bottom completely within
the.
and one
lower
left,
tail.
Take
care also to
make
the sides, one right
not both alike, so that the groove will come inside.
Lay
out the drawer front by superposing the dovetailed side. X, on the
end of the front, Y, as in mortises and fit together. No. 50.
A stopped
a
thru dovetail.
lap dovetail. Fig. 3()7,
Saw and is
chisel out the
one in which neither
the tails nor the pins extend thru the other members. joint
is
concealed.
boxes, trays, etc.
The
lap nuiy be rounded.
It
is
Hence the used in fine
:
THK CO:\niON JOINTS.
le';
TJie blind miter or -secret doveiail. Fig. 267, is a joint
No. ol.
in which only part, say one-half, of both boards
dovetailed, the
is
The edges of the boards are also mitered distance so that when finished the dovetails are
outer portion being initered. right thru for a short invisible.
It is used in highly finished boxes.
BEVELED JOINTS
A
beveled joint
is
made by
beveling the
of the joint bisects the angle at
members
so that the plane
which the members meet. called the "miter"
This
is
and may be
45 degrees or any other angle. It
neat but weak joint
a
is
unless reinforced by a spline,
some other way.
nails, or in
No.
A
f)i2.
Fig. 268,
plain
a joint
is
miter.
where the
beveled edges or ends abut and are simply glued or nailed toFig-. 253.
Gluing- Tog-ether (See also Fig. 254.
a Picture-Frame
gether.
It
is
commonly used
in picture-frames, inside trim,
columns, boxes, and taborets, four or more sided.
For gluing mitered frames, the most convenient way aid of the picture-frame-vise, Fig. 172, p. 101. splines inserted as soon as each joint
is
glued.
not available, an ordinary metalworking vise
may
Picture-Frame-CIamp.
with the
Nails are driven oi
Where
this vise
is
be used, as follows
Fasten one member, X, face side up, firmly in the
Fig-. 254.
is
vise.
Bore holes
16H
IIANDAVUI.'K IX
in tJie other
WOOD.
V. at the pioper places for the nails.
iiiciiilici'.
Insert
nails in the hoh-s. api»ly the glue to l)oth niitered surfaces, place the
glued surfaces together, letting conrenient way
V
to hold
Y
project ahout 1/8" beyond X.
in ]dace
is
Picture-Frame-Clamp.
Fig. 255.
the left forearm rests upon X.
(See also
Fig-. 254.)
Drive one of the nails home, and
continue driving until the parts exactly
fit.
Then
other nail.
Now
hers of
picture-frame, and then, one at a time,
foiiith
tlie
jnitit.
and when Foi-
of
the
is
IcariU'd
is
very
shown
in
two pieces
Fig. 253 of
drive
home
same way the other two
method used
gluing togetiu'r at once
the de\ ice
Out
oiicc
fasten together in the
This
A
palm up, whik
in the left hand,
in
the
mem
the third
and
])icture-frame factories,
sinijile. all is
the nu'inhers of a mitered frame.
convenient and
wood somewhat
is
longer than
easily
the
made.
two
end
THE COMMON JOINTS.
169
pieces of the frame, gains are cut of the exact length of tlie ends, as
shown
By applying two
in the illustration.
the frame,
frame does not come
square,
u])
it
may
l)e
temporary brace, A, in Fig. 253. The device shown in Figs. 254 and 255,
At
efficient tool.
c'.anips
lengthwise on
four Joints nuiy he glued together at once.
all
least the small jiieces,
the frame, should be
made
of
is
s(|uare(l
If
the
hy means of a
also an easily nuide
and
which receive the corners of
hard wood such
as maple.
It
is
self-
adjusting but care must be taken not to buckle the parts of a narrow
frame by over pressure.
It
is
well to soap or oil the corner pieces to
prevent their being glued to the frame.
In
sfluino-
together long mitered joints, in six or eight sided tab-
which the members meet edgewise, one method is to wrap a few turns of bale wire around the parts and drive in wedges under the wire to obtain pressure, Fig. 256. Another method orets or columns, in
to is
wrap
is
as
around set
a
stout
rope,
such
used for window weights, the pieces, properly
all
up,
then to tighten
twisting
it
w^ith
a
it
stick
by
thru
A still more way is by means of Xoxall Column Clamp, a
a loop. Fig. 257. effective
the
powerful
device,
for gluing
up such pieces
used
chiefly as the
a centrally supported
pillar
of
table.
Fig. 259.
taken with
all
Care must be these devices to
protect the corners, unless they are to be
A
rounded
off
afterward.
good way to protect them
is
with })ieces fastened together in
shown in Fig. 258, h. and Fig. 257, the interior anthe shape
gle being equal
to the exterior
ang'e of the piece to be glued.
In the case of
a
Gluiiifr
(Pinch-Doys
up a Column Joint.
at
Top
of Joints.)
taboret with
must he taken to insert blocks between the separate brace them apart and to keep them from l)ending un-
slender legs, care legs as well, to
Fig. 2S6.
IIANDWUUK IX WOOD.
170
These
der the pressure. speedy, fit
sinet' all
luethoils li;ne the a(l\anta,i;e that they are
the pieees go togethei' at oiu'e:
hut uidess the pieces
exactly the joints will not close.
Another nietliod is to glue and two hy two, using Idoeks
getliev
elani|) the pieees of the tal)Oi'et to^
shown
as
Fig.
in
"258,
Cai'e
a.
handserews as far out
slionld he taken to put the pressnre of the
method has the advantage
that, as only one joint
he done nioie deliherately.
the woi'k can
as
This
possihle so as to he sure that the outside of the joint closes.
glued at a time,
is
Moi'i'over,
when
if
three
pairs of a six-sided tahoiet aie togethei', the othei- three joints do not fit
exactly, th.ey can then he
x\nother method
i'etitt(,'(l.
each pieces as shown in Fig.
2.-)S.
is
exterioi- of
These hlorks should he of such
r.
shape that the opposite sides of each glue
wood on the
to glue pieces ot soft
is
sel
When
pair are parallel.
dry. they are used as comu'rs on
This
ews.
luethod
(lisad\antage
may hreak
the
clamp the hand-
to
wliit-h
has
the
that loose
at
the
hlocks critical
a
uioMient.
in addition to any of these
methods
of
joints,
luake
to
tightening sure
the
that
the
vWiU of the joints close tight, |iiiu-li-dogs,
he
luay
and
grain,
p.
103,
the
end
178,
h'ig.
driven
into
corrugated
fasten-
Fig. 228, p. 125, also driven
ers.
into
make
the ends,
the
joint
(|uite Secure.
No. I''ig.
Fig. 257.
Oiu-
Method
up a
of (iluing'
glued into
X(i.
').'/.
It
A
splnii'
nishes
more gluing
is
(ir
tongue inserted
oi-
.')').
.1
(UU'
liole-
l)(U"ed
into the
uuiy he used instead of nails, as in large picture frauu's.
spline
Xo.
doweled miter.
one in which
is
or luoi'e dowels are inserted and
Six-Sided Taboret
heveled edges.
A
5-3.
2()8,
loiKjiir at
surface,
s/i p-friil In r
strengthened hy
the miteied an^'le.
a slip (d' It
is
niili'r.
2tiS.
I'"ig.
is
(Uie
light angles to the joint. it
is
stronger than
or sli/i-lmi
iiiilrr.
hardwood glued
used
in
nicl
it
a
fur-
plain miter.
a
i'"ig.
into a
ure-frauies
which has Since
2(iS,
is
one which
saw keif cut across
and
in hoxcs.
THE COMMON
A
iVo. 56.
slip-dovetail miter. Fig. 268,
key
shaped
zoidal
When
across the miter. otf,
it
inserted
is
in
171
JOINTS.
a
one in which a trape-
is
dovetail
socket
cut
straight
dressed
gives the appearance of
a dovetail on each face.
It is
used for the same purpose as a spline miter.
A
No. 57.
double dovetail
l-eyed miter. Fig.
m .
'
1-1
268,
11
T
1
is J.
-1
one
made
wood
of hard
is
Devices for
Fig-. 258.
1
Avhich a double dovetail key
This
inlaid across the Joint.
Beveled Edges
t^luiiiff
is
a favorite joint
with Oriental joiners.
A
No. 5S.
ledge and miter or lipped miter joint, Fig. 268,
made hy rabbeting and
is
raitering the boards to be joined so that the
outer portion of the two boards meet in a It
uiiter.
may
is
strong and good looking and
be glued or nailed.
It
is
used for
tine boxes.
No. 59. is
useful
widths,
268, Columii-Clanip.
is
stopped miter, joining pieces
when both
No. 00. Fig-. 254.
A
for
A
of
Fig.
268,
different
sides can be seen.
double-tongue miter, Fig.
made by
cutting on the adjoining
edges tongues which engage in each other. It
is
nsed in high class joinery, on
mem-
bers that join lengthwise of the grain.
No.
A
61.
or both sides
stretcher joint, Fig. 268,
is
for paintings
mitered.
Ijy
It
is
is
a slip joint in
which one
nsed in frames for stretching canvass
driving wedges from the inside.
Two
forms are
shown in 61a and 61b. No. 62. A strut joint. Fig. 268, is a form of miter joint used in making trusses. No. 63 and 64- A thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint, Fig. 268, is one in which two l)eams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. as in 61. is
Tlie toe
may
be either square as in 63, or oblique
pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron.
It
used for the batter braces of bridges.
No. is
The
65.
A
plain brace joint. Fig. 269,
simply mitered and naiU'd into place.
supports.
is
one in which the brace It
is
nsed for bracket
HAXDWORK
172
Ko. brace
A
00.
lioitscd brave joiiil.
IX WOOD. Fig.
a joint in wiiieli
is
">?()!»,
the
honsed into the reetaniiular nienibers except that the outer
is
end of the mortise
cut at right angles and the inner end diag-
is
onally to receive the brace Mdiicli
cut to correspond.
is
It
much
is
stronger than 05.
No.
All
07.
Fig. 269,
ohiiqur
or hevel-skoulder joint.
niortise-and-tcnoii
one in Avhich the shoulders of the tenoned beam aie cut
is
The cheeks of the means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against tlie abutment. Thus a much largei' hearing surface is ()l)taineil. The obliquely and
its
end
cut off at right angles.
is
By
mortise are correspondingly sunk.
whole
is
No.
bolted or strapped together.
A
OS.
bridle or "tdnguc"
Over
this
beam.
No. in
tongue
used in truss construction.
00.
A
to
It is used in rafters
A
j\o. 70.
jilnin
joint.
iiioiifli
it
notch cut out
ol)li(|ue
]t is
hirtl's
an oblique joint
is
Fig.
"iC)!),
in wliicli a
ol'
grooved socket cut oldicpiely
fitted a
is
used in heavy truss work.
It is
'iC)\),
an
in
left
is
a tind)er to allow
I'ests.
Fig.
hrii/lr joint.
these
in
one beam the other
an angular notch cut
is
snugly over the mendier on which
fit
where they
or rnhhnj or
lit
over
tln' ])'att'.
or ;/hic joint. Fig. 3(>9,
s(iu('i".i'il
it
is
one in which the edges of two l)oards are glued and rubl)ed together tight.
It
is
To make side,
used
in
and arranged
mine what
table-tops, drawing-boards, etc.
boards are
tbis joint, first the
this order
is
to be:
(f ),
all laid
grain
llie
if
down
flat,
side by
Three considerations deter-
the jirojier order.
in
is
of
prime import-
ance, as in quartered oak. then the boards are arranged so as to give
the best appearance of the grain.
('J),
if
possible, the boards should
be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that
For
of the adjac-ent oiu's.
this purpose the boards are so laid that
the annual rings of one shall alternate in direetion with the annual
rings of the next, Fig. *280,
a,
p.
188.
(;;),
possible, tlie boards
if
should be so arranged that after being glued together they can ])laned smootli
in
same
tlie
have been met so
I'ai-
dii'ection.
as jtossibU'. this oi'der should be mai'ked
joining edges for later identilieation. joined should he Thei'e
ai'e
linislied
two
with a
|iiMiiei|»al
rubbing and s(juee/jng. slundd be |i'aned so as
lo
meet
be
The edges
on ad-
of the boards to be
jointei'.
iiielliods
in a
a'l
Wlu'U the aI)ove requirements
ot gluing
ruMied joint, tlii'U(Uit
llii'
exactly.
edge-to-edge joints, surfaces to be joined
After
])ro])erlv ))lan-
178
THE COMMON" JOINTS.
ing one edge of each board, keep one board iu the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. Then use these
four tests for an exact faces
the
in
lie
(1)
fit.
same
Sight
down
the end to see that the
plane.
Examine the crack froui Be sure that both both sides. ends touch. Test this by pu 1ing down hard on one end (3)
of the if
upper board and noticing
the other end
is
tact.
If the other
swing
the
upper
in con-
still
end
opens,
board
hori-
zontally on the lower board see where the high place
then
correct
is
(3)
it.
S.ee
to
and
Fijr. 260.
if
the upper board stands firmly on the lower board to see if
it
Applying-
Glue for an Edge-to-Edtre Joint.
l)y
feeling gently
rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board,
the top board slowly on the lower one to feel
if it
''sucks.""
After the pieces have been warmed, which should be done sible,
the glue
is
Slide
(-i)
adheres or
pos-
if
on them, Fig. 260, and they are then rubbed
spread
slowly back and forth direction of
in the
the grain,
pres-
sure being applied by the
and care open
being taken
the
Joint
in
hand
not to
tbe least.
As the glue sets, the rubbing It more difficult. becomes should be stopped when the boards
are
relative
bing
in
together the
two boards,
Rubbiiiff a
a
Glued Joint.
way
that their
as guides for the to slide between, Fig. 361.
In
rub-
edges
of
handscrews may
be fastened to one Fig-. 2bl.
proper
their
positions.
in
such a
jaws
serve
other board
Care must be taken to make the jaws of
the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board.
Another method
is
to
clamp a spare board alongside and projectThis spare hoard acts as a guide against
ing above the lower board.
HANDWORK
174
IN WOOD.
which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and The rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards. In joining long boards, a squeezed joint
is
common.
forth.
In this
case,
the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end.
The
object of this
to counteract the
is
subsequent shrinkage which
likely to take place at the ends of the boards before
The
middle.
pressure of the clamps
up the middle, and,
especially
joint will bo strong
enough
^Ahen tbe
fit
is
good,
if
may
be depended
it
is
does at the
upon
to close
dowels are inserted, as in No. 75, the
to resist the elasticity of the boards.
warm
the
wood
if
possible, prepare
the
clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush,
away
to dry for at least six hours.
same manner.
in the
Then another
If the boards are thin
piece
may
and
set
be added
and wide, and therefore
likely to buckle, they
may
first
vent their buckling.
The
cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter
be handscrewed to cross-strips to pre-
than the combined width of the boards so that the the clamps may come on the glued joint.
No. ing
is
A
71.
full pressure of
rebated, rabbeted or filUstered joint, Fig. 269.
Rebat-
the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of
The
wood.
or rabl)et.
re-entering angle left
A
rel)atc(l
joint, then,
upon the wood is
is
called the rebate
one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards
may
overlap.
and
It is used in flooring
sid-
ing.
A leted
lioard
is
rebated
bates are filled with a
No.
72.
A
tougac-aiid-groove '3(")ii.
and
when two adjoining
is
fil-
re-
fillet.
matched joint.
made by making
or Fig.
a pro-
jection or "tongue" in the center
and
a
will
match
of the edge
of one
board,
corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they togetluM-.
grooved
ttoai'd
toiii'h.
This
is
s(H-t
When
sliglilly
of
used for flooring, the lower side of the
r('l)ated
lloorins-
so that the
upper edges will surely
can he blind-nailed.
THE COMMON JOINTS.
A
No. 73.
headed joint. Fig. 269,
except that a bead
is
is
175
similar to a matched joint
worked on one edge
to disguise the joint for
decorative purposes.
A
iYo. 74.
spline-joint. Fig. 269,
is
made by plowing
correspond-
ing grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slipfeather.
No.
used in plank flooring.
It is
A
7-5.
doweled joint. Fig. 269,
is
made by
jointing the two
edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel
when
pins
the two edges are glued together.
It
is
used in table
tops, etc.
Where is
the boards are thick enough to allow
it,
a squeezed joint
greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels.
The essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. The following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to Place the two boards
262.
Fig.
edge,
back to back in the vise with the edges
and
ends
Determine
flush.
approxi-
mately where the dowels are to be serted.
With the gage, mark short
in-
lines
at the points of insertion in the center
from the outside
of each edge, gaging
Across
faces.
with
rately
Then
these
a
lines
try-square
score
accu-
and
knife.
bore the holes with a dowel-bit at
the intersection of the lines. Fig. 263. If this
be
carefully done, the holes will
is
directly
boards.
opposite
from
equidistant
All
the
one another, and
the holes
faces
of
should
both be
of Borine for Dowels an Edge-to-Ed^e Joint.
Fig. 263.
equal depth, say 1", in order that the
in
dowel-pins, which should also be cut of
equal lengths,
may
be interchangeable.
After boring, the holes
may
be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy
slipping of the pins into place.
The
latter result
may
also be ob-
tained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel -pointer, Fig. 123, p. 83.
It
is
also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the
HANDWOKK
17(i
IX WOOD.
length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole.
The dowel should
be dipped in glue and inserted
THE COMMOX ReB'EREXCES
pp.
I.
pp. 57-77,
238-242: 291-295.
86-124.
Goss, pp. 128-152. Ellis. 1,),. 135-151.
lifiiera]
Barter, pp. 211-27.5.
Vol.
pp. 1-30.
Sickels, pp.
I'or
.JOINTS
*
135-137, II,
the glue
:
Rivington, Vol.
Adams,
when
the joint.
iip})]ied to
liiblio^rapliy. soe p. 4
Scldfii. Biiiltliii]>.
50-130.
Trades Pockcthnok, pp.
221. 237. Griliith,
jip.
8(5-104,
1(;4-170.
21'
is
THE
CO:ilM.ON JOINTS.
177
^=r-
y
-^ /
Lapped and ^Trapped
2 ruhec.
Spliced
4-
3
Fished
and
5 bpiiced
for
S.
7
Spliced
^
\rE ^
for
compression
for
Keyed
tension
6
^k_
cross
sl'ra/n
spliced
and
tabba
,^P^
c^ 6
9
~(c)c- nailed
^^^*^
10
Draw-boir
Doweled
butt
178
HAXDWORK
Fiy.
2ii5.
IX WOOD.
THE co:m:mon joints.
179
X
-Y 14
Z5
Rabbet
Y
— 19
Z8
36
P overall
,
Dado
Gam
^q
^j-^^
morTi:>c
dado
fox Tail tenon
Dovetail
Fig-. 266.
moTri:>e
and tenon
ma lenan
II A
180
Bare faced
thru
knon
muttipic
tlouxci
dovetail
KD WORK IX WOOD.
morTi ie
Lap
46
and renon
dovetail
V\M.
5lip
blcppca 2i)7.
Thm
lap dovetail
iingle
J)/
dovetail
Blind
dovetail
THE COMMON
181
JOINTS.
J2
V ^iip
feather mitcT
63
^lip aoveTail miler
5quarc
Thruil
Double
aovelail
Keyed
64
Ledge
OMique
and
ThruH
md'er
182
HAXDWORK
I]sr
WOOD.
7i ~l
74
beaded
nalched
5plme
TJ Fijr.
2()'».
Uowelcd
Chapter VIII.
TYPES OF WOODEX STRUCTUEES. The
articles suitable to be
made
in
wood with hand
convenience be divided into four general classes: pieces;
board structures;
(2)
structures.
A
(3)
tools
(1)
panel structures;
may
for
Unjoined
(4)
framed
few illustrations of each class are given below. (1)
Of these there are
SIMPLE OR UNJOINED PIECES a
ing of tool processes;
number that at the
are advantageous for the learn-
same time they give opportunity for
expression in design, and wdien finished are of use.
Examples
are:
key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve-
boards, ironing-boards,
Some
coat-
and skirt-hangers, and gouged
trays.
of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but
planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72.
Where
there
is
more
than one process involved, the order of procedure is of
In
importance.
gen-
eral, a safe rule to follow
in each case
is
the piece true or,
to plane
in technical language,
to '"true" it up.
Pen-Tray.
as
up
and square,
many
of
its
At
least
surfaces
should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." Where the piece where some of is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; it is unnecessary and a waste of time in making a gouged tray with example, For to square them first. face, the working edge, and working the curved outline. Fig. 270, Then, the plan is laid out. true before the thickness should all be
the surfaces are to be curved
after the outline
is
drawn, the trough
may
be gouged, the outline cut
with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with If there is incised decoration it should be cut the gouge or chisel. 183
184
IIANDWOKK IX WOOD.
:
TYPES OF A^'OODEN STRUCTURES. seasoned, to keep the boards under jjressure
till
185 they are assembled.
In the case of several boards to be jointed into one be glued together before the surfaces are Suggestions regarding a few typsmoothed.
piece, they should
pieces follow
ical
(1) There are three essen-
Wall Brackets.
parts, the shelf, the support or supports,
tial
and the back:
shelf to hold the
tlic
Fig-. 273.
articles,
Piece Held in Vise to
the support to hold up the shelf, and the back to
hold
together, Fig. 276,
all
The grain
a.
Chamfer.
of
the Avood in the shelf should iim left and right, not forwaid and back,
because thus
rests
it
on the support in such a way as not to break easily,
and
the back.
it
also acts as a stiffener for
In case the back extends above
the shelf, as in Fig. 276, a, the shelf can
be secured firmly to the back, since there side grain in
is
sci'ews.
As
which
to drive nails or
to the direction of the grain
and the hack, this should un in the direction of the largest diWheie the back is mension of each. 'ong horizontally, for security in hang-
of the support 1
Trough
Fig. 274.
for PI anin<
Chamfers.
have two
ing, it is better to
^Yall
pound
hook-sUelves,
Fig.
The
shelf
brackets.
277, is
pJate-racls,
etc.,
supports.""*
are simply
com-
the essential piece, the sides take the
place of the supports, and the
back
often reduced to strips
is
enough
wide
merely
giv
to
rigidity.
The gaini'd
the
into
keyed
a
may
ho used, case
latter
have tenon
which
cithci-
2!),
Fig.
p. 170,
luoi'tiso-and-tenou Fiy-.
the
short
a
he
supports.
Xo. 28 or Xo.
266, or
may
shelves
277.
liack
Tn
strip
barefaced is
mortised
tlu'
nun Idind into
Fig-. 27s.
stop chamfering.
" See the School Arts Book for Nov.. 190G, "Design Anna and William Noves.
Class." bv
in the
Woodworldng
HANDWOUK
1H6
on the upper back
It also fits into a rabbet
the upright, Fig. 2?8.
Made
side of the shelf.
IX WOOD.
in this
way the
shelves can be knocked
down
easil}'.
Foot Stool or Cricket, Fig. ^79. The grain of the supports should run up and down, because pieces with the grain horizontal
would be
tmdor
pressure.
rail
give
The
to})
likely to break
Braces
additional
or
a
support.
shoukl not be larger
than the base of the legs;
oth-
erwise a person standing carelessly
on the
stool is in
danger
of being upset.
A Draw in [/-Board is made up of narrow boards, with glued joints,
that the annual rings will
al-
ternate in direction. Fig. 280,
a.
shrink and swell and yet remain lateral
stiffness cleats
the underside,
tlie
Wall Brackets, Uouble-Huiig-: Support. /'. Double Support.
Fi«-. 27t). a. Sitiirle
with the boards so laid
are added.
must be made so that it can For tlie luupose of giving They may siiiii>]y lie screwed on It
flat.
screw holes being large enough to
with h.
a
a(hnit a
a
dado. Fig. 280,
may
be grooved
to
tongue on the end of
In
r.
this
screws passing thru large
holes
in
the
hold
cleats
them
])lace.
Tahorcls. orig-inally
or
be dadoed in
hoard. Fig. 280,
case
in
(lo\('tail
they
or
for shrink-
;\\\o\\'
may
age, or they
The term
meant
drum,
and
a
taboret
little
was
tabor
therefore
used to designate a small stool, Fiy.
Wall Book-Case.
the seat of which consisted of n
The term now pots, vases, etc.
piece
of
stretched
leather.
includes small, tablelike strictures for holding flowerIt
might more properly be called
a
''table-ette."
187
TYPES OF AVOODEN" STRUCTURES.
When made up
with boards having their long edges mitered,
has from four to eight sides.
In making,
it is
best to
fit
A
six-sided one
the joints exactly
it
shown in Fig. 281.
is
while the board
first,
and then
stiff,
is
cut
to
out the pattern of the Directions for glu-
legs.
ing are given on p. 169. i^rrap-boxes, Fig. 282,
and
hoxea
fower-pot
may
be
made with
the
same construction. Rectangular Boxes.
There are various methods
of
sides.
Construction of a Knock-Down Book-Shelf Seen From the Back.
their joint.
Fig.
264,
177,
is
and
good
work. Fifj. 278.
joining
The butt Xo.
plain,
for
packing
boxes,
p.
coarse
This joint
reinforced
be
11,
simple,
as
may in
Fig.
283.
Mitered joints. Fig. 268, No. 52, p. 181, are neat but weak, unless leinforced by a spline. Fig. 268, Ko. 54.
The and
rabbet or ledge joint, Fig. 266, No. 24,
neat.
The
It
can be glued and also nailed
is
good for small boxes.
The housed dado, Fig. 266, No. 25,
difficult to
The is
is
mitered ledge, Fig. 268, No. 58,
joint which can be nailed or glued, but
more
fit
than
a
is
simpler joint.
dovetail joint, Fig. 267, No. 48,
very strong and honest, but the joint
is
prominent from the outside and
takes
much time and
labor
to
it
maki'.
It is glued.
The 51,
is
both strong
rabbet and dado joint. Fig. 266, No. 26, can be glued with-
out nails and
The
p. 179, is
if desired.
blind
dovetail,
verv neat
and
Fig. strong,
267,
No.
and the
good for water-tight boxes.
makes
a very neat, strong
ilANDWOKK IX WOOD.
188 joint
is
Tlic
entirely concealed
when done, but
Bottoms of Boxes.
is likely to
the friction
shrink (see dotted line), and of the nails.
extended bottom.
Fig.
overcomes
objection
i\S4,
is
very ditRcult to make.
Tlie plain or L'uU bottom, Fig. 284, A, it
is
held in ]»hu-c only by
The B, 1
the
to
TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES.
189
common Japanese
construction, even
This
top from warping.
The may be
may
lid
pieces are a help to stiffen
is
sides
may
top. Fig. 285, F,
of
shrinkage and
adds a decorative element. top
may
of
shrink and part
and give a bad appear-
The overlapping
obviates this trouble
the
boxed top
The disadvantage
E.
that the top
from the ance.
portions of the sides
the top board flush with the
sides, Fig. 285,
this
is,
These extra the top and
A
from warping.
it
may have
the top on with a tape or ribbon.
tie
be boxed, Fig. 285, D, that
affixed to the top.
to keep
a
is
The Japanese
in fine boxes.
In this case
be glued on
from below thru the
or
screwed
side strips.
The top may be mitered into the The shrinkage trou-
Fig-. 282.
sides, Fig. 285, G.
ble
obtains
still
appearance
here.
excellent.
is
Otherwise the
The
top
may
This has a good appearance
285, H.
but not
if
Scrap-Box.
if
be paneled into the sides, Fig. the sides are mitered or ledged
the sides are butted or dadoed, because then the groove for
the top shows.
Any
may be made removable or hinged, except the methods of hinging see p. 132. For In gluing boxes together, it
of these lids
sliding top.
is
a
good plan
to glue the ends
and
sides together first
let
these
joints
and
dry
to
before
gluing on the bottom and, in the case of a
boxed top, Fig.
285, D, the top.
Care must be
taken to see that the sides do
bow under the To prevent this, one
not
false,
Reinforced Butt Joint in Box.
Fig-. 283.
joints,
may
be inserted.
Fig. 285,
or
more
temporary partitions
as
A, B, in Fig. 286, of exactly the
straight,
pressure.
length
to
keep
the
sides
In gluing together boxes with rabbeted
H, pressure should be applied
in
both directions.
HANDWORK
190 In gluing on
bottom of
tlio
driwn
shonlcl be
IX WOOD.
a l)ox tliat is also to be nailed, the nai's
into the bottom
iivst,
so that the points just
come
These points sticking into the sides will prevent the bottom
thru.
from slipping when pressure
^^ ^^^^^^
^^^^^^S
Methods
lieails sliow. as
is
often undesirable to
^^m>:^\^\^
>'i^s?$^'^;$>s$
Fit^. 284.
have nail
Tt
a]>]iliod.
is
of Attacliins'
^\^\K<\\\\\V^
Box Bottoms.
In such a case, and also to pre-
in a top.
vent the top from slipping under pressure, a couple of small brads
may ten
l)e
oH'
driven part way into the upper edges of the sides, the heads bit-
with the nippers, and points In the best form,
Prinrcrs,
on the projecting portion.
filed
tlie
sides are dovetailed to the front
for strengtii. Fig. "iS?. for whenever the drawer
tends to
|)iill
away
fioiii
that the joint will not appear the drawer
may
close as possible,
ends of
tlie
the drawer
always run freely and yet
Fitr. 285.
tlic
when
it
is
front,
lowtT tlian \hv front
Forms
of
is
This dovetail
the sides.
Box
tln^
is
opened the front is
shut.
fiont
fit
half blind, so
In order that the opening as
Consliuciiuii.
connnon practice to cut a shallow rabbet on so that the body of the drawer is a little nar-
is lona',
Fiii'.
'iST.
Or the front mav be attached
TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. to
the sides with
a
dado tongue and rabbet
191
joint.
Fig.
2(36,
No.
37, p. 179.
The bottom
is
grooved into the sides with
the front and fastened only to the front so that
The
for shrinkage.
Fig.
with either a
sides,
01
179,
dado,
dovetail
No.
266,
and
28,
dadoed into the
No.
2Q6,
Fig.
is
has plenty of play
dado,
straight
35, p.
l)aek
grain parallel to
its it
rests
on the bottom.
The
extension
the
bottom
beyond
the
of
1)ack allows
room
ple 1
.
amfor Fitr.
T
shrinkage.
The
all
leaving a
rift
is
for Mal-iug a Table Drawer.
play
all
around
for the drawer bottom.
the bottom
The
s!ip out.
dovetailed.
Fit the front of the drawer to little
now made with
around so that papers cannot
back, as well as the front,
D ire ctio
Box.
Clueiiitr Tosrether a
best niaehine-made drawers are
paneled or dadoed in
to size.
28i>.
it.
its
Dress the front and sides
place in the table or cabinet,
Plow the groove
For ordinary drawers,
in the fiont
proper.
and
^"
a groove
sides
wide
ends
the
If
is
of the fiont arc to be
rabbeted
do
best
see
p.
fitting
joined
with the
to the front
half-blind joint.
The
next.
are
sides
above),
(see
this
dovetail
(For directions After
166). these,
lay
out
and cut the dadoes for the back of the drawer.
Prepare the bottom of Fi?.28-.
Dovetailed Drawer Construction.
^'^'^
drawer
thllS
:
the
HAXDWOEK
192
IN WOOD.
and
right
never front and back.
left,
drawer
tlir
run
should
,uraiii
(juire
glue-joint
it.
tom, and
the
bot-
snugly to place.
it
fit
If
so long as to re-
is
There need be no play right left, and the bottom should
and
extend as far back as the sides. If
necessar}^
side to
under
the
bevel
the grooves.
fit
Assem-
Ide all the parts to see that they
take them
fit,
sides Door, Illustrating- Panel
Fig-. 288.
Construction: S. Stile: T. R. Top Rail: L. R. Lock Rail: B.R. Bottom Rail: M. Muntin: P. Panel; A. Double Mortiseand-Tenon; F. Fillet; A. B.C. Forims of Panels.
apart,
back,
slip
the bott(Mn into place, ap-
]ily
tile
that
all
hrace
diagdiial
a
and
(-lamps,
see
to
it
joints are sipiare, using
Fasten the bottom to the front by means of
Fig. 294.
glue the
and
front
the
to
if
necessary,
a thin block
glued into the interior angle between the under side of the bottom
and fit
When
back side of the front.
tlie
up the drawer and
dry, clean
to its ])hu'e.
it
(3) PAN'EL STRl'CTURES
These include doors and panel or of
that there shall
is
and within panel
is
from
t'i'cc
is
to cover
the
geiu'i'al
is
principle of
frame composed
mortised and tenoned together
set a thin
board or
shrink or swell but
to
warping hy the
is
object
that
frame there
this
wliit-li
vented
stift'er
and
pre-
Since the frame there
is
but
is all
itself
is
made up
such a way
good
appearance
of
them.
little shi-inkage in
wood
extent.
'I'he
geiKM-al
does
not
shi-inking size.
The
shrink or
That shrink-
longitudinally
swelling
cross
is.
pieces,
Fig.
t
28'i.
The Way
a Mitered Joint Opens on Account of
Shrinkage.
whole structure,
that alTects the size of the
because
narrow
K—-
The
in
an extended surface dimensions
is
frame.
will not be atfeete(l by whatever shrinkage there
the
a
lie
narrow members whose grain fo'lows the principal dimensions.
In the best construction this frame
age
The
cal)inets of all sorts.
constructidu
t'al)inet
of
the
construction
of
to
panel the
any appreciable does
frame
not affect also
pre-
TYPES OF WOODEiY STRUCTURES.
193
warping,
vents
in
since,
the
best construction every joint
and
mortised l^anel
tenoned.
may simply
is
The
be fastened
on the back of the frame, but a better construction it
in a groove
side of the
play.
The panel may
one
boards,
Chest Construction.
2W.
frame in which the lie and have free
is
of Fig-.
in tbe in-
panel
to
insert
to
is
made
board
may
or
of
be
made
matched
be plain or have
raised or carved surfaces, or be
and the joints between frame and panel may be embellished with moldings mitered in, but the principle is the same in all cases. The frame of a door, Fig. 288, il-
of glass
;
panel
lustrates
the
upright,
outside
The
construction.
pieces
are
called
the
"stiles," the horizontal pieces the "rails."
There are
also the "top-rail," the "bot-
the
tom-rail,"
"lock-rail"
(where
the
door-knob and lock are inserted), and
sometimes the "frieze-rail" between the lock rail and the top
tin"
is
rail.
The "mun-
upright between
the
the
two
is
the
stiles.
The
joint
haunched
or
commonly relished
used
mortise-and-
(See
tenon, Fig. 3G7, No. 42, p. 180; p.
The
163 for directions for making).
tenon
and
is
sometimes doubled. Fig. 288,
a fillet (f )
may
be inserted to cover
the ends of the tenons, or the joint
may
be a blind mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 266,
No. 32, or in cheap construction, dowels
may
be used.
made with
The
best doors are
now
cores of pine covered
on the
with heavy veneer.
Large
visible sides
surfaces are covered by increasing the
^
j,,^ jqi
a
cross-SecUon Thru
^r'r^!.
^Lt'^t^ll
^^'^^.'^fn^'oT rIil'"''
shouider
IIANDWUIIK JN WUOD.
194
number
parts
of
.size,
tlieii-
I'icture-franics
in
taking the place
glass
They
panel.
Xo. No.
l^GT,
slip
33,
Fig.
joints.
more
Tar Fig.
Table Construction: Upper Drawer Rail of Table Dovetailed into Left Front Leg.
2''2.
tered
Fig.
joints,
Fig.
No.
8,
265, No. commonly,
Fig.
joints.
joints
with
joints,
dowelled
4G,
joints. Fig. 264,
the
of
made
are
mortise-and-tenon 26G,
belong
also
of structures, the
class
tliis
than
rather
as in wainscoting.
butt
end lap 17,
and,
mitered
Mi-
268, No. 52. are the
easiest
to
make, for the joints can be cut in a miter-box, Fig. 181, p. 104,
and glued in a picture-frame-vise.
This joint needs reinforcement by
Fig. 172, p. 101.
No. 52, by dowels. No. 53, or by splines. No. diiferent widths, the fitting of the joint
is
55.
nails, Fig. 268,
If the sides are of
more
filtered
ditticult.
the only kind suitable for molded frames.
joints are
Tlie
rabbets
are cut out with a rabl)eting-plane before mitering and assembling.
The
disadvantage of
jirinciple
shrinks at
all,
inside corneis, as in
because
wood
but not
lengthwise.
In t;iil
joint,
the
(•oiiinion
Fig.
shrinks
window
a
mitered joint
is
that,
if
the
wood
opens at the
it
289,
sidu'wise
sashes, the dove-
No. 47.
2i)7.
l''ig.
one
the
at
is
u])per
end of the hiwer sash and the h)Wer
end
upper sash.
the
of
and the niortise-and-tenoii joint modified
used
is
at
lower
the
end of the lower and upper end of
the
Tipper
sash.
takes
the
])lace
Tn
ind
sashes,
1)1
of
moi-tise-and-tenon 267, No. 38,
is
'I'lie
the the
glass
pane'.
pinned
joint.
Fig.
comnionlv used.
Fig.
2''3.
The Fixing of a Drawer Seen From Below.
Rail,
:
TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES.
When what
panels are joined together to enclose a space, then
properly called cabinet constrnction.
is
195
we have
Illustrations are cabi-
nets, bureaus, desks, lockers, chests, etc.
In
all
these cases, the constructed panels
may
be treated as sepa-
rate boards and joined together with dowel pins or splines or dadoed together without any other framework, tho the corners are often re-
inforced by cleats or blocks glued into
however,
Sometimes,
them.
chests, Fig.
in
as
290, posts are used instead
and rails are mortised or dowthem and the panels set into grooves in both posts and rails. In this case the bottom is raised from tlie floor, of stiles,
eled into
and may be dadoed ,
.,
rails,
Ti
1
doweiled
or
into J
into
the
bottom
11
them
Brace to insure Right Angles in Assembling a
Fig. 294.
Framed
even
or
structure,
supported by strips attached along their
The
lower inside edges.
chest really
is
a
union of both paneled and
framed structures. (4)
The
FRAMED STRUCTURES
principle of the framed structure
panel construction in that the object out
harm
to construction
examples are
and
tables, chairs,
The Mahing
also to
is
is
similar to that of the
to allow for shrinkage with-
economize materials.
Common
work-benches, and frame houses.
of a Table.
The standard height
of a table
is
30".
There should be 25" clearance under the rails. This leaves approximately 4" for the width of the rails. xA.ssuming tliat the table is to be
of
a
siuiple
straight line type with
one drawer, the following
method of procedure is suggested Cut the boards for the top to the approximate length and stick, '(see p. 47) and clamp them, so as to season them as well as j^ossible before jointing.
Dress to
size the legs
and
rails.
positions relative to each other, and
F L
(front left),
B E
Stand the
legs in their proper
mark them F E
(back right), and
B L
(front right),
(l)ack left).
Plow
out the grooves on the inside of the rails for the fastenings of the top. Fig. 297,
D,
they are to be used.
if
and mortises for the end
The proper form it
rails
and back
of the tenon
is
Lay out and cut the tenons rail.
one with a wide shoulder above
so that the top of the leg al)ovo tlie mortise will not sliear out.
The
HANDWORK
196 I'ails
should
is
hauiuluMl
may
leg so that the tenon
llie
oi'
and the portion
i)ossil)le
A
as possihie.
lU'ar the oulsitk'
SL't
Ijl'
he as long as
IN WOOD.
of the leg inside
as strong
it
mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 267, No. 43
The
sonu'tiines useih giving additional lateral stiffness to the rail.
proportions
])ioper
are
shown
Fig.
in
Wlien eut. these parts should be
.'IM.
tenipoi'arily asseiuhled to see if thev
Inasnuieh K5,cJe l^o,l
]
hue
as
drawer
a
of a front rail, the front legs
he tied together in some other way. \£6u,cJe
/fur
--$--
ihis
])uipose
lai's
may
ing as ai'e
Drawer Mechanism.
Fijr. 2'i5.
at
greatly
the
to
of
still'ness
the
drawer
Inith
tab'e
and
Fig.
The
2!».").
may may
them, and
construction
dove-
Fig.
202.
If
can
well it
this
be
adds
an excellent means of
is
thru
it.
long enough to partly
which
be fastened to
it
is
gained so
them with screws.
be further strengthened by
doweling the end of this stretcher into the drawers, the
be
than
]tassiiig
into the lower edges of
rails,
as to be flush with
and back.
may
be oiiiitted. but
(li'awer rail, also called the f(U'e edge, is
overlap the side
of the legs as
ends into the tops of the
mav
it
fastening on the top by the use of screws
The
rail
shown in more room
depth of the drawer,
I'ldm the
drawer
or
the side
fi'om
as
legs,
takes sipaied
from the face
rails
uppi'i'
taileil
stringers
must For
he used, their front edges be-
fai-
tile
The
two
fit.
the
takes
legs.
also
If there are two
between them may be doweled or gained into
])ai'tition
these uppei' and lower stretchers. If the legs
done next.
ai'c
'^Dien
to
])c
ta])ered
oi'
shaped, that should be
otliei'wise
g'ue and assemble the end
lails
with their proper
legs, tak'ing care to see
not only that the joints conu'
that the legs are in the
same
serting, ness.
if
l*'ig.
necessary, a 2!»
1.
When
To first
l)e
lit
the diawci' to
fastened
in.
b'inally
p.
its
The
u])
square, but
assemble the whole, in-
temporary diagonal brace
(h'y.
table drawer, see above,
plane,
clean up the joints.
to
insure square-
For the making of
a
I'.M. |)laci'.
I'unneis and guides. Fig. 295,
runin'rs are in line with the
and are glued and nailed or screwed
to
drawer
must rail,
the side rails between the
back of the 'owei' sti'inger and the ba(k posts.
On
top of them and
TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES.
197
in line with the inner face of the legs are the guides
the front and back posts.
running between
Or the runner and guide may be made
of
one piece properly rabbeted out. If there are
two drawers, a double runner
between, and
lies
is
gained into the middles of the
back on
and the
rail
it
is
stringer,
guide for
a
])otli
and
draw-
equal in width to the par-
ers,
tition
€
between the drawers. The
drawers
should
run
easily
in 2'iij.
their
proper places.
insure
to
In order
Drawer Cut Out
should be slightly narrower than the opening wliich receives little
of
Front Rail of Table.
drawer
the
this,
Openiiii' (or
French chalk, rubbed on the
it.
A
and runners, makes the run.Sometimes the opening for a drawer is cut out of
ning smoother.
the front rail, as in Fig. 296.
sides
In this case the drawer runners are
supported between the front and back
tliev
mav
see edge-to-edge joint, p.
172.
rails,
into
which
be gained.
For the making of the table top Dress up the top to If the grain
sand,
with No.
first
carefully,
is
taking special pains with the upper surface. crossed, use the veneer-scraper. Fig. 151, p. 92, then
and attach
size,
1,
then with Xo. 00 sandpaper, finish the edges
to the frame.
For fastening the top
The
top
to the table rails, several
methods are used.
may
be screwed to the rails by the screws passing thru the rails themselves either straight up. Fig, 297, A, or diagonally from
Fig-. 297.
Methods
of attaching-
Table Top
to Rails.
the inside, B, or thru blocks or angle irons, C, which are screwed to the inside of the rails, or thru buttons, or panel irons,
are free to
move
in a groove cut near the top of the rail.
U, which
The
last
IIAXDWOKK IX WOOD.
198
method
is
the best because
allows for the inevitable shrinkage and
it
swelling of the top.
Chairs
may
The two
teur to construct.
tween them
form
be so simplitied in
as to be possible for the
offer little diflficulty because the angles are square.
Fitf.
The two back
2'>S.
may,
legs,
and
parallel to each other
Chair
foi-
C^)ll^^ll•ucli()ll.
the jturpose of simplification, be kept;
angles to the seat rails between
at right
them, as in Fig. 298, A, and not at an angle of the back will then offer little difficuHy. lie
the facts
ill
tliat
liack of the scat
The
as in B.
The
joining
principal difficulties
comfort and appearance the back of the chair
t'oi'
incline backwai'd
shoiibl
ama-
front legs and the rail and stretcher be-
lidtli
altovc
and below the
seat,
should be narrower than the front.
and that the
By keeping
at
right angles to the floor the part of the back legs which leceives the seat rail, the side seat
in a
than Ibe 'I'lie
tcnon
fioiit legs, as
The
shown
second dilliculty
joiiils.
will
I'ails
side view. Fig. 298.
in
meet the back l)ack
shortei
1).
in\(il\-es tlie
A. whei'e the side
legs at a right angle
legs should be slightly
]'ails
making fit
of inclined mortise-and-
into the leas.
The making
TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES. of these can be facilitated
199
by
laying out a plan of the full
and taking the desired anfrom that. It is
size
gles directly
common
leinforce
to
these
joints with corner blocks glued
and screwed
in place as
below the seat
lails
shown
If there are additional
in A.
rails,
the Fig-. 299.
way
easiest
to
])lace is first to
fit fit
them in and clamp
Shape
Bendicgr Boards into after Boiling-
Them.
together the chair with the seat rails only, taking pains to have
all
angles perfectly true, and then to take the exact measurements for the lower rails directly from the chair.
The same method may
he
used for laying out a stringer between the lower rails. If
it
bow the
desired to
is
which are above the
rails of the back,
done by boiling them
minutes and then clamping th.em over a form of the proper shape, with a
seat rail, this can be
piece of
They should
sheet iron on the outside, as in Fig. 299.
stiff
be thoroly dried in a
on the ends parallel
The
in water for 30
chair bottom
warm
Then
may
the tenons
be laid out
to a straight-edge laid along the concave side.
may
into a "saddle seat;""
place.
made may be
be it
modeled
of solid wood, either fiat or
covered with cane or
I'lish,
or
it
may
be upholstered.
To
upholster a chair seat, a frame should
made
be
first
shown
shape -
witb
thick
their
The
ha'f-lappetl.
>4"
deep and receive whic-h
should all
The around the legs
at
^"
vides space for the coverings.
1)1
y^" to
frame, be
Ys"
around than
ace to receive
it.
returns at the cor-
distance from them.
After the frame
seat
wide
this
smaller the
ends
rabbeted
are
rai's
fit
Fig.
The stiips are 298, C. about 2" wide and ^"
1
ners
of the
in
%"
This
is fitted, it is
pro-
covered
HANDWOlUv
200
J^•
WOOD.
with o" webbing tacked firmly to the upper side. Tlie webbing whieli goes back and forth is interwoven with that wliicli goes from right to left.
Over
this is stretched
piece of unbleached muslin.
Fij/. 300.
the hack edge and
part
other stuffing
is
is
upper side) a is
tacked to
House Construction.
llic
side
edges, k-aving for the
In the pocket thus formed horsehair or
pushed, care being taken to distribute
When
the pocket
along the sides and more hair the muslin
(also to the
second piece of muslin
way along
time the corners unfinished. not too thick.
and tacked
A
is filled,
evenly and
is
tacked farther
the front
is
reached,
i)ut in, until
tacked to the front edge.
it
the muslin
The
corners are
when now drawn
them diagonally so The partings may be turned down and tacked on
in tight, a careful snip with the scissors parting as to lie in well.
the under side of the frame. is
stretched over the whole
The corners should
he left to the last, then
Finally the heather or other covering as evenly as ])ossible.
)
Ti'PES OF
WOODEN STRUCTURES.
201
clipped diagonally to the exact inside corner and the partings drawn
down and
tacked, as was the muslin.
then be trimmed
The
superfluous leather
may
and the seat should fit in its place. Or the seat frame may be omitted, and the coverings tacked directly to the chair off,
rails.
The bal]oon-frame house The essential
is
tion, Fig. 300. 1.
2.
typical
a
form
framed construc-
of
parts of a balloon-frame are:
SILL, 4"x8", which rests on the foundation. 4"x8", which rest on the cellar posts,
BEAMS,
6"xC)".
(Not shown
in illustration.
FLOOR JOISTS, 2"x8", which CORNER POSTS, 4"x6", with
rest on the sill and beams. 2"x4" studs nailed to them. 5. STUDDING, 2"x4", which stand 16" between centers. 6. WALL RIBBON, or girt, I"x8". which supports the upper story joists. 7. PLATES, two 2"x4" nailed together, resting on studs. 8. RAFTERS. 2"x6", which support the roof. 9. TIE-BEAMS, 2"x(!", which prevent the roof from s]ircading tlie walls. (Not shown in illustration.) 3.
4.
11.
RIDGE-POLE, 2"x8", against wliich the rafters l)utt. BRIDGING, 2"x2", which stiffens the floor joists.
12.
SHEATHING.
10.
The 13.
(1" thick), put on diagonally to brace the building.
rest is covering.
FLOORING.
(See also Fig. 301.)
In flooring, Fig. 301, the boards are
made narrow so as to reduce the openings at the joints when they shrink, and also to~ reduce the tendency to warp. They may be laid side by side as in the cheapest floors, size
of
or matched to close the joint. flooring, see 14. 15.
Fig
For difference between
BUILDING PAPER. SIDING OR CLAPBOARDS.
without a joint or be rabbeted to 16. 17.
18.
and comb-grain
(See
fit.
The
Fig.
301.)
best siding
may is
either
overlap
rabbeted.
WATER-TABLE. CORNER-BOARD. FURRING.
20.
SHINGLES. LATHING.
21.
CEILING.
19.
slash-
55, p. 43.
Fig.
301, consists of
disguise the joint and give a decorative
matched boards liaving a "bead" eft'ect.
to
liANDWOKK IX WOOD.
202
TYPES OF WOODEN t^TRUCTURES
Refekexces:* Simple Joined Structures. pp. 86. •219-227. 376.
Benson, pp. 32-37.
^^•hee]er.
Goss, pp.
Siekels. p.
91-1)6.
Xoyes, tSchool Ails Bonk. 6: 89,
Griffith,
120.
pp.
84-104.
179.
Panel and Caldnet Construction. Goss.
PI).
117-118.
Compton. pp.
Framed
Sicked,
148-l.il.
134.
p.
Wheeler, pp. 366-372.
146-151.
Structures.
Crawshaw.
Sickels. p.
Wheeler, pp. 203-206. 238-297.
liiiildiiifi
124.
Trades Poclethonk. pp. 221
230.
Coverings. Sickels.
''For
],p.
Goss.
128-131.
general bibliography sec
p.
4.
p]..
141-144.
Chapter IX.
PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY." 1.
Avoid multiplication
of errors
common
from a
far as possible)
hi/
angles from the same line or surface. are as follows
making
all
starting point,
measurcmenis and laying off
(as all
Illustrations of this principle
Before proceeding- with other processes, a working
:
face and working edge and as
many
other surfaces as will finally ap-
pear in the finished piece, should he trued up.
At
least the
working
face and working edge are essential to the proper "lay-out" of the piece,
whenever measurements are made from an edge. series of measurements, it is important, when pos-
In laying out a
the rule be laid down once for all, and the additions be made on that, rather than that tlie rule should be moved along for each new member of the series.
sible, that
In scoring around
a
board with knife and try-square, the head of
the try-square should be held against the working face in scoring
both edges, and against the working edge in scoring both faces, and not passed from one surface to another in succession.
In the laying out of the gaging
is all
a
hah^ed joint. Fig. 265, Nos. 15-19,
p.
178,
done from what will be one of the flush surfaces of
"Professor Eankine"s Five Principles: 1.
To cut the
joints
and arrange the fastenings so as to weaken the
pieces of timber they connect as little as possible. 2.
To place each abutting surface
pendicular to the pressure which 3.
To proportion the area
to bear so that the timber
it
in a joint as nearly as possible
of each surface to the pressure
may
per-
has to transmit.
which
it
has
be safe against injury under the heaviest
load which occurs in practice, and to form and
fit
every
jjair
of such sur-
faces accurately in order to distribute the stress uniformly. 4. To proportion the fastenings so that they with the pieces which they connect. 5.
To place the fastenings
way thru the
be of equal strength
in each piece of timber so that there shall be
sufficient resistance to the giving
or crushing their
may
way
of the joint
timber.
203
by the fastenings shearing
HANDWORK
204
Then,
the joined pieces.
if
IX WOOD.
the gaged line should be slightly
more or
than half the thickness of the pieces the closeness of the joint
less
would not be
aifected.
]yhen possible,
2.
position, Fig.
method of supermeant the method by which the lay-out
in hnjing out a joint, use the
By
;30-3.
this
is
member
of one rectly
ing
obtained di-
is
from the other by
(superposing)
the
lay-
latter
on the former and marking or scribing sions
needed
the
directly,
measurement.
of
by
has the ad-
It
vantages of simplicity,
speed,
and greater probability
of
Familiar in the
Fig.
illustrations
making
2r).5,
fit.
are
of halved joints,
Xos. 15-19,
Fig-. 302.
Marking- by Superposition.
dimen-
instead
p.
178.
dovetail joints, Fig. 267, Xos.
42-45. p. 180, and scarfed or spliced joints. Fig. 2<)4, Xos. 4-T. p. ITT. IForA;
3.
systematically.
In case the same process
is
peated on a number of parts, complete this process in
taking up another process.
This
labor applied to the individual
is
to be reall
before
the principle of the division of
workman.
In laying out duplicate or multiple parts, the proper cross meas-
urements
should
be
carefully
laid
out
on
one
piece
and
then
transferred with a try-square to the other parts laid accurately beside
it.
So when
a
parts requiring the
number of like pieces are to be gaged, all the same setting should be gaged before the gage is
reset for another gaging.
This
is
a great saving of
time and insures
accuracy.
In making
a number of like parts, if they are not too large much work can often be done in one piece before it is cut up. For example, to make a number of slats from a given piece of wood, the
of the
piece
may
first
be brought to such dimensions that the length will be
correct for the finished pieces and to the
width of the
slats, Fig. 3(»;i.
tlie
thickness of the piece be equal
The
face
may
then be gaged with
a series of lines so that every other space will be equal to the required
thickness of each
slat,
and the alternate
Sj^aces
be just sufficient for
PRINCIPLES OF JOIXERY.
The
the saw kerf and dressing.
dressed to
may
Or, a long strip
it
each one long enough to
and one short
part
ripped apart and
l)e
when
may be convenient make one long
and width and then For example, in a
to ])laiie
pieces,
side.
should
fitted
so that
be
may
there
distinctly
be no con-
fusion in assembling. 11
I
pradwabh
V^liere
4.
np two
up framed structures each
fitting
marked,
be planed to thickness
finished to the proper lengths.
initered picture-frame
In
then
size.
be sawn np and
side
may
slats
205
same condHwns
secure
grain
of
in
II
II
^
the Fig-. 303. Making: a Number of Like Pieces from a Given Piece.
different
elements of joined structures.
The grain
Illustrations of this are as follows:
box should run continuously around the box, slim box, the grain of
all
tall,
the sides should run up and down.
In
either case, the grain in the dilferent sides joint, Fig. 269,
the grain
is
Xo. TO,
p.
not straight,
of the sides of a
the case of a
is
parallel.
In a rubbed
down afterward,
183, to be planed
much
or, in
trouble in planing
the different pieces are laid so that they can
all
may
in case
be saved
if
be planed smooth in
the same direction. This may not be possible where the boards are joined so as to match the grain, as in quartered oak, or where the annual rings of slash boards are made to alternate in direction so as to lessen warping. Fig. 280, p. 188. 5.
Where
possible, alJoir for shrinhige irithout prejudice to con-
struction.
The most obvious tion.
In
illustration of this principle
a panel, the
the principal swell itself.
frame, which
is
dimensions, and hence does not But the panel, which is grooved
shrink or swell without
In a gained
harm
is
panel construc-
comparatively narrow, follows seriously
shrink or
into the
frame can
to the general structure.
joint, as in a case of shelves. Fig. 266,
No. 29, p. 179, the gain in the uprights does not extend quite to the front of the shelves,
and there
is
of the shelf, so that
a corresponding slight shoulder at the front end if
the shelf and support shrink unevenly, no gap
will be appai'ent.
A
drawing-board. Fig. 280,
or swell without losing
p. 188, is so
its flatness.
Shingles
shrink or swell without the roof leaking.
made that it can shrink when properly laid, can
HANDWuKK
206
WJwre
().
on
V\'00lJ,
feasible, iindereuf joiiicil surf dees so as to gire clearance
and insure a to meet flat.
Inside
the
Ii\
But
a [qicantnce.
tiglii
e/tued
surface.^^
shoutd he made
Illustrations of this principle are as follows:
the socket in a dovetail joint. Fig. 267, Xo.
-tS, p.
The inner end of may he under-
180,
cut slightly so as to insure the pin's falling close into place.
The shoulder
may
of any tenon
edges of the tenoned
he undercut so as to al'ow the
piece to close iip tight
against the mortised piece.
In an end-laji halved joint. Fig. 265, No. IT, should meet
all
around;
if
p.
178, the edges
they are to he glued together, they should
not be undercut or they will not glne well.
In matched tlooring. the underside of the hoards
is
nar-
sliglitly
rower than the upper side so that the joint nuiy close on the upper
The ends
side without fail. Fig. 301, p. 199. also slightly l)eveled so as to
make
of tlooring boards are
on the upper
a tight fit
of abut niciits
number
cated the joint or the (/reater the lil'elihood there
is
of a
sound and
of hearing surfaces, the less
ine.r/ieusire construction.
Illustrations of this juinciple are as fo'lows:
mortise-and-tenon joint plicity, strengtii
is
and ease
(piired for gluing, a
make
I'sually a single
better than a double one because of simof
Where mucli surface
making.
double one
may
In a dovetail dado. Fig. 266, to
side.
form of joint and use the smallest number [bearing surfaces) iiossible. because the more compli-
Select the sinijdest
7.
be
is
re-
bettei'.
Xo. 28.
179,
p.
it is
usually sufficient
the dovetail on one side only.
]\Iany
very elaborately spliced joints have been
devised,
which
have no practical advantage over the simple ones. Fig. 264, Xos. 4-7. p.
1
i
(
A
.
butt joint, Fig. 264, Xo. 11,
is
stronger than a mitered joint.
Fig. 268, Xo. 52, in a box, for the latter apart.
Where appearance
the advantage of both. Fig. 8.
Keep
a
is
is
almost sure to shrink
important, a ledge and miter joint has
2()S,
due proportion
{joints) (Uid the pieces fastened:
Xo. of i.
.")S.
strength e..
betireen
the
fastenings
the construction sliould neither
be frail on the one hand. Iii'cause the pieces of irood are ireal'cned too
much
cutting, nor clumsi/ on
fastoiings irould
tie
i
the
other hand, because then
nordinatefi/ strong.
ent /larts should be eijualhi strong.
l)if
the
In other irords. the differ-
PRINCIPLKS OF JOINERY.
1^07
In
Illustrations of this ])rineiple are as follows:
Fig. 264, No.
a
iislied
Joint,
the plate should he attached so as to reinforce the
2,
splice at the weakest point.
In a scarf
joint,
Fig.
2(5-1:,
Xos. 5 and
T,
the angle should he
oblique enough to give the greatest leverage.
In
267, No. 40, the tenon
a tusk tenon. Fig.
made
is
sixth the thickness of the timber, whereas the tusk
but one-
uuule mucli
is
larger.
Where
mortise
a
to
is
l)e
cut
a timber bearing weight,
in
should he cut in the neutral axis, where the cutting of
weaken
it
a table-rail. Fig. 267,
wide shoulder above the tenon of the
sliou'd be a
Xo. 43, there
should be as near
tlie
so that the
rail
top of the leg above the mortise will not shear out.
The mortise
outside of the leg as possible so that the inner
The tenon should
corner of the leg ma\- remain strong.
A
it
will
least.
In the mortise-and-tenon of
enough
fibres
he strong
to share the strain with the shoulders.
dado
joint,
Fig.
266,
Xo. 25,
sluuild
not be so deep as to
weaken the supporting board.
A
tenon should not be so large as to weaken the mortised
])iL'ce.
Pins or other fastenings. Fig. 267, Xos. 38 and 39, nuiy weaken rather than strengthen a joint
they are so placed or are so large
if
way thru the timber.
as to shear or crush tlieir
Place each ahniiing surface in a joint as nearlij as
9.
penclicukir to the pres.^iire which
it
has to transmit.
Illustrations of this |)rinciple are as follows: joint. Fig. 266,
Xo.
posf^ihJe per-
the angle in a strut
should be eciual'y divided between the two
(52,
beams.
The
thrust joint. Fig. 268, Xo.
in a bridge truss,
()3.
is
exactly
at right angles to the pressure. It
is
on account of this
pression. Fig. 264, Xo. 4. sion,
Xo. 5
:
and that
a
is
princijjle that
different
A
Xo.
comG(\,
is
65.
joint to resist vertical cross strain
than horizontallv.
spliced joint for
a spliced joint for ten-
housed braced joint. Fig. 269, Xo.
better than a plain braced joint,
tical Iv
a
from
is
stronger
when
sea fed veri
HANDWORK
208
IN WOOD.
THE PRINCIPLES OF JOINERY
Kkkerexces:* Rivington, Vol.
Goss. p. 132.
Adams,
p.
12.
'For general
l)il)lioiirii])hy
see p. 4.
I.
p. 57.
Chapter X.
WOOD
FIXISHING. STAINS.
The function the grain
four
of stains
and texture
general
classes,
is
change the
to
the
of
which
are
may
however,
not,
and
color,
Stains
Avood.
to
enchance
be divided entirely
into
distinct.
(1) Oil stains, (3) Water stains, (a) made from anilines, (b) made from dyes other than anilines, (3) Spirit stains, (4) Stains due to
chemical changes. (1)
Oil stains.
Advantages: they are
easily prepared, are easy to
apply evenly, and they do not raise the grain. cover the grain somewhat, are apt to give a
penetrate very deeply into the wood, and
hard wood dark with them and
Disadvantages
muddy it
is
effect,
:
they
they do not
impossible to stain
same time keep the grain and texture of the wood clear. A convenient form in which to handle To prethese pigments is Devoe's "coach colors,"' ground in japan. vent evaporation from cans once opened, it is well to keep them partly For use, the filled with water and the water covered with a little oil. pigments are thinned with turpentine or benzine, in the proportion of one pound of color to one-half gallon of turpentine or benzine. Benzine is much cheaper than turpentine, but evaporates more quickly. The addition of a little boiled oil gives a body to the stain, so that when the wood is well rubl)ed down a soft lustre can be had without any further
finish.
wood, which
may
The
stain should be applied with a brush to the
then be rubbed clean with cotton waste.
penetrate hard woods better
ammonia.
at the
(See below,
to the stain just before
p.
when
31f).
the
for
oil
it
Oil stains
been fumed in little
ammonia
in penetrating the wood.
stains are:
burnt and raw sienna, Yandvke brown,
chrome yellow.
first
Or. the addition of a
applying aids
The pigments most used
wood has
burnt and raw umber,
dro]i
l)lack.
and medium
These colors may be varied by mixing.
For ex-
ample, for a green stain, take two parts of drop black and one part of
medium chrome
yellow,
and dissolve in turpentine or benzine. 209
llANDWOL'K JN WOOD.
210
The addition be made
a
ul'
may
vciinilioii
litlk'
bluer
ready contained in the
i;ives
blaclv gives a soft,
For antique oak, add
giaycr
a
The green
iiiuen.
addition of I'mssian bhie. but the blue
tlie
liv
triiie
a
al-
pleasant green.
and black
of bui'nt undjer
raw
to
sienna thinned to the right consistency.
For a reddish brown,
may
This
A
lie
buint
tliin
walnid stain
may
to the right consistency.
\niil)er
grayed hy the addition of
had by adding
l)e
gieen.
little
a
a
little
Venetian red to
asplialtuni, thinned with turpentine or benzine.
AniUiK:
oil
the cidors are clear and easily
Advantages:
.s7^//'//.s.
])isadvantages
obtainable.
the colois aie likely to he crude and too
:
and unless gieat care is taken the tones are metallic and not enough to suit wood. It is necessary to purchase colors soluble
bright, .M)ri
in
oil.
he
lan
'J'lu'se
New
William Street,
had of William Zinnst'r and Company,
Four
Yoik.
1!)7
colors are necessaiy to get the de-
sired shades, Bismarck brown, dark yellow, dark lilue, and black. Bismarck brown comes in powdered form at $"^.4(» per II)., dark yellow comes in powdeied form at $2.40 per II)., dark blue comes in lumps at $3. '20 ]n'V
black comes in lum])s at
lb.,
per
$2.-l()
These may
lb.
be dissolved in Ihiee ounces of turpentine to one ounce of boiled to
one teaspooiiful of
if
the mixtui'c
to set
lli'e
(ireat
heateil.
is
to the
cojoi-, a |)rocess
t
III
that will take place
care
much
oil,,
faster
must he taken, liowever, noi
Wlien cool, thin with tur])entine to the
peiitine.
proper consistency, ap})ly to the wood with
a
brush and
rul)
clean
with cotton waste. (2)
Wilier
Advantages:
,'olish
like oak.
advarrtages are that
Its
applied, and easily
stand wetting,
"Made
hy
is
tlic
!'e|taired.
easily
lis
marred,
Bridgeport
Wood
it
is
chea]), easily prepared, easily
disadvantages are that
recpiiics
constant care,
Finisliiii^r (•„.,
is
155 Fnlton
it
St..
not
will
rrot so
hard
X. Y.
WOOD FINISHING.
215
and dry as varnish, turns slightly sticky with warmth, and
is
likely to
turn white in devices.
To
prepare
To one
it.
part of melted beeswax add one part of tur-
Mix and cool. It can be bought prepared, as, Bridgeport Wood Finishing Company's "Old Dutch Finish," Butcher's Wax, Johnson's Wax, and others. Kub the wax evenly over the suiface with a stiff brush Process. pentine.
Let
or the fingers.
dry for some hours, and then rub with a cloth;
it
flannel or a piece of felt
is
work over night between (c) a
Put on
best.
Eub
coats.
The function
Varnishes.
of varnishes
hard, transparent coating that
moisture.
There
a great range
is
dull finishes to durable, strong,
The
"rubbing varnishes."
much
several coats, leaving the
warm
often with a
cloth.
wood with
to covei-
is
non-porous and im])ei'vious to
is
among them, from thin, easily worn, and highly polished coatings called
polished suiface can be secured on'y by
labor thru the application of successive thin coats of good var-
nish, carefully rubbed down.
Varnish nuiy be applied
to
wood, stained, painted, or
in its natural
condition as well as to meta', leather, i)aper, and various other substances.
A
good varnish should
iirmly to the surface to which as
applied;
is
is,
should cling
it
should be elastic, so
it
not to crack on account of the expansion and contraction of the
material to which it
adhesive, that
))e
it
it
is
applied;
it
should dry in a reasonable time;
should be limpid so as to flow easily in a^jplication
transparent and brilliant when ])olished
The
conditions
necessaiy
smooth, even,
filled
for
all
)
classes of varnish, Ijased
varnishes are sometimes
S])irit
solved in some spirit,
They dry with
it
;
should
a
perfectly
on the char-
made with
copal resins dis-
are not
much
used.
is
likely to crack
Shellac
of the spirit varnishes.
is
and
the most
Its basis
is
scale
when
common
resin lac, a
in tlie province of
Assam.
exposed.
brilli-
They
and the most useful
compound
sub-tance exuded from an East India scale insect
found mostly
etc.
to the volatilization of the sol-
vent spirit, leaving a coat of pure resin of great hardness and ance, but one which
70"^
and (2) Oil varnishes.
as one of the alcohols, benzine, acetone,
great rapidity owing
b(>
should be durable.
good varnishing are
acter of the solvent, (1) Spirit varnishes 1
it
suiface of dry wood, a tem]ierature of aliout
and no dust in- the air. In general, there are two
(
and
;
The term
(
resinous
darterin lacca)
"lac"
is
the same
HANDWORK
216 as
means lUU.OOU and
wliich
*"laldi""
IX WOOD.
The
tained.
the countless
indicative of
is
from
hosts of insects which are the source
gum
this
wliii-h
is
ob-
larval insects insert their proboscides into the bark of
young shoots
draw out
of certain lac-bearing trees, varieties of Ficus,
the sap for nutriment, and at once exude a resinous secretion which entirely covers their bodies and the twigs, often to the thickness of
The females never
one-half inch.
become
ovaries
known and
The encrusted twigs
as hic dye.
and again
in the spring
autumn.
in the
the product
this condition
in
escape and after impregnation their
with a red fluid which forms a valuable dye
filled
are gathered by the natives
young
Iiefore the
known
is
are hatched,
After
"stick lac."
as
being crushed and separated from the twigs and washed free from the coloring matter the product
known
is
as "seed lac.'"
melted and strained and spread out in thin layers in "shell It
thru l.'cing
It
This
lac.""
may
what
is
known
is
until
pulled.
the resin
This
is
comes in lum]is.
to deteriorate, but
orange shellac in the market.
as
precipitated.
is
what
Orange
white
known
is
It
shellac
the stronger and
is
but grain alcohol
])erfect the process of
by
(piickly
it
itself
can
or
ordinary
is
it
To make
will curdle.
may
be used as a
Since
with Xo.
in six or eiglit hi>urs either ()()
steel wool.
be ajiplied alone over stained wood or the shellac
This
may
itself
This, for example,
filler
dries
it
jirocess
repeated several times gives a good "egg-shell"" finish.
with aniline dyes cut in alcohol.
solu-
Great care must be taken
or
filling, shellac
sand-paper oiled, or better, with Xo.
wlicii
Shellac
preparatory to other processes.
rubbed down
l)e
it
less likely
and wood alcohol (methyl
preferable.
is
not to mix even a droj) of water in
is
sets less rapidly.
it
colorlessness.
its
is
able in both grain alcohol (ethyl alcohol) alc-ohol).
further whitened by
is
in the nuirket as "white shellac.*"
easier to a])ply because
is
Another advantage of the white
<•()
then
be bleached by boiling in caustic potash, and passing chlorine
it
either
It is
form called
a
It
may
be colored
an easy way to
is
get a black finish.
good
.\
2 oz.
gum
watei-pi'oof
wood
benzoin, V4 oz.
polish
gum
is
niadi,'
sandarac, ^4
a bottle,
and put the bottle
in a
solved.
Stiain and aild '4
gill clear
thus:
oz.
hot water bath until
poppy
oil.
1
gum
pint
aU-ohol.
anime.
all
Put
in
solids are dis-
Shake well and apply
with cotton cloth. .\
soft, dull, glossy finish
may
l)e
ohtaiiieil
of a mi\tiii-e of one part each of white shellac
acetate).
\\'lien
(h-y.
liv
apjilving two coats
and banana
sandpaper lightly and wax.
oil
(amyl
WOOD FINISHING. The
French poUsIiing.
217
finest of shellac finishes is
French
polish.
a thin, clear, permanent finish, bnt the process takes time and
It is
patience.
It
is
not nuich used in practical work, because of the
time expense, bnt
is
often employed in school shops, because only a
few materials are necessary,
The
finish.
dries quickly, and gives a beautiful
it
polished surface
obtained by adding successive thin
is
coats according to the following process:
(1)
The
Preparation.
surface
smooth and even, sandpapered if
smooth and
desired, filled, rubbed
three thin coats of shellac. IsTo.
perfect'y
ipiitc
dry.
Applv two
(2)
or
After each coat when dry, rub witli
steel wool. Wipe thoro'y. (3) three pads, about the size of a walnut, of clean, white, cotton
waste, enclosed in
— one pad
pad with
some
fine old or
for shellac, one for
washed cloth with no and one for alcohol.
much
it
enough
in the
Fill
pad
The common mistake
will ooze out.
Hub
shellac into the pad.
sizinsf
oil,
shellac of the consistency of milk,
when squeezed hard too
wood must be
00 oiled sandpaper or No. 00
Make lint,
the
of
in the direction of the grain, stained,
or
one
so that
is
to
put
with circular motion, as indicated in Fig. 304, never letting
pad stop on
the
the
Sprinkle a very
(4)
surface.
little finely
powdered pumicestone and put a little oil on the surface of the wood here and there with the of a finger.
ti])
Huh with
ond pad until surface
Wipe 4
(
law Fig-. 304.
Direction of the Polishing.
Pad
in
linse('-
deserihed, shel'ac alone, dissolved
oz.
IX WOOD.
through muslin.
Another
orange shellac,
di'ams tincture of henzoin,
5
Oil or Copal Varnish('><. violins
was
It
a fossilized coniferous resin
The
Sea.
have had amljcr
sup])ose(l to
is
making
ait of
drams
2
teaspoonful of olive
1
Apply with ])ad in direction of grain. The old Cremona varnish once used
Dissolve and strain.
oil.
Tse 4 drains grain alcohol,
reci])e for finishing.
(
(Ireek, electron)
for
as its base.
found on the shore of the Baltic ])iobably because of
said
to
he
the difHculty and danger of melting
it.
ior this can be done only in
oil
it
is
lost,
on account of the danger of ignition.
Hence
its
use has been
abandoned.
Peihaps the most beautiful of (Rlhiis ccniicifcrd
juice
)
made from
which
is
tapp(Ml during the
The
are carefully guarded. trees being
finishing coats.
it
is
much used
summer months.
inteiidiMl.
The
used for
it
coats,
first
uianuractui ing secrets
is
vcvv difficult, the sap
and of o'd trees for the
in a dam}), close
atmosphere.
the best work ten or twelve coats are elaborately rul^bed
Even the presence of it is very ])oisonous it are more or less affecte(l.
])olished.
solvent
I'lie
or
vihicle
principal'y of linseed
they are
made have been
of
the
tile
tin-
moilein
copal
\ainislics
consists
Their base
is
(Vipal.
gums
of
which
Tbi'
Other gums, as mastic, dammar, sandaiac. and even resin are oi' to cause more name given oi'iginallv to a'l fossil Co[)als, as they are called, come fi'om Xew Zealand, MozamZanzibar. West Afi'ica. I)iazil. and the rhili))i)ine<. The best Copals is said to he the Kauri gum. oiiginallv exuded from
rapid drying.
hi(pie,
some people
t-bemicallv altere(| bv long exposure in the
sometimes mixed with copal resins.
of
with some tuipentine.
oil
resinous substance of \-egetable oiigin.
fossil,
eartli.
to
For
down and
workers in
;;nd all
a
The
then mixe(l with various sub-
a]iplicati(in of
must be dried
It
!ac(pier.
is
the juii'e of the !ac(|uer tree,
body pigment, and metallic dust, accord-
clay,
oil, tine
ing to the waie fur which
young
Nainislu's
is
stiained and eva]»oia1('(l and
is
stances, such as
of
all
It
in China and Japan.
Kaui'i
pine
Coi
al
ti'ee
is
of
a
to
cheapen the pioduct
geiiei'ic
New
Zealand.
'I'he
tree
is
still
existent and
AVOOD FINISHING.
219
is dug up ground in regions where there are now no A commercially important copal and one noted for its hardIt is found imbedded the Zanzibar or East African Copal.
produces a
spongy sap, but the resin used in varnish
soft,
from, a few feet under trees.
ness
is
in the earth at a depth not greater than four feet over a wide belt
of the mainland coast of Zanzibar, on tracts wheie not a single tree
now
grows.
occurs in lumps from the size of small pebbles to
It
The supply
pieces weighing four or five p(ninds.
is
said to be prac-
tically inexhaustil)l('.
As grade
to the maniifactiiu' of the
it
throws
oif
is
high to
The heat The oxygen
the oxygen from the red lead or manganese.
When
oil.
which
a batch of vainish
This
to a point
is
amount
of oil
removed
I'lnm
is
settle
and
are melted in a
added and these
and cooled
the tire
volatilizing.
filtered
under pressure and tanked
different grades of varnish
depend upon the tieatment
and aged.
The
of the
the proportion of
gums, the aging, give a dull
gums
where turpentine can be added without
These are thoroly urixed and then
oil,
then put away to
is
nuule, the
is
large kettle and then the requisite
carefully boiled together.
down
a
for instance, red lead or oxide of manganese.
;
absorbed by the linseed
age.
all,
high temperature, with different materials
oil is boiled at a
oxidize
Copal varnishes: hrst of
waxy
etc.
oil
and turpentine, the
Some by rubbing
finish,
some are
and carriage varnish, some are
qualities of the
give a very high polish, some
for out-of-door use, as
for floois,
Spar varnish
some for funiture. some are
high priced, some are cheap. Process of A'arnishing.
The preliminary
as those for applying shellac, perfectly even
e.,
i.
and smooth, and the staining,
Quick drying varnishes,
plete.
on the brush.
little
same wood must be and drying com-
processes are the
the suiface of the filling,
shellac,
like
The heavy, high
are applied, with
hand, are applied with the brush full so that the varnish drip off the work.
Then proceed
as
but
lustre varnishes, on the other
follows:
Wipe
off
may even from the
work the extia vainish with the brush and clean the hiush on the edge of the cup. evenly. S,et to
Be
is
till
dry in a dustless place.
from three coat
Eepeat
the varnish
is
flowed over the work
particularly careful, in that res])ect, of edges and corners.
to six times.
applied.
When
dry and hard repeat the process
Each coat must dry thoroly before the next
:
llAXDWOKK IX WOOD.
220
rubbing
\'a]-]iish jxilisliing consists in
bing
on, as in
it
To
Frwith polishing.
Enb
pad, powdered pumice-stone and water.
the varnish, not in rnb-
off'
polish varnisli, I'ub with a felt till
the surface
smooth,
is
unpitted and even, being careful not to rub thru the edges.
Wipe
clean witli a wet sponge and chamois skin.
"egg-
a
For polishing varnish,
linisli.
sliell"'
a.
This gives
simple method
a dull or is
rub with
to
lotary motion, using a mixture of yj sweet oil or cottonseed
^
and
.V tiiiisli,
more laborious process is as follows: After rnljbing to a rub ground rotten stone and water with cliamois skin in a
cular motion.
Let the rotten stone
with the naked hand. I'ubbing
oif
hand every time
the
but
oil,
alcohol.
French ])olishing
in
cir-
Then wipe
a circular direction and wiping
in
after passing over the work.
Tliese processes have
really a fine art.
is
on the surface.
di'v
dull
This looks simple, practically replaced
the trade.
PAINTING Paints are used for the same ])urpose as other finishes, with the i'dditional one of giving
an o])aque colored covering.
The
materials
used are
A
1.
body whose function
usmilly wliite
lead,
Pigments;
Linseed
Imt
it
is
is
give covering ])ower.
to
This
often adultei'ated with zinc oxide;
is
2.
raw and boiled, which are used to give and also elasticity to the coat when dry. For outdoor work boiled oil is used and foi- indoor work, raw oil; 3.
oils,
consistency, adhesiveness
4.
Turpentine, which
is
used to thin out the paint and to
make
it
dry more quickly.
The common method set:
of
Sandpapei':
"3.
3.
mostly white lead,
|iaint.
(that
is,
lur])entine
(the ])ro|)ortion of drying
iiaint)
Putty
:
5.
nice job: so
it
7.
Then
will not run.
])aint
two
with long. is,
oi-
Set anv nails with nail-
4.
little
oil
is
uj) cracks, nail holes, etc.:
of painting a door
(hdl
L
of painting is:
Shellac the knots:
Prime with a thin coat color,) boiled oil. and
greater than in ordinarv (i.
Sandpaper
if
a
small
three coats with paint thick enough
evt'U strokes
with the grain.
panels, muntins, rails,
and
The
order
last, stiles.
For inside work use half as much turpentine as oil. This gives a. finish. For outside woi'k. where lusti'e is wanted, little or no
turftentine
is
used.
WOOD FINISHING. Tliis
the old way, and
is
is
still
used for
for fine painting, as carriage work, a filler
priming
to
fibers
and
object
is
is
all
to
common
now used
work.
first,
But
because a
durable should unite with the wood, gras-ping the
be
filling the pores, so that after coats
The
suifi'."
221
cement the surface. old
way did not do
Priming
this,
is
cannot sink
with the result that the
srated from the lead and kept soaking into the wood.
makers of paints now recommend
a
in.
filler
The
often called "rough
The
oil sep-
principal
before any white lead
is
added.
TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR WOOD FINISHING Brushes.
It
is
well to have several varieties to help keep
them
For varnish and shellac, the best are those with the bristles For ordinary purposes, brushes one inch wide are satisfactory. For stains, cheap, tin-bound brushes are good enough, and are easily replaced. Cups. Half-pint enameled steel cups are cheap, satisfactory, and easily kept clean. For the care of cups and brushes, see Chapter VI, The Equipment and Care of the Shop. This consists of shavings, turned from thin steel Steel wool. discs set together in a lathe. It comes in various grades, No. 00 to No. 3. The finest, No. 00, is coarse enough for ordinary purposes. Sandpaper. Use No. 00 smeared with boiled oil. Pulverized pumice stone and pulverized rotten stone, both very fine, are used to rub down inequalities and to give a dull finish to shellac or varnish. Use with oil on shellac and with oil or water on copal varnish. Horsehair and soft wood shavings are often used to rub down varnish. French felt, medium hard, is used for rubbing down copal varnish with pumice stone. distinct.
set in
hard rubber.
Cotton waste
is
the cheapest available material for wiping.
some purposes, but more expensive. necessary for French polishing. '^Berkeley muslin,'^ "Old Glory," and "Lilly White" are trade names. A fine quality is necessary. The starch should be washed out and the cloth dried before using, and then torn into little pieces, say 4" square. Fillers consist of silex or of ground earths mixed with oil, japan, and turpentine. Their object is to give a perfectly level and nonCheese cloth
is
better for
Soft cloth without lint
is
absorbent basis for varnish covering. Oils.
Eaw
interior work.
linseed oil
is
very fat and dries slowly.
It is used for
IIANUWOKK JX WOOD.
222 Boiled vitriol,
oil
boiled
linseed oil
is
which removes
with
lithai\ue
and white
(I'bO)
nuieli of the fatty ingredient
and gives
it
dry-
ing quality.
Turpentine
mixed with Benzine
is
a volatile oil
is
in
oil
a
cheap substitute for turpentine.
fjammable product of coal tar Drier.
is
an
oil
times used as a varnish
Japan oil,
is
Jt
is
to
make them dry
is
a liighly in-
quickly.
It
It is
is
mixed
also
some-
itself.
a varnish-like li(juid
made
of shellac or other resin, lin-
and turpentine. and as a drier.
metallic oxides,
V hich to giind colors
It
and evaporates quickly.
which resin has been dissolved.
in
with varnishes and paint
seed
fioni the sap of long-leaf ])ine.
painting to give further drying qualities.
It is
used as a
medium
in
*
WOOD
223
FIN1SIII2^G.
WOOD FINISHING Referexces (
1
)
:
Stains.
Hodgson,
II,
Maire. pp. 4G-64.
pp. 2.J-59,
1.55-164.
Van Deusen, Man. G:
(2)
Fillers.
Hodgson, (3)
Oil
pp.
Maire, 65-72.
7-25.
II,
Maire.
pp. 99-103.
p.
117.
Wax. Hodgson.
(5)
II,
Finisli.
Hodgson, (4)
Tr. Mag.,
93.
Maire. pp. 112-116.
II, pp. 93-99.
Varnish. Shellac.
Hodgson, II. pp. 6G-93. Encyc, Vol. X, "Lao."
Maire, pp. 73-80, 101-111. Journal, 8oc. Arts, 49:
Inter.
192.
Ency. Brit., Vol. XIV, "Lac." Oil Varnish.
Hodgson,
II,
pp.
Maire. pp. 81-100.
5!)-r)6.
Enci/. Brit., Vol.
Clark, pp. 1-09.
(6)
XXIV, "Varnish."
Paints.
Brannt,
p.
134-152.
Building Trades Fockefbook, pp.
.
357-360.
For detailed directions son, II. pp.
for the
treatment of different woods, see Hodg-
112-153, Maire, pp. 124-141.
*For general bibliography see
p.
4.
INDEX. Acorn of hinge, 131. Adjustment of plane, Adze, 88. Agacite grinder, Alcohol:
21
(Metliyl).
Alligator,
121, 137.
209,
Angle of
bevel,
211.
Bolt of lock, 133.
59.
58,
Bolts, 127. Book shelves,
Boom, Log,
210.
Boring
210.
Box,
141.
Arrangement of Arris,
Asphaltum,
Of
210.
Back-saw, 65. Balloon frame. f>il.
85.
137,
216.
Band-saw, 31. Banking grounds. 16. Beam-compa=;s, 114. Beams, 201. Bench, 97-99, 136, 138, 141, 143. Glue and Stain, 142, 148. Bench-hook, 78, 102, 104, 137, 139. Bending wood, 199. Benzine,
209,
210,
Bevel of cutting
214,
tools,
222. 52,
55,
Bevel, Sliding T, 113, 137. 140. Bezel, See Bevel. Bill-hook, 10. Binding of saw, 6:!. 65. Bit. Plane. 70. 77. Bits, Bit.
84-87.
Twist.
i:!7.
S4.
188.
188,
lock,
189.
133.
Brace-measure, 138.
201.
213.
120.
S5.
Blank-hinge, 131. Blazes on trees. 7.
107.
Bracket, 185. Brad-awl, 83, 84, 138. 140. Brads, 124. Breaking out the roll-ways, Bridging, 201.
Brown, Bismarck, Dark, 212. Reddish, 210,
Vandyke, Bru.«h,
210,
Buffer.
211.
209. 149,
138, 141,
121,
16.
211.
210,
209,
Brush, See also Duster. Brusli-Keeper. 150. Buckling of saw. 62, 65,
221.
67.
147.
Burn of shellac, 217. Butt-hinge, 131. Cabinet construction, 192-195. Cabinet for nails and screws, 145,
140.
Bit-point drill, S4, 85. Bit-stock, See Brace. Black, 209, 211.
85.
Brace. 103, 105, 137, 140. Brace, Ratchet, 103. 105. 137.
140.
6.
136.
for,
187-191.
Lids,
Auger-bit, 53, 84, Auger-bit-gage, 1 1 Ax, 10, 51, 87.
Banana
21.
83-87.
tools,
Bottoms,
142-144.
.'^hop,
184.
57,
185.
20,
Boring, Directions
Water, 211. Antique oak, Anvil,
36.
35,
Board foot, 48, 109. Board measure, 48, 109, 110. Board structures, 184-192.
Aniline stain.s: Alcohol, 211. Oil,
48.
Board-Hipper,
G.
216.
28.
Ammonia,
Board,
199.
Board construction, 184-192.
Grain dOtliyl).
Wood
120,
61,
Block, Corner, 155 No. 12, 177, Block-plane, See Plane, Block. Blue, Prussian, 210.
72.
70,
147.
Calipers, 114. Camp, logging, 8, 9. Cant, 35, foot-note. Cant-flipper, 35, 36.
Cant-hook,
10,
13.
Cape-chisel, 141. Care of the shop, 14 2-150.
8.
Blinds, 194.
224
142,
Index. Carriage-bolts,
Corner locking, 164. Corrugated fasteners, 125, 170. Cost of Equipment, 136-142.
127.
Carteria lacca, 215. Carving tools, 60, 140. Case-hardening, 46. C-Clamps. See carriage-makers' clamps.
Countersink,
Crown
of Plane-cutter, Cruising, 8.
Cup,
184.
Chatter, 71, 92. Cheek of joint, 160. Cheese-cloth, 221. Chest, 193, 195. Chest-hinge, 131. Chisel,
52-59,
139,
140,
183.
Chiseling end-wooa. See also Paring, Sidewise chiseling. Chisel, Cape, 141. Carving, 54. Cold,
141.
Corner, Firmer,
55.
Framing. Mortise, Paring,
136,
54,
55,
54,
55,
Decay,
57,
183.
88.
169. 102,
138,
141.
121.
139.
41.
tool, 83.
127,
128.
196. 205.
21.
Edge action, Edged Tools, 12,
188,
222.
Dynamite, 139.
Copper, Soldering, 141. Corner-blocks, 155, No. Corner-board, 201.
190-192.
196.
See Hand Drill. Twist, 84. 85. 138, 141. Drive, The log, 16-18. Duplicate parts, 155, 204. Duster, Bench, 121. 137. 139.
218.
Corner-iron,
of,
24.
Runner, 196. Drawing-board, 186, Dray-road, 9, 13.
96.
66,
166,
Rail,
77.
Drier,
Cornering
25.
34.
engine,
Guide,
Drill.
Coping-saw,
log,
Drawer,
Comb-grain, 41, 4 2. Compass, 113, 114, 137. 139. Blackboard, 117, 141.
Copal,
45.
32,
Door, 192, 193. Dovetail-saw, 66. 137. 139. Doweling, 127, 130, 152, 154, 175. Dowel-plate, 139, 140. Dowel-pointer 83, 139, 175. Dowel-rods, 127, 175. Draw-bolt, lS4. Draw-knife, 61, 139.
Cleats, 186, 188.
Compass-saw, Consumer, 33,
138.
Decking logs. 13. Demonstration seats, 143. Derrick, Locomotive boom,
Donkey
87,
tools,
77,
Dogs,
Clapboards, 201.
Cleaning
76,
Cutting-gage, 116, 140. Cutting tools, 51-83. Dado, 56, 80. See also Joint, Dado. Dado-plane, 80. Dam, Splash, 20, 21.
141.
Clamp, 101, 138, 141, Carriage-makers, Column, 169.
Claw hammer,
221.
Die-holder, 141. Dividers, 113, 114, 137, 140.
54.
Plane, 70,
141,
71.
161.
54.
tools,
140,
Die, 141.
Chisel-gage. 69. Chiseling, end-wood, 56, Sidewise, 56. Perpendicular, 56. Choking of Plane, 76.
Chopping
138,
Destructive lumbering, causes
139.
55.
Round-nosed Skew, 55. Turning,
138,
Curling-iron, 70. Cutter, Plane, 70,
137.
136.
126,
Crosscut-saw, 10, 64-66, 137, 139. Cross-grained wood. Planing, 75. Crowbar, 10.
161,
115,
87,
Cricket, 186.
Chain, 10, 13, 15, 16. Chair, 198-201. Chalk, French, 197. 82,
84,
141.
Ceiling, 201. Center-bit, 84, 86.
Chamfer,
225
177,
190.
52. 5 Iff.
Edger, 35, 36, 37. Eight-square scale, 108. Egg-shell finish, 94. 216. Equipment, Chap. YI, 136-150.
7.
226
Index.
Ksoutchi on of lock, U3. Expansive-bit, S4, 87, 137, 140. Falling beds, 24. Fastenings, Chap. V, 123-135. Felling trees, 10, 11, 23. Ferrule, 54. File,
90.
140,
137,
91,
File-card,
137,
91,
Filing a saw,
147.
142,
139.
]-^irmer-goiige, 129.
30,
174,
42,
Foot-stool,
206.
20],
Flume, 21, 22. Foerstner Auger-bit,
186,
Empire
Grinder,
61.
120,
121,
41.
Tool,
140.
137,
Grinding of
See
tools.
117-120,
sharpening.
137,
140.
156,
66.
158, 159,
161.
Hack-saw
13
Hammer,
58,
141.
7,
94,
95,
Handscrew,
101.
141.
138,
102,
139.
136,
96,
138,
141,
84,
Handscrew,
87.
Fore-edge. 196. Fore-plane, See under Plane. Framed structures, 195-201. Framing-chisel, See under Chisel. Frog, Plane, 70, 75. Fuming with animoniii, 212, Furring, 201. Gages, 114-116.
Iron,
102.
See also Clamp, carriage-makers. Hatchet, 88.
Hauling
logs,
13.
22,
15,
23.
Hinges. 131-133. Hinges, sizes of. 131. Hinging. Directions foi'. 132.
214.
69.
Cutting, 116, 140. Marking, 114-116. 136, 139, 203. Mortise, 116, 140. 161.
Hog, 41. Holding tools. 97-105. Hone.vcombing. 46. Horse. 64, 65. 100. Horsehair. 200. House construction, Tee-road.
13.
200,
201,
14.
Impregnation of timber,
47.
Pencil. 115.
Iron acetate, 211, 212, Iron, Soldering. See copper.
Screw. 116, 117, 126.
,Iack-ladder,
Slitting,
Jack-plane.
116.
Twist-drill,
Wire, 116,
117. 117.
Oelatin, 12S. Gimlet-bit, 84, 85, 137, 140. Glass-cutter, 138, 141. Glaziers points, 125. Glue, 128-131. Fish, 129. Liquid, 129.
Preparation of, 129. Tests of. 129. Glue-pot, 129, 138, 141, 148. Gluing, Directions for, 130, 153, 167170,
173,
189,
190.
Golden Oak, 211. Gouge, 59, 60, 137, Grading of lumber,
170,
173.
186.
Chisel,
185,
209.
Grinder or Hog,
Ball-peen, 142. Bell-faced, 95. Riveting, 141. Hand-drill. 104. 106,
See under gouge.
Flooring,
172,
75,
Groove, Triangular.
See under chisel,
glue, Fitter, 9.
Green,
60,
209, 210.
Groove for drawer, 191. Groove for panel, 164.
67.
Finishing, Wood, Chap. X, 209-223. Firmer-chisel,
[<"ish
192, 205,
Grindstone,
140.
Filletster, 80, 137, Filler, 213, 221.
Grain of wood,
36.
183.
See Plane,
.lam, log, 18, 19, 21. .Tapan, 209, 222. .Japanese. 69, 97, 189. •Joinery, 151.
Beaded, 175, No. 73, 182. Bevel-shoulder, 172, No. 67, 182. Bird's mouth, 172, No. 69, 182. Boat-builders, 152, No, 7, 177, Brace, 171, No. 65, 182. Brace. Housed. 172. No. 66, 182.
.Joint,
207. Bridle, 172, No. 68, 182.
Butt. Butt,
155.
No.
Doweled,
177. 140,
32.
11,
177,
152,
187,
No.
194.
Caulked, 157. No. Checked, 157, No,
22,
178.
21,
178,
8,
206,
153,
Index. Joint, continued.
Joint, continued.
Middle-lap, 156, No. 15, 178. Miter, 167, No. 52, 181, 187, 194,
Cogged, 157, No. 22, 178. Corked, 157, No. 22, 178. Column, 169, No. 52. 181. Cross-lap, 155, No. 14, 177. Dado, 157, No. 25, 179, 191. Dado and rabbet, 158, No.
206.
Double dovetail keyed, 57, 26,
187.
179,
158, No.
Dado, Dovetail,
28,
179,
206.
191,
Dado, housed.
No.
157,
25,
179,
rabbet,
158.
187, 207.
Dado,
and
tongue,
No.
Blind
Dovetail, 51,
179, 191.
27,
miter,
167,
No.
187.
180,
Stopped
Thru
No.
166.
lap,
50,
165,
single,
No.
47,
180.
180,
No. 75, 182. 154, No. 10, 177. Edge-to-edge, 172-174. End-lap, 156, No. 16, 178, 194, 175,
No.
155,
12.
25,
156, No. 15, 178. Dovetail 157, No.
Beveled,
No.
157,
18,
19,
178.
Halving, 155-157. See also Joint, Cross-lap, Endlap, Middle lap. Haunching, Table, 164, No. 43.
Haunched. 193,
181,
187,
171,
No.
206.
Matched, 174, No.
72,
182.
180,
180.
163.
36,
179.
No.
42,
180,
207.
196,
Housed, 164, No. 45, ISO. Keyed, 163, No. 39, ISO, 185.
194,
Shoulder, 163, No. 40, 180. Sttib, 160, No. 30, 17 9. Thru, 160, No. 31, 179. Tusk, 163, No. 40. ISO, 207. 12S,
162.
1,
58,
Xo.'^.
34
and
179.
Notched, 157, No. 20. 178. Notch, Double, 157. No. 21, 17S. Rabbet, 157, No. 24, 179, 174; No. 71, 182, 187. Rebated. See Joint, Rabbet. Rubbed, 172, No. 70, 173, 182, 205.
Scarf,
151,
Nos.
177, 204,
No.
164, 204,
24, 179, 187.
miter,
44,
46,
162, No.
206,
4,
6
5,
and
7,
207. 46,
Spliced, 151, Nos.
177.
and
160-
No.
164,
End, 164, No.
Slip,
180.
Taper, 164, No. 43. 180. Hopper, 155, No. 13, 177. Lap-dovetail, 157, No. 18, 178. Lapped and strapped 151, No.
Ledge, 157, No.
127,
Double, 163, No. 41, ISO. Dovetail, 162, No. 37, 179.
35,
178.
Halving,
58,
Blind, 160, No. 32, 179, 193.
179.
Halved Tee, Halving,
181. 181.
194.
172,
Wedged,
177.
Grooved, 157, No.
59, 54,
207.
Glue, 172, No. 70, 182.
Ledge
Stopped, 171, No. Tongue, 170, No. Mortise-and-tenon,
Oblique, 172, No. 67, 182. Open, 164, No. 46, 180. Pinned, 162, No. 38. ISO,
206.
Fillistered, 174, No. 71, 182. Fished, 151, No. 2, 177, 207. Forked tenon 157, No. 23, 178. Gain, 159, No. 29, 179, 205. Dovetail, 158, No. 28, 179.
Glued-and-blocked.
181.
58,
Slip dovetail, 171, No. 56, 181. Slip-feather, 170, No. 55, 181. Slip-key, 170, No. 55, 181. Spline, 170, No. 54, 181, 187.
Foxtail,
194.
Doweled, Draw-bolt,
181.
185.
206.
Thru
Lipped, 171, No.
Bare-faced,
multiple, 165, No. 48, 180,
187,
Double tongue, 171, No. 60, Doweled, 170, No. 53, 181.
164,
Half-blind, 166, No. 49, 180. Lap, 166, No. 49, ISO. Secret, 167, No. 51, 180, 187.
171, No.
181.
194.
ISO, 4,
5,
6,
7,
177,
207.
Spline, 175, No. 74, 182. Squeezed, 172, No. 70, 174, 182. Stretcher. 171, No. 61, 181. Strut, 171, No. 62, 181, 207. Thrust, 171, Nos. 63 and 64, ISl, 207. Tie, 171, Nos.
63
and
64,
181.
Index.
228
Log-slip,
Joint, continued.
Toe, 171, Nos. 63 and 64. 1!<1. Toe-nailed 154, No. 9. 177. Tongne-and-groove 174, No.
7l'.
182.
58,
127,
Lumber
M
Kerf, 10, 30,
Key-pin of
mill, 32,
(1000 feet),
Mahogany, Mallet,
48,
160-
139.
96,
Measurements,
Miter-bo.K,
102,
Knock-down furniture. Knuckle of hinge. 131.
13,
48,
163.
137,
Monkey-wrench,
139,
Mortise-chisel,
218.
138,
103,
Landlooking, 7. Latli-machines,
54,
:Multiple parts, 39,
41.
Laths, 39, 49, 201. Lay-out, 152, 154, 155, 156. 158, 159. 165,
163,
183,
191,
204.
55,
161.
195,
203,
204.
Muntin.
192.
193.
:\luslin.
200,
221.
Nails. 123. 124. Flat-liead, 124. Size of, 124.
Wire, 123.
200.
59,
Leaves of hinge,
Wrought,
132.
123.
Level, Spirit, 116.
Nailset, 97, 138, 141.
Lever-cap, 70, 77. Lid of box, 188. Lighting of shop, 14 2. Live rollers, 35.
Nig-ger, steam, 34, 35.
logs, 15.
Lock, mortise, 134. 133,
Oil,
scale,
130,
221.
Banana,
213,
65,
108.
216.
Oiler, 137, 140.
134.
Oilstone,
58,
121,
137,
Ordering of lumber, Paint,
Boom-derrick,
25.
21.
20,
34,
35.
36.
34.
Logging, Chap. Log-kicker, 34.
I,
7-29.
140.
4 9.
220-221.
Panel construction,
28.
Log-carriage,
Nippers, 103, 105, 138, 141.
Octagonal
Boiled, 209, 210, 222.
Lockers, 13S, 142, 146, 147. Locks, 133, 134. Locomotive, Geared, 26.
Log-flipper,
141.
Mortise-gage, 116, 140, 161.
141.
Log-boom,
194.
i\Iortise-and- tenon. See Joint, Mortise-and-tenon.
216.
Snow,
105-116.
Mortise, 58, 160.
Stick, 216,
Rim,
49,
32.
Miter-clamp, 138, 141. Miter-square, 113, 137, 140. Molding-plane, SO.
Lac, insect, 2i5. Seed, 216.
Loading
203.
203.
21,
Leather,
139,
Measuring-tools, 105-117.
133.
Mill-pond,
160,
136,
.Marking tools, 113-117. Matcliing-plane, 80, 139. Maul, 10.
Measuring wood,
Ladle,
49.
211.
58,
Knife, 61, 136, 139. Knife, Sloyd, 61. Knob, Plane. 70.
Lacquer,
111.
127.
Kiln, lumber, 44, 46.
Shell,
rule.
33.
Marking-gage, 114-116,
65.
62,
lock,
38.
Machine-screws,
172.
164,
yard, 36,
Lumberman's board
201.
Joi-sts,
34.
Logwood, 211, 212. Loss of tools, 144-146. Lumber, 48.
Lumber
Jointer-plane, 71'. Jointing a saw, 68. Joints, Chap. VII, 151-182. Beveled, 167-172. Butt, 152-155. Dovetail, 164-167, 204. Halving, 155-160, 203, 204. Heading, 151-152.
Mortise-and-tenon,
34.
Log-stop,
164.
Panel-iron, 127. 12S. Paper, Building, 201. Paring, 55, 57. Paring-chisel, 54.
Peavey,
is.
Peen of hammer,
95,
192-195, 205.
Index. Picture-frame.
Clamp.
167-169,
167.
194,
Rail, 186, 193. Rail, Drawer, 196.
205.
168.
Railways, logging, Rasp, 91. Ratchet-brace, 103,
Vise. 100. 101. 167, 194.
Pigments,
209.
Pillow, 77. Pincers, 103, 105.
Reamer,
Pintle of hinge, 131. Plane, parts of, 70. rock,
71,
137,
75,
139.
Block, 77, 137, 139. Circular, 80. Fore, 72. 137, 139. Jack, 71, 136. 138. Jointer.
Rivet-set,
137,
139,
194.
139,
Roll-ways,
Router-plane, 83, 139, 160. Rule. 105, 106, 137, 139, 203.
Running
139.
On
Potash,
147.
36.
Circular, 30.
Compass, 66, Compression.
139. 62.
Coping, 139. Crosscut, 10,
214.
Cut-off,
220.
Dovetail,
214.
Pulling,
150.
130,
36,
137,
64,
211,
212.
Poun-ding tools, 94-97. Preservation of lumber, 47. See also seasoning. Principles of joinery, Chap. IX, 203-
Pushing,
137.
6-6,
139.
10,
62,
67.
62.
Rip, 63, 137, 139.
Tension, 62, 67. Turning, 67, 137, 139. Saw-carriage, 34, 35, 36.
Sawdust,
208.
39.
stone, 217.
Saw-filing and setting,
Quarter-sawing. 42, 43. Rabbet-plane, 79, 137, 139,
Saw-horse, 64, 65, 100. Sawing, Directions for,
Raft, Giant, 27, 29. Rafter-table, 110. Rafters, 201.
139.
39.
Gang, 30. Hack, 137, 141. Logging, 10, 23.
14-2.
Potassium bichromate,
Pumice
tools,
Butting,
141.
13.
Plug-cutter, 84, 86, 126, 140.
Wax,
49.
Sacking the rear, 16. Saddle seat, 60, 199. Sandpaper, 93, 221. Saw, 62-68. Selvage of lock, 133. Saw, Back, 65, 136, 138. Band, 30, 31, 32.
72.
Polishes, 214-220. Position of benches, Posts, corner, 201.
foot,
24.
Rust, 125.
80.
Points in saw-teeth, 63. Polish, French, 217-218. Oil,
16.
130.
Plate, wall, 201. Pliers, 103, 105, 138,
Varnish.
14.
15.
Rossing of bark,
Plate-rack, 185. Plates, metal, 127.
Plow, Snow,
13,
139.
Universal, 81, 82. Plane-iron, 70, 77. Planes, 69-82. Planing, Directions for, 74-76, 78. of,
137.
Tote, 8. Rollers, Dead, 36. Rollers, Live, 35.
160.
Smooth, 72. 75, 137, Tongue-and-groove.
Order
105,
141.
Monkeys
139.
Oriental, 69.
Rabbet, 79, Router, 83, Scraper, 79, Scratch, 79, Scrub, 78.
2G.
87.
Road, Ice, 13, 14. Logging, 9, 13.
72.
Matching, 80. Molding, 80.
84,
22,
Rebate. See Rabbet. Red, Venetian, 210. Ribbon, Wall, 201. Ridge-pole, 201. Rift-sawing, 41. Rip-saw, 63, 137, 139.
Pinch-dog, 102, 103, 141, 170.
Bed
229
194.
Saw-jointer,
67.
64,
68.
Sawmill, 32, 33. Sawmilling. Chap.
II,
30-44.
65.
280
Index.
S;nv-set,
Sawing
Sleigh haul, 13, 15. Sliding cut, 53, 56, 75, 78. Sliding T bevel, 113. Slipstone, 60, 121, 137, 140. Slip-tongue carts, 22.
6S.
Saw-vise,
67,
68.
into lengths.
11,
24.
12,
Scaling logs, 13. Scrap-box, 187. Scraper, 76, 91, 1.37, 139. Scraper, Veneer, 91. 92, 137, 139. Scraper-plane, 79, 139. Scraper steel, 92, 137. 139.
Smooth-plane,
Snow-locomotive,
Scratch-awl, 116, 140. Scratch-plane, 79, 130. Screen-hinge, 131. Screw-box, 139. Screwdriver. 104, 106. 138, 14o.
Splash-dam.
Bit, 105, 106. 138 140.
Spokeshave,
Oil,
4o-48.
Ill,
Stile,
tools, 85,
76,
Sharpening-tools.
Tlie,
86,
54,
92-93,
58,
59,
117-121.
11 7-121.
Sheatliing. 201. Shellac, 149. 215-21S.
Orange, 216. White, 216.
39,
186,
188,
163,
166,
1S9,
191,
192,
Table
Tang, Tank,
214.
Sizing, 130.
Skidder, steam.
25.
Skidway.
24.
Slab, 34, 35. 39.
Slab-slasher, 39, 41,
Slash -sawing,
156,
4 0.
4 2.
41.
195.
54. 14.
tools,
Tee-hinge, 131. Teeth of saw, 63. Tenon, 160, 206. See also Mortise Joint, Mortise jnid
Tenon-saw, 65, Toe of Plane, 70,
158
7.
top, 172, 175, 197.
Taper of cutting
201.
.Slash -grain,
of,
204.
Taboret, 169, 170, 186. Tacks, 124. Tacks, double-pointed, 102, 124.
205.
13,
206.
Strike of lock. 133. Stringer, 196. Stropping, 59. Studding, 201. Superposition. Method
Table-hinge, 131. Table construction, 130, 164, See also Table Top.
41.
160.
Siding. 201. Sienna. 209. Sighting, 71, 75.
9,
211.
laml, Svvainper, 12. Sweep of brace, 103.
205.
201,
.Shoe-pegs. 128. Slioulder of joint,
Sill,
210.
Survey of forest
Shingle-machine,
Silex,
209.
193.
159,
Shelves, 185, 205.
194,
183.
211.
Straight cut, 53. Strength of joints,
67.
Shank, 54. Sharpening of
Shlinkage,
139,
Stove-bolts, 127.
47.
49,
137,
Storing of lumber, 48. Stove, Gas, 138, 141, 148.
Set of saw, 63,
:Uiingles,
82,
Water, 210.
47.
67,
21.
Steel square. 107-111. 137, 140. Steel wool. 94. 211. 217, 221. Sticking, 45, 48.
Hot-air. 46. Kiln, 46.
60.
150.
Spirit.
45.
Oil,
20.
Stains, 209-213. Chemical. 211-213.
Sizes of, 126. Scribing, 112.
Water,
28.
Splitting tools, 51.
Screw-gage, 116, 117, 126. Screws, 125-127. Rule for using, 126.
Air,
139.
Soap, as a lubricant, 126. To prevent gluing, 130. Sole of Plane, 70. Sorting-jack, 21. Sorting-shed. 38. Spiriting off, 217.
Scraping tools, 90-94. Scrap pile, 41, 42.
Scrub-plane, 78. Seasoning. Chap.
137,
72,
Snips, 141.
71.
52.
and
tetion.
tenon.
Index. 'I'hroat of Plane,
70.
231
Varnish, 149, 215-220.
Tie-beams, 201. Timber, 48. Tonguing-and-gTooving-pIane,
Copal, 218-220.
Cremona, 80.
Spirit,
Tool-grinder, 61, 120, 121, 137, 140. Tool-holder for grinding, 118-120. Tool-rack, 143, 144. Tools, Chap. IV, pp. 51-122. Tools, logging, 10. Traction engine, 28. Tools, Loss of, 144-14G. Tractor, 28.
Walnut,
Trammel-points,
Waney
114,
140.
Transfer, Lumber, 36, 37. Transportation of logs, 13,
Travoy. 9. Tray, 60, 183. Triangle, Blackboard,
Trimmer,
Trimming
36,
15.
16ff,
25.
lock, 133.
Turning-saw,
67,
137,
139,
183.
Turpentine, 209, 210, 214, 222. Tusk. See Joint, mortise-and-tenon, tusk. Twist-bit, 84, 85. Twist-drill, 84, 85, 138. Twist-drill-gage, 117.
Umber,
92,
137, 139.
Vise, 99, 138. Iron, 138, 141. 210.
boards,
36.
48.
Washer-cutter, Waste, cotton,
Wax.
Try-square, 112, 136, 139, 140, 203.
Tumbler of
Veining tools, 140. Veneer-scraper, 91, Vermilion, 210.
87,
140.
209, 221.
Water-stains, 210. Water-table, 201.
iz.
Tripoli, 121, 147. Trolley for logs,
219.
of,
\vaste, sawmill, 39. Waterproof glue, 130. 141.
38.
logs,
Varnishing, Process Vaseline, 147.
Warping,
23
218.
215-218.
209.
Undercut, 206. Universal plane, 81. Unjoined pieces, 183, 184. Upholstering, 199-201. Valuation survey, 7. Van. Logging camp. 9.
214.
Webbing, 200. Wedge, Plane, Wedge, 10, 51,
69,
70.
52,
128,
Action
52.
51,
162.
Whetting
tools, 58. in board, 74. Winding sticks. 74, 113. Window-sash, 194.
Wind
Wire
edge,
59.
Wire-gage, 116,
117.
Wooden
structures, types VIII, 183-202. Working edge, 72, 115.
Working
face, 72, 115.
Wrench,
103.
of.
See also Monkey-wrench.
Yarding
logs, 24, 26,
Yard-stick, 138, 141. YelloAv,
Chrome,
209.
27.
Chap.
One copy
del. to Cat.
Div.
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