Music Influences On Mood And Purchase Intention

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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227807345 Music Influences on Mood and Purchase Intention Article in Psychology and Marketing · May 1990 Impact Factor: 1.13 · DOI: 10.1002/mar.4220070204 CITATIONS READS 114 934 2 authors, including: Mark I Alpert University of Texas at Austin 29 PUBLICATIONS 1,016 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Available from: Mark I Alpert Retrieved on: 18 May 2016 ABSTRACT Mood and emotional elements of advertising and consumer response have received increasing attention from practitioners and scholars in recent years. Among the various sources of mood induction is the frequently used practice of accompanying commercial messages with background music. This paper extends marketing's discussion of the role of music in influencing audiences, by using music theory to analyze and investigate the effects of music's structural profiles on consumers. The experiment's results indicate tha! music may have significant impact on audience moods and purchase intentions, without necessaniy affecting intervening cognitions. Music Influences on Mood and Purchase Intentions Judy I. Alpert St. Edwards University Mark I. Alpert The University of Texas at Austin This article examines the relationship of music and consumers' moods, attitudes and behaviors. A seminal paper in the Journal of Marketing by Gorn (1982) studied music's influence from a classical conditioning perspective and sparked renewed interest in music and other "background" elements of commercials and stores (e.g., Gardner and Hill, 1988). This article will discuss, integrate and build upon the work of Gorn and others who have provided theoretical and empirical insight into the ways in which music may influence consumer responses. The purposes of this study are to: (1) review major conceptual bases relevant to discussing music and other nonverbal influences on mood, as well as theory regarding the roles of informational and cognitive versus noncognitive means of influencing buyer behavior; (2) expand upon existmg research to investigate whether background music can influence Psychology & Marketing © I99<) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vol. 7(2): I()9-L13 (Summer 1990) CCC 0742-6O46/90/02Ul()9-U25$(M.O0 MUSIC INFLUENCES moods and common measures of advertising effectiveness; (3) begin to derive principles for predicting these effects, given analysis of the musical content of an ad; (4) provide some suggestions for the construction of effective musical influences on emotions and product orientations; and (5) indicate directions for future investigations of musical content of advertising and testing of its influence. Theoretical Base and Literature Review* In a recent paper (Gardner, 1985), mood was defined as a fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense, and not tied to a specifiable behavior. Moods can be positive or negative, such as cheeriness, peacefulness or guilt and depression. According to Clark and Isen (1982), moods occur frequently and do not usually interrupt ongoing behavior. Moods are distinguished from emotions, such as fear or rage, which are usually more intense, obvious and are tied to a specifiable behavior. A number of studies have shown that mood has an impact on attitudes and behavior. We shall summarize major works in this stream. The present study seeks to analyze the relationship between the profile of structural elements in background music and its effects on audiences' mood. Given that mood is relevant and of increasing interest in consumer behavior, its sensitivity to the influence of background music in commercials is worth examining. Finally, studies which have used music as an independent variable will be cited to discuss the current state of knowledge concerning music effects, leading to a consideration of the contributions to that knowledge proposed in the present study. Before addressing these literatures, it may be useful to consider some of the underlying theories that are relevant to the integration of affect and emotional influences in communication. One useful framework is that of central and peripheral information processing. Central and Peripheral Processing Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann's review of research in psychology and consumer psychology (1983) concludes that neither central nor peripheral information processing alone can explain the diversity of attitude change results observed. The critical feature of the central route views attitude change as resulting from diligent consideration of information a person views as central to the merits of an issue or product. Research For brevity, this review is meant lo be representative but not exhaustive. Only a few key papers in each section will be noted here. Additional references and a compar;iiive exhibit for the music studies are available from the authors, as are more detailed statistical analyses and tables. "no SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES following this route focuses on the familiar topics of cognitive consistency, cognitive algebra, perception, learning, retention and a series of related issues. Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann have presented research and arguments supporting the relevance of central route processing of information under conditions of high cognitive involvement. They contrast this approach with a more peripheral route, in which attitude change is due to the presence of simple positive or negative cues, or simple decision rules, and attitudes are less affected by issue-relevant arguments. In both routes, information or stimuli may be conveyed visually, verbally, or in source/message characteristics. What distinguishes the route seems to be the amount of conscious information processing, weighing of evidence, and the like. It is believed that peripheral processing is likely under conditions of low cognitive involvement, as lower motivation to process information via the central route may evoke simpler heuristics and cues to attitude formation (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann, 1983). They note that one of the more common approaches (there are others) to influence via peripheral processing is classical conditioning, which will be summarized next. Affect and Behavior Conditioning and Peripheral Processing A stream of conditioning research in which direct transfer of affect (or liking) results from message execution tactics such as music, humor, visual imagery, color and sex has been shown to influence consumers' feeling states (e.g., Gorn. 1982; Watson and Rayner, 1920). This research suggests that pairing a conditioned stimulus (a brand) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., music, humor) produces emotional responses which may then be associated with the brand. Here, attitude change is alleged to have occurred due to the presence of simple positive or negative cues, without the necessity of logically intervening cognitive reactions. In fact, many have argued for and/or demonstrated behavioral change due to conditioning stimuli, even without attitude or preference change (KroeberRiel, 1984; Allen and Madden, 1985; Staats and Staats, 1957; Zajonc, 1968; Zajonc, Markus, and Wilson, 1974). This may be relevant to noninformational, low involvement ads, where there is minimal motivation for cognitive processing, and the goal is to leave consumers with a favorable (but not necessarily conscious) "feeling" toward the product. When a product does not possess objective advantages, and is a simple product with few attributes, persuasion may be more successful by using background features such as visual imagery or music (Kotler, 1974; Batra and Ray, 1983). In addition, visual and other nonverbal aspects of an ad fit in well under low involvement conditions because they are effective in generating feelings, and because they are more easily and quickly processed than verbal stimuli (Zajonc, 1980; Paivio, 1971). On the other hand, there is diversity of opinion whether feelings PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7, NO 2 VvT MUSIC INFLUENCES automatically transfer between stimuli (affective conditioning), or if affective states can influence attention and perception by affecting audiences' moods and prompt cognitive activity. Even affective conditioning may involve some cognitive activity, although conscious links between feelings and product evaluations may be absent. At this point no definite conclusions can be made regarding the type of cognitions that are included in affective reactions, nor the extent to which classical conditioning may be invoked to "explain" the process. The assertion that cognitive participation is not necessary for the occurrence of affect has been made (Zajonc, 1980; Zajonc and Markus, 1982; and Kroeber-Riel, 1984) and countered by others (Lazarus, 1982, 1984; Tsal, 1985). In addition, subjects may not normally be aware of how their feeling states influence their evaluations and behavior (Clark and Isen, 1982; Johnson and Tversky, 1983). Where feelings are concerned, there can be arguments supporting their effects coming through central as well as peripheral processing. Indeed, both processing routes may be involved to one degree or another, leading to variations in the resulting patterns of "stimulus—perceptions—beliefs—attitude—behavioral intention—behavior." A view of this phenomenon from a mood perspective is presented next. Mood Effects on Evaluation and Behavior Research has shown that mood states have an important influence on behavior, evaluation and recall (Gardner, 1985; Gardner and Vandersteel, 1984). While this general conclusion may not hold in all cases, Gardner notes that mood states appear to bias evaluations and judgments in similar directions to mood, and she reviews studies detailing this process (1985). The association between mood states and affective responses, judgments and behavior can be seen as both direct and indirect. A direct affective reaction may be viewed as a conditioned response when there are direct linkages in associations in memory between mood states and affective reactions (Griffitt and Guay. 1969), and mood states and behavior (see Gardner, 1985; Aaker, Stayman, and Vezina, 1988, for references). Indirect associations between feeling states and affective responses and/or behavior include the influence of mood on information processing, or cognitive activity. Weiner notes that behavior may reflect interaction among cognitions, feelings, and resulting expectations or future outcomes (1979). Mood may also affect evaluations by evoking mood-congruent thoughts and affect the performance of the behavior by increasing the accessibility of positive associations to the behavior (Bower. 1981; Clark and Isen, 1982; Goldberg and Gorn, 1987; Isen era/., 1978). To the extent that associations 112 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES are direct and involve little conscious processing of the relationship between the advertisement's information and attaining one's goals, mood's effects may be seen as via the peripheral route. Indirect associations may operate when other issue-relevant cues are processed to yield attitudes and behaviors in a manner affected by mood. The likelihood that a host of behaviors may be performed appear to be enhanced by positive moods (Gardner, 1985). Negative moods' effects on behavior may be more complex than the effects of positive moods (Isen, 1984; Donnerstein, Donnerstein, and Munger, 1975; Cialdini and Kenrick, 1976). For example, helping may be enhanced by some negative mood states such as sadness (Baumann, Cialdini, and Kenrick, 1981) and not by others such as frustration. This may be due to some evidence that negative mood states are not as homogeneous as positive ones (Isen, 1984), and that behaviors seen to reverse unpleasant mood states (e.g., helping) may overcome tendencies to enact mood-congruent behavior (e.g., withdrawal). Moods can be affected by many different variables. Gardner and Vanderstee! (1984) discuss studies of independent variables found to induce mood states. Although much work has been accomplished in the study of mood induction, there remains a need for more theory regarding the reasons why communications (and other inducers) influence moods. In view of the fact that music is a common element in commercials, and one which has a long history of mood inducement in a variety of contexts, the next section will focus on how music has been used as an independent variable to effect moods, as well as other dependent variables of interest to marketers. Music Effects Music has been used in consumer behavior research, as well as communications, psychology and music therapy research to determine its effects on behavior, preference and mood. Research investigating music effects may be divided into those which analyzed and/or manipulated the structural and the sound elements of music (structural elements) and those which did not analyze nor manipulate structural sound elements (nonstructural elements). Structural elements refer to the properties making up musical sound such as melody, rhythm, harmony, major or minor modality, and tempo. This distinction is an important one for this study because we are concerned with the relationship between musical structure and mood effects. While music has been used as an independent variable in some consumer research, no causal effect has been explored between the musical elements and the subject's mood. In studies where music was used for nonstructural purposes, it appeared that the musical properties themselves were not of major interest, since they were not analyzed or manipulated. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7, NO 2 rT3~ MUSIC INFLUENCES hlonstructural Musical Studies Some of the nonstructural literature indicates that music does influence what products consumers will select. Gorn (1982) suggests that peripheral influences such as background music used in commercials may become associated with the advertised product (in memory, even if not consciously), and influence product choice through classical conditioning. Mere exposure did not lead to liking, which apparently depended on whether the target product, a pen, was presented with liked versus disliked music. The second experiment by Gorn (1982) provided support for his hypothesis that when subjects were not in a decisionmaking mode, the commercial's impact appeared to be more influential in its appeal when presented with musical background as opposed to product information. He concluded that through classical conditioning, the product becomes associated with the positive feelings of liked music. Bierley, McSweeney, and Vannieuwkerk (1985) extended Gorn's studies. Preference ratings for stimuli that "predicted" (preceded) pleasant music were significantly greater than preference ratings for stimuli that predicted the absence of music. In another extension of Gorn's work, researchers questioned the theory of affective conditioning and suggested the mood position of Bower (1981) and Isen (1984) as a possible explanation (Allen and Madden, 1985). Results indicated that there may have been an interaction between subjects' thought processes and the moods invoked by the "background"* stimulus in the ad (in their case, liked versus disliked humor). Music in advertising's possible effects on audience moods thus may complicate the effects of "simple" conditioning by the music. Park and Young (1986) extended this work by examining the impact of music versus no music on attitude toward the brand, the ad, and behavioral intention under conditions of high cognitive, high affective and low involvement towards the advertising situation. Under high cognitive involvement, they found music to be a distraction, lowering these dependent variable scores, because it was unrelated to attribute-based message contents. In the low involvement condition, they found that music (which had been preselected as popular and liked) was associated with more positive attitudes towards the brand than was no music. Under high affective involvement, the expected positive effect of music on brand attitude was not found, probably because the music selected did not really fit the image of the product and affective theme. As Park and Young note, the music, "The Tide is High" by "Blondie" may have been incongruent with the stylish classic beauty of Ingrid Bergman and the consumers' intended selfconcept stressed in the hair shampoo commercials for which this music appeared as background. Since many commercials are viewed in situations which involve consumers who are interested in the programs, and not in the commercials, 114 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES the audience may be largely comprised of potentially uninvolved, nondecisionmaking consumers rather than cognitively active problemsolvers. In this context, emotionally arousing components such as music, colors or lighting may exert strong but subtle influence on viewers' product attitudes and choices. Some of this impact may come via associations conditioned (by advertisements and other cultural learning) and hnked to the advertised products. Others may come through an indirect route resulting from music's influence (for example) on respondents' mood and other emotional responses, which in turn affect information processing. An illustration of music's power to affect subjects' emotional responses was reported in a study by Rohner and Miller (1980), where sedative music showed a trend to decrease anxiety. Another study dealt with persuasion, among other variables. Subjects had greater affective arousal, persuasion affect and attidudinai acceptance of the song's message with guitar accompaniment than without guitar accompaniment (Galizio and Hendrick, 1972). Thus changes in the presentation of music influenced subjects' responses. Structural Music Studies The above studies have provided some insights into the effects of liked music on brand attitudes under some conditions. However, more appears to be involved than music familiarity and popularity in eliciting a mood congruent with the commercial used (Park and Young, 1986). In fact a recent replication of the Gorn study (1982) by Keilaris and Cox (1987) failed to reproduce the positive effect of liked versus disliked music, after controlling for musical structural elements and possible demand effects. They call for research on the influence of music's structural characteristics on cognitive and affective responses (such as consumer mood) toward the ad and the product. Thus we turn to a review of research into the relationship between structural elements of music and audience responses. A study by Milliman (1982) suggests that slow tempo of instrumental background music can significantly slow the pace of in-store traffic flow of supermarket customers, as opposed to fast tempo. In a follow-up study diners stayed longer and consumed more alcoholic beverages when slow tempo instrumental background music was playing than when fast tempo instrumental music was used (Milliman, 1986). An early study dealing with the question of music's effect on shopping behavior found that significantly less time was spent in the stores when the music was loud compared to when it was soft (Smith and Curnow, 1966). These studies are informative regarding possible shopping influence of tempo and loudness, although no information was given concerning the actual music used nor the levels of other musical elements in the selections. In research by Holbrook (1981) and Holbrook and Corfman (1985), PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7, NO 2 ri5~ MUSIC INFLUENCES care was taken to analyze and manipulate elements of musical structure, including tempo, rhythm, dynamics, phrasing, timbre and speed. The dependent variable of interest was preference for the music itself, as affected by the variations in musical elements, rather than variables such as mood and attitudes towards products, with the music taken as background. However, the approach to music's structure was rigorous and could be extended to study its influence on other dependent variables beyond preferences towards the music. Manipulation and analysis of musical material in a study by Infante and Berg (1979) investigated the effects of using two identical melodies, (composed for this research) one in a major mode, and one in a minor mode, on perceptions of communications.* Results indicated that major modality had the greatest positive effect on viewers' perceptions when facial expressions were sad or neutral, and when a situation was unpleasant. Music modality did not affect perception of a happy facial expression nor how favorable a pleasant situation was perceived by viewers. The key basic research relating musical elements to emotional responses was reported by Hevner (1935), who presented subjects with identical pieces, controlling for all elements but major and minor modes. She concluded that all of the historically affirmed characteristics of the two modes were confirmed in her study. In later research, she also reported associations between musical elements such as fast tempo, loud dynamics, lively and varied rhythm, and high register with perceptions of the music as happy, merry, graceful, playful. Musical elements such as slower tempo, quiet dynamics, unvaried rhythm, and low register were reported to be sad, dreamy, and sentimental (Hevner. 1935, 1936). She noted that, although mode is never the sole factor which determines the way music is perceived, it is the most stable, generally understood and influential of any of the elements in expressing the affective mood of music. Meyer's (1956) theory of deviations from expectations in music supports Hevner's findings. He explains that expectations of more regular and normative musical progressions occur in the major modes, and therefore are associated with the more normal human emotional states such as contentment, joy and calm. The minor mode is characterized by more forceful, complex departures from tones found in the major scales, and these deviations have become associated in western culture with feelings of sadness. anguish and suffering. He states that although there are exceptions, minor modes have tended to be played in slower tempi than major modes because Readers may recall that major musical modes are characterized by distances between successive notes or chords (intervals) that are one-half step (halflone) greater than the corresponding minor intervals. Listening to examples cited in Table 1 may reinforce the descriptions of the pieces. Tm SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES the disjunct melodies with unusual skips were technically more difficult to play and sing rapidly. HYPOTHESES The basic design for the present study involves exposing subjects to a range of musical "mood" selections and a range of mood-evoking products within a given category. We test for the effect on subjects' moods and product evaluations of presenting products accompanied by music with varying musical structural profiles. A mixed factorial design was used, in which each group was exposed to three greeting cards, randomly matched with happy, sad or no music playing, while the cards were viewed on brightness-controlled slide pictures. Each music condition was presented therefore with each card, one third of the time (and vice versa for cards), leading to null hypotheses that average responses to each type of music, across a variety of dependent variables, should (in the absence of music structure effects) be equal. However, following from the music research reviewed above, it is expected that: H,: All else equal, music whose structural profile is "happy" will influence listener moods to become more positive than music analyzed a priori as "sad." In addition, we believe that music evokes emotional responses, which may be more important than cognitive processing in the context of an ad with little objective product information. In this instance developing attitudes might not require much focused mental processing. In fact, it has been argued and shown that behavior may emerge without the necessity for clearly developed attitudes. Indeed, from a conditioning perspective, we might hypothesize that music structure, if it has impact on subjects' mood, would be more likely to cause variability in purchase intentions, and to a lesser extent, on perceived attributes and evaluations of the cards. Therefore: Hi: Variations in musical structure may not necessarily influence perceptions of the "happiness" or "sadness" of the greeting cards. Hv Variations in musical structure may not necessarily influence overall attitude towards the greeting cards. H4: Variations in musical structure will influence behavioral intentions towards the greeting cards. The subject would be induced, in effect, into a happy or sad mood while looking at cards and hearing happy or sad music in the background. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING VOL 7, NO 2 ri7" MUSIC INFLUENCES If this mood is appropriate to the one which s/he feels when thinking about communicating with a friend who is away, then the subject may FEEL this card as appropriate in expressing feelings, even if the card itself is not consciously, cognitively processed as "happy" or "sad." When responses appear to be contingent upon stimulus-feeling associations, as in this instance, it may reflect a low-cognitive and peripheral processing situation. Although conditioning theory and a number of studies noted above might support H2-H4, the limitations of the empirical study reported here and the preliminary stage of research into music's impact in advertising suggest that these hypotheses be viewed as tentative. Hence the unusual wording of H2 and H:i. The following section discusses the methods employed regarding sample, stimulus choice and analysis, measurements and the experimental design used to test these notions. METHODOLOGY Pilots Three different friendship greeting cards were sought to be used as conditioned stimuli, one perceived to be happy, one sad and one neutral. Three cards per subject were used in order to improve statistical power through repeated measures, as well as improve generality by sampling from the domain of emotional range for greeting cards. Since a primary main effect was beheved to be the feeling the music evoked, it was felt that the less objective attribute-based and the more affect-based the card was, the less it would interfere with the treatment effects (Gorn, 1982). Therefore, friendship greeting cards appeared to be a logical choice for an emotionally oriented product. After exploratory research and pretesting, three cards, one happy, one sad and one neutral, were used in the treatments. Thirty-five millimeter black and white slides of these cards were used to present them to subjects in the main experiment, accompanied by music* Next, ten classical pieces which were relatively unfamiliar were selected. All of the piano pieces were Preludes and were part of the Book I of the Well Tempered Clavier, by J. S. Bach, indicating stylistic uniformity. Following Hevner (1935, 1936) five pieces predicted to have "happy" Average ratings on a five-point '"sad" (1) to '"happy" (5) scale for Ihe chosen cards were: Happy (4,47, the highest of the pretesled cards); Neutral (3.1); and Sad (2.6. the lowest of the pretested cards). Black and white slides were used to obtain control of looking time and simplify the matching of relative brightness and emoticinal iniensiiy. Black and white slides are often used to simulate advertisements in experimental work (Smith and Hunt. 1978). Ti8 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES moods were in the major mode, and the five "sad" ones were in the minor. Since familiarity influences liking (Bradley, 1971), and unfamiliar unconditioned stimuli produce stronger conditioning than familiar unconditioned stimuli (McSweeney and Bierley, 1984), selections were chosen for unfamiliarity to the general and subject population. Twenty-four subjects not in the main study listened to 30-second excerpts of the ten pieces, which were randomized on a prerecorded tape. Selections were judged as having the Gestalts happy and sad (Biller, Olson, and Breen, 1974), which were included with other adjectives to eliminate demand effects. Respondents indicated how much they liked the piece, whether they would or would not buy the music, and how familiar the music was. Consequently, two pieces rated by respondents as unfamiliar and approximately equally liked but having the Gestalts of happy and sad were analyzed for music structure.* Elements analyzed included the number of major and minor harmonies occurring on the strong beats (Hevner, 1935), fast and slow tempi, loud versus more quiet dynamics, and fast, lively, energetic, versus slower, listless, unvaried rhythms (see Table 1). The analysis indicated support for Hevner's earher findings, in that the two compositions pilot subjects rated as happy versus sad appeared to be those which had internal definiteness and uniformity in harmony, tempo, dynamics and rhythm. The overall profile of the elements analyzed in the two compositions were in strong contrast to each other. These pieces were used to simplify the design and test whether selections with varying profiles of musical elements might produce contrasting effects on respondent mood. The impact of specific elements (and interactions among them) was not tested in the present study. Each of the elements was close to ends of the spectrum that would be associated with happy versus sad music, in a consistent and typical profile for each type. We felt that if the profile did not influence mood and other dependent variables of interest, analysis of specific elements' effects would be of little relevance. As will be noted below, obtaining manipulations with the entire profile suggests a number of subsequent studies, including those designed to examine relative impact of music elements and their interactions. Obtaining equally liked background music selections with contrasting structural profiles was a major purpose of this pilot study. It was somewhat gratifying to note that the pieces analyzed as structurally "happy" versus "sad" were perceived as such when attention was directed solely at the * Average ratings and significance tests for differences between the pieces chosen to represent Happy versus Sad were as follows: Perceived happiness: 4.3 versus 1.8 f = 8 58 p < 0.001; Liking: 3.0 versus 3.2, / = 0.88, p = 0.40, n.s.d.; Would buy: 2.5 versus 2.6, f = 0.55, p = 0.60, n.s.d. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING VOL 7, NO. 2 m~ MUSIC INFLUENCES TABLE 1 Structure Profiles of Music Treatmeuts Feature Levels Description Harmony Selection 1 Major (happy) 53 beats oul of 70 heard were in major, 17 beats in the minor mode. All occurred on the strong beat of the measure. (76% in major) 29 beats out of 33 heard were in minor, all on strong beats. four beats in the major mode. Only one out of four major chords occurred on the strong beat, three occurred on weak beats. (88% in minor) J • = 108 beats per minute as performed by Glen Gould. Subjects heard 70 beats of 104 total beats in selection. J^ = 46 beats per minute as performed by Glen Gould. Subjects heard 33 beats of 188 total beats in selection. Lively (vivace). Selection 2 Minor (sad) Tempo Dynamics Rhythm Music: Selection 1 Fast (happy) Selection 2 Very slow (sad) Selection 1 Loud (happy) Selection 2 Ouiet (sad) Selection 1 Quick (happy) Selection 2 Slow (sad) Expressive (espressivo) throughout. Rapid rhythmic activity alternating between bass and treble. energetic, dynamic movement in 3/8 meter. Slow movement of repeated rhythmic motives in treble; pedal in bass (same note repeated for first 16 beats), slows down harmonic rhythm and overall movement in 4/4 meter. -Prelude III in C # major" from Volume I of The Well Tempered Clavier by J. S, Bach (scleclion 1). ••Prelude XXII m Bb minor" from Volume I of The Well Tempered Clavierby). S. Bach (scleclion 2). music. It remained for the main study to determine, with a more sensitive instrument, whether using these selections as background in simulated advertisements would replicate hypothesized variations on subject's moods in an advertising context. Design and Procedure The experimental subjects were students in three "Principles of Marketing" classes (the groups). Although the use of convenience samples of students limits generalizability, their use in this study seems appropriate for theory application and testing to investigate the basic process of musical influence on emotions and attitudes (Calder, Phillips, and Tybout, 1981). Extensions using other samples would be justified if initial results were stimulating.* The design was a mixed factorial, with repeated measures on 2 factors (card and music) and between subjects for the third factor (group). The Specific musical passages might vary in evoked responsed between student and nonstudent samples, particularly for contemporary or "pop" music. However, responses to Bach preludes used here might not vary substantially. 120 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES TABLE 2 Experimental Design Card/Music Card I Sad Card 2 Happy Card 3 Neutral Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Happy Music Sad Music No Music Sad Music No Music Happy Music No Music Happy Music Sad Music key treatment manipulation was the sad, versus happy, versus no music, paired with different cards, since each group heard the same musical selections randomly matched with identical greeting cards (see Table 2). Across the three groups, each music type appeared first, second, and third an equal number of times to balance for order of musical exposure. Each treatment session was given once during regularly scheduled class periods. Each group heard the experimenter's introduction explaining that the researchers were interested in consumers' preferences for greeting cards and their feelings about their advertisements. They were asked to view the simulated greeting advertisements, some of which would be accompanied by music such as might be found in a commercial. They would be given practice sessions with the mood monitor and rating scales for the greeting cards, followed by the specific cards for which responses and ratings were sought. On the cover sheet of the questionnaire packet, respondents indicated the frequency of greeting card purchases. To restrict the sample to those for whom the product had relevance, persons who did not purchase greeting cards were later discarded from the analysis, leaving 48 usable subjects. Next, the measures were explained and two trial runs of the mood monitor were administered along with sample cards and music. Each trial was followed by practice ratings of the subject's mood, perceived attributes of the greeting card, including overall impression and purchase intention. Then came the first treatment card and music combination, during which subjects used the mood monitor. This was followed by a gap for completing the scales for card attributes, evaluations, and purchase intention. Administering these measurements between treatments was done to lessen memory problems as well as mitigate moods of prior treatment levels. The second and third cards were seen next with the appropriate musical background, accompanied by the same measurements.* Order was balanced within each treatment so that each of the three music conditions was presented equally often in the first, second, and third positions. The effect of the threeorder presentations was tested, and for all cards there was no main effect of order nor any interactions with the other treatments on any of Ihe dependent variables. The responses to ads accompanied by varying music conditions did not vary as a function of presentation order, and there were no significant carry-over effects of moods, following the interval of subjects' providing responses lo the ads. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7, NO 2 ^2^' MUSIC INFLUENCES Measurements Measurements of each subject's feelings/moods were taken while they were exposed to the treatments. Prior to the treatment, subjects were told that the researchers were interested in how ihey feel while viewing the ads. The mood monitor used here is an adaptation of the warmth monitor developed and used by Aaker. Stayman. and Hagerty (1986). The warmth monitor was developed for use in measuring the perceived "warmth" of television commercials, which is analogous to measuring in the present study the perceived "happy/sad" feeling evoked by simulated greeting card commercials. The monitor provides a continuous sensitive measure of respondents' feelings during a commercial and is portable and inexpensive.* Their findings show good levels of reliability (test/retest correlations averaged 0.81) and validity (average correlation with galvanic skin response for warm commercials was 0.67). In the present study, the mood monitor had five scale labels to reflect feelings of "sad, moderately sad. neutral, moderately happy and happy." Subjects moved a pencil down the paper, to the left (sad), or to the right (happy), while viewing the card and hearing the corresponding music, indicating how sad or happy their feelings were at any given time. The monitor was scaled from 0 (sad) to 100 (happy), depending on the pencil line's height from the left anchor, and readings were taken at five evenly spaced percentiles of the respondent's drawn line. Since the illustration was constant, as was the prevailing musical mood throughout the 30-second excerpt, we defined subject mood as the average of five scores. Following the exposure to stimulus slides and music and the simultaneous measurement of mood, respondents turned the page and evaluated the greeting card on a series of ten semantic differentials. Imbedded in this instrument of mostly "placebo" characteristics of cards (e.g., "original/ unoriginal") was a scale designed to measure the perceived mood of the card, scaled as happy sad. The next two measures were overall impression: favorable unfavorable and purchase intention. "If you were going to send a card to a friend, how likely is it that you would buy this card?" would buy it would not buy it. For review and evaluation of alternative methods of measuring emotional responses to advertising, see Aaker. Stayman, and Hagerty (1986). I22 " SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INTLUENCES MOOD MONITOR We want to know how happy or sad you feel as you watch the simulated greeting card commercials. Please record how happy or sad you feel, between "sad" on the left to "happy" on the right. Please move your pencil down the paper as you watch the commercials, moving to the left and right to indicate the sadness or happiness you feel at any given moment.* There are no right or wrong answers. Just chart how you feel as hest you can. Subjects are also shown a sample mood monitor being drawn. They are told to try to keep a constant rate of speed down the page and no look down at Ihe paper too often whUe watching the commercials. Moderately Sad Sad Moderately Neutral Happy Happy 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 FIGURE 1 Mood Monitor and Sample. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7, NO 2 123 MUSIC INFLUENCES RESULTS First, an SPSS partial factorial ANOVA, with repetitions within subjects, was run to test for differences across groups (the rows in Table 2), as well as cards, and music types, for each dependent variable (Nie and Hull, 1981). None of the variables had different mean responses across the three different groups, indicating that all groups responded similarly to the same cards and music conditions. This is useful for two reasons: (1) it enables the analysis of main effects for music and cards in MANOVA and single ANOVAs, which would have been confounded by between-group differences, if present, and (2) it enables a test for interactions between music and card effects (Edwards 1972; Hayes 1985). Normally partial factorial designs assume no interactions. However, the presence of repeated measures per subject (three cards with three varied musical conditions), and absence of differences due to the "groups" blocking variable makes possible the use of two-way ANOVA to test for interaction between the music and card treatments. The repeated measures MANOVAs showed that musical background and greeting card variations had approximately equal influence on the overall profiles of responses. Wilks's Lambda for music was 0.847 {p = 0.031) and 0.850 {p = 0.033) for cards. The music x card interaction was insignificant. Figures 2 and 3 show patterns of means for the music and card effects on the two dependent variables significantly affected by music. Music had a significant effect on the subjects' moods (F = 6.07, p < 0.01), as did the greeting cards (F = 3.13, p < 0.05). Happy music generally produced higher mood monitor "happiness" scores, followed by no music, then sad music, and did so for two of the three cards. This pattern confirms the predictions of the analyses of the pieces' musical structure. For the third card, happy music evoked happier feelings than did sad music, although no music was the lowest in evoked subject mood. For the multiple comparison tests, happy music produced an average subject mood that was higher than either of the other two music conditions. Thus, Hj was confirmed. This pattern was different for perceptions of the card's "mood" per se. The different cards were seen as differently "happy" across the entire sample, controlling for music {F = 22.34, p < 0.01). This may be taken as a manipulation check, as the card pretested as "happiest" was highest in the experiment as well, followed by the cards pretested as "neutral," and "sad," in the same order as the pretest results. On the other hand, controlling for cards, music did not produce significant variations in perceptions of card mood (H^). Even though the means for perceived card "moods" induced by happy music were higher than those for sad music for all three cards, the significance level was approximately p = 0.25. 124 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES 65 60 Emotion Index 55 50 A5 40 Sad Happy Neutral CARDS Happy Music No Music S.id Music FIGURE 2 Subject Mood. Overall impressions (liking) of the cards did not vary signifieantly after the treatments. The musical background also had no significant impact of this measure of card attitude (H,). Again, means were in the right direction, albeit not at conventional significance levels. Card impression with sad music was not significantly higher than with happy music {p = 0.34) and no music (p = 0.11). This was the one significant interaction effect found for music x cards {F = 3.08, p = 0.05), which inhibits the ability to interpret the significance of main effects for this measure. Sad music was more effective than happy music for the neutral card, and slightly better with the sad card, but did not show any difference in card liking for the happy card. This interaction should be interpreted with caution, given that only one of four interactions were significant, and the MANOVA result for music x cards was insignificant (hence this interaction could be specious). A clearer pattern emerged for purchase intention. Cards did not differ overall in purchase intent {F = 1.26, ns). However, the music background did make a difference (F = 3.55, p < 0.05). Further, the multiple comparison results showed the cards appearing with sad music were significantly more likely to be selected than those with happy music, while happy and PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING VOL 7 NO 2 iii" MUSIC INFLUENCES SM 3.6 Purchase Intention 3.2 2.8 ..KM HM 2.4 2.0 Sad Happy Neutral CARDS Happy Music — . — . — .— No M u s i c Sad Music FIGURE 3 Purchase Intention. no music grouped together, and the superiority of sad versus no music was marginally significant {p = 0.06). Thus, H4 was confirmed. DISCUSSION The results of this study are congenial to the hypothesis that variations in the formal music structure of background music in commercials may have significant influence over the emotional responses of an audience. Prior research in consumer behavior had shown that varying specific background music selections along dimensions of familiarity and liking could affect responses to "advertised" products. The present paper extends the discussion to begin to examine what it is about the musical content that may lead to emotional and affective responses among consumers. Different profiles of musical structural elements of modality, tempo, dynamics and rhythm, may, all things being equal, lead to a perception of happy or sad musical content. In this study, equally liked musical backgrounds that differed in their profile of these structural elements were shown to affect audience moods in directions predictable from analysis of 126 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES the musical structure, across a set of simulated greeting card advertisements. This finding has direct relevance to those interested in the impact on mood from factors such as the structural elements in background music. It was noted earlier that simultaneous variation of the entire profile of elements precludes inferences from this study regarding their relative influence on moods and other dependent variables of interest. However, other research suggests the dominance of major versus minor melodies, all else equal. More important, having found that musical structure does make a difference to moods and behavioral intentions towards products "shaded" with music, it may be appropriate to extend the present work with carefully controlled manipulations of specific structural elements of music. To this end, the methodologies employed by Holbrook, ei al. (1981; 1988) may be productively used. The effects of varying background factors such as musical structure were less clearly demonstrated for subjects' perceptions of the greeting cards' moods and their stated liking for the cards. Evidence supportive of music's conditioning effect on card mood was not strong; nor did it demonstrate significant changes in liking for cards presented with different background music. Although significant conditioning effects have been previously reported for single exposures (cf. Stuart, Shimp, and Engle, 1987; Gorn, 1982), advocates of classical conditioning might criticize the use of a single exposure to the messages and lack of reinforcement. * However, evidence of mood-induced influence, whether through conditioning or not, is demonstrated by the effect on purchase intent.t That this may occur in the absence of significant intervening effects on the perceived sadness and even stated liking for a card may be supportive of peripheral path processing in this setting. Given that the advertisements presented no factual claims, motivation to process information via the central route may have been diminished. The presence of music that evokes emotions and other "noninformational" aspects of the ad may also stimulate peripheral processing. Accordingly, one might expect to find influence on behavior (here proxied by behavioral intent) without the necessity of intervening attribute perceptual changes or even significant changes in liking. Although these findings should be considered tentative, given the study's limitations, they were consistent with the views of those who would classify Extensions to field settings would enable lesting repetition effects with lower risk of demand effects than might occur in a laboratory setting. It is also possible that the limited reliability of single-variable scales for card mood and card impression may have lowered chances for significant music effects on these variables. Note, however, that significance was obtained for music's impact on the single-variable measure of purchase intention, and cards differed in their effects on card mood. t Confirmation of the ANOVA results is indicated by the correlation between subject mood and purchase intention (r = -0.355; p < 0.05). Hence, the sadder the person's mood, the more likely to purehase a card for a friend. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7. NO 2 127~ MUSIC INFLUENCES reactions to greeting card advertisements as a low cognitive involvement situation. If so, intervening cognitions might not be affected while behavioral intentions and perhaps behavior could be (Batra and Ray, 1983; Bettman, 1986; Krugman, 1965; Robertson, 1976; Zajonc, 1968). Nevertheless, there is clearly a mixed pattern of results. Whether additional research will show significance for what are here merely directional indications of music affecting card mood and card impression, or whether there will be a continuation of the pattern of stronger impact on behavioral intent than intervening cognitions is unresolved at this point. Further research involving more measures of cognitive and affective responses to music-backed advertisements, and their interactions (Allen and Madden, 1985), will be helpful in explicating the relative roles of peripheral and central route processing in contexts such as these. Such inquiry will also be useful in further developing the managerial implications of these concepts. As a laboratory study, the empirical results here presented may not easily be extended to an external consumption environment. Aside from the obvious questions regarding the responses of other samples to these and other greeting cards in the field, it is not clear whether music's ability to affect moods and shortrun behavioral intentions would last until actual purchase situations. The main purpose of the present study has been to investigate the potential utility of structural analysis and the relationships between hypothetical influences on audience mood and responses to measures of these responses. Having shown potential application of the concepts expressed, it would be useful to extend this work by testing music's effects on moods and intentions for other products, including those for which decisions might be made in the presence of music. Milliman's work (1982; 1986) in store and restaurant environments might provide a useful example for such inquiry. One could also note that situations similar to the present study's context are found in television presentations of products to be ordered by phone. Here the influences on mood and intentions might be sufficient to produce buying. In other contexts repetition of similar advertisements might produce purchase intentions of longer duration, if not toward a specific card (or product), prehaps towards a brand such as Hallmark. Seeing the advertised products in a store could evoke the mood originally stimulated by music in the advertising situation. Although such an outcome is plausible and is supported by the literature (Lutz and Lutz, 1978), further research is needed to test the efficacy of this linking of feelings. It was also interesting to note that sad music was more effective in infiuencing purchase intent than were happy music and silence. As noted earlier, research cited by Gardner (1985) has generally found positive correlations between mood inducers, moods and a number of dependent variables such as evaluations. However, studies such as Caildini and Kenrick (1976) found that older children were more generous when self-generated 128 SUMMER 1990 MUSIC INFLUENCES thought made them sad. As Gardner (1985), and Park and Young (1986) have stated, a key factor is the congruence between associated feelings and behaviors consistent with that advocated in a message. In this situation, college students may have responded more positively to sad emotional evocations (induced by music) in the context of sending greeting cards to distant friends (with messages like "missing you"). Certainly Hallmark positions (verbally and nonverbally) many of their greeting cards to appeal to this market segment and situation. So did AT»feT with their memorable ads supported by the song, "Feelings." What the musical structure may have been able to do in this study was evoke a feeling of melancholy, which may have affectively linked the audience to responding positively to sending greeting cards which were associated with that feeling. The importance of music as a stimulus to emotional response to advertising has both theoretical and practical implications. While the ability to influence mood seems likely, the degree of influence and the desirable direction may vary in other situations. Visits to an amusement park, for example, may be more effectively advertised with happy music than with sad.* Happy and sad may well be multidimensional constructs. Different gradations within these emotions may require different inducers and may in turn produce different responses and behavior. For example, there may be different kinds of sadness (or happiness), influenced by different factors, and may lead to different responses (relaxation after completion of a difficult task, expressions of joy and the like). In addition, music has a host of elements that may be influential, beyond the musical structure. These include the words, artistic interpretation, specific memories that may be associated with the selection, type and period of music and the interaction of all of these with the product and use-situation stressed in the advertisement. Additional research may eventually be able to decompose overall effects into elements of all of these components, taking into account the effect of moderator variables such as the respondents' demographics, personality and lifestyle, cognitive and affective involvement in the communication setting and familiarity with the music. The tasks in pursuing these issues are considerable, but it seems worthwhile to decompose factors such as musical influence into theoretical elements and their combinations. It is encouraging in this process of inquiry to find that predictions from musical theory may be derived that show correspondence in the emotional responses of audiences. To the extent that this phenomenon might be validated in future experiments, it may be possible to provide better Hence future research may be productiveiy directed at the interactions among music type, card type and situation. Happy music may "help" happy cards, when purchased for joyous occasions; sad music may help sad cards more than happy ones, for sad situations, such as funerals. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7. NO 2 i29~ MUSIC INFLUENCES explanation of this source of emotional response to commercials, as well as screen potential advertisements for predicted influences. It seems appropriate that there remain some unresolved issues at this stage of the research into the role of background variables on affective responses and consumer behavior. It has been shown that there may be a plausible link between the profile of music structural elements and audience mood, as well as significant impact on behavioral intentions towards the products advertised with music as background. The precise process by which these messages are formed and processed as information is open to further debate. There are promising suggestions following from research and conceptualizing in the literatures reviewed here. We encourage further efforts to explore complexities within the musical and nonmusical stlmuh in advertising, and their relationships to the responses of consumers. REFERENCES Aaker, D. A., Stayman, D. M., & Hagerty, M. R. (1986). Warmth in advertising; Measurement, Impact, and Sequence Effect. Journal of Consumer Research, /2(March), 365-381. Aaker. D. 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The authors gratefully acknowledge the computational assistance of V. Kumar, the helpful suggestions of Pam Henderson and Doug Stayman, and the cooperation of the students and faculty at St. Edwards University. PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETING/VOL 7. NO 2 133