Part 19 - Cd3wd419.zip - Offline - Wood Harvesting With Hand Tools

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AT MICROFICHE REFERENCE LIBRARY A project of Volunteers in Asia -.--- ooj * l Trm I By: international Labour Office Published by: inter~‘rztionaiLabaur Office Pubikations Branch CH-1211 Geneva 22 SWITZERLAND Available from:iLO Publications international Labour Offic63 CH4211 Geneva 22 SWITZERLAND Reproduced with permisslon. Reproduction of this microfiche document in any form is subjea to the same restrictions as those of the original document. CONTENTS --Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.**.*..........“.... INfRODUCTlON BASIC WQRK AND MAtNTENANCE .......................... SPLITTING MAKING AND WHETSTONES .............................. HAMMER AND WEDGES ............................. TOOL HANDLES 4 6 ................................................... GRINDSTONES 1 TOOLS HAND TOOLS FOR WOOD HARVESTING FILES ..I...‘.. 8 10 12 ..................................... AXES USE AND TYPES OF AXES ................................... 14 MAINTAZNING 16 AN AXE ...................................... MAKING AN AXE HANDLE .................................... 20 SHAFTING 22 AN AXE ......................................... BGW SAWS USE AND TYPES OF DOW SAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CROSS-CUT 24 SAWS TYPES OF CROSS-CUT MAINTENANCE SAWS ................................. TOOLS FOR CROSS-CUT FILING VICES, SELF-MADE FILING VICES, COMMERCIALLY-MADE MAINTAINING A PEG-TOOTH TYPES OF RAKER-TOOTH MAINTAINING SAWS .................... ................................. ......................... CROSS-CUT CROSS-CUT A RAKER-TOOTH SAW ................... SAWS ..................... CROSS-CUT MAJOR OVERHAUL OF CROSS-CUT SAW ................ SAWS ........................ 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 42 THE WORKER CLOTHING, FIRST-AID FOOD, PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT, EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . ..a....................... NUTRITION 44 AND REST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 WORKING POSTURES AND MOVEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 - vi - THE UORKER (continued) WORK PLANNING ACCIDENT AND ORGANlSATZON PREWENTlON . ..e...................... . . . . . . . . . . . ..~..~.................... 52 54 TREE FELLING PREPARATION FOR TREE FELLING . . . . . . . . . . . ..~.............. 58 TREE FELLING WITH AXE AND BDW SAW . . . ..s......~.......... 60 TREE FELLING WITH AXE AND CROSS-CUT 62 SAW . . . . . . . . . . . . ..I.. PRECAUTIONS WHEN MAKING THE UNDERCUT AND THE BACK CUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..s........................... 64 FELLING FELLING TREES LEANING 66 FELLING TREES LEANtNG FELLING TREES IN FELLING OF TREES WITH PLANK BUTTRESSES DIRECTION INTO THE PLANNED . . ..e.................................. TO THE SIDE DENSE TROPICAL .,..................... FORESTS .. ............ .. . . ..~............~. WOdD WASTAGE DUE TO POOR WORKING TECHNIQUES IN FELLlNG .. ... .. ..... ..... ..... ........ .............. .. RELEASING 68 70 72 76 LODGED TREES RELEASING LODGED TREES WITH SIMPLE RELEASING EQUlPMENT LODGED TREES WITH SPECIAL AND MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..v.... DEBRANCHING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 82 AND DEBARKING DEBRANCHING DEBARKING . . . ..m....................................... 84 ... . .. ....... ..... ... ........... .............. . 86 CROSS-CUTTING GENERAL RULES FOR CROSS-CUTTZNG TOOLS FOR CROSS-CUTTING SUPPORTS AND TRESTLES CROSS-CUTTING WLNDFALLS WOOD SPLITTING ................................. CROSS-CUTTTNG 88 90 ................................... OF TREES UNDER TtNSION WOOD WASTAGE IN CUTTING ......................... 92 .................... ..,........................ . ............ .. ......... .. ....... ....... .. 94 96 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 - vii - Page UOOD HANDLING HANDLING AND TRANSPORT BILLETS AND LOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..a....... MANUAL TRANSPORT OF SMALLER-SIZED USE OF SKIDDING SLIDING STACKING PIT-SAWING TRAINING SULC.iES WOOD DOWNHILL AND STORING WOOD . . ..a.. 102 . . . . . . . . . 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 OF WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 n......m........................................ IN UOOD HARVESTING 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 -ooo- INTRODUCTION This vious - training manual IL0 publications: Felling forests - Selection updates and cross-cutting and (1969); and maintenance and amalgamates of tropical of logging the trees following in hand--~- tools pre- natural (1970). These publications were prepared by B. Strehlke, on the basis of substantial inputs from H. Gl;iser and R. Wettstein and with illustrations by B. Schmidle. The first of these two publications dealt with axes, Its English version hand saws and chain sqws. for several years. In 1980, in collaborahas been out of print tion with the FAO, the section dealing with chain saws was expanded to include work in man-made forests and chain-saw maintenance and this was published separately under the title: - Chainsaws in tropical forests .- (Rome, FAO/ILO, 1980). During the last decade, the use of chain saws has spread increasingly to the developing countries where they are found in commercial logging operations, especially in countries with higher wage levels. However, wood harvesting with manual tools continues on a large scale and, with the shift of emphasis to trees grown by rural people, it will gain more importance in the years to come. 2 It is for this reason that a need was felt to compile information excluding machines ard techniques which on basic hood harvesting, in many developing countries are out of reach of the rural populaThis view was fully supported by the participsnts, in an tion. FAO/ECE/lLG Workshop on the Transfer of Basic Technology, held in 1986. For several years it looked as if experience in efficient basic logging and supplies of hand tools of adequate quality would beThis trend has changed thanks to come less and less available. the manufacture of improved forestry tools in several developing countries and the reappearance of logging hand tools in the catalogues of some of the major dealers in forestry tools and equipment. Attempts have also been made in Central Europe and Scandinavia to keep alive experience in manual logging accumulated in previous periods and to encourage further improvement of manual tools and An example of this is the logging sulky of which a techniques. bogie type has been developed only recently. This work manual is supervisors addressed primarily and foremen. to trainers, extension workers, As in the three publications mentioned above, an attempt has been made to use simple terms and to describe as much as possible by means of drawings. Users are encouraged to translate the text into other languages and to copy illustrations in any way they might find useful for training purposes. The the reader following interested in publications: - Equipment training (Geneva, - Basic - Swedish fores+ry the Third World - Handbook on in developing supplementary information planning guides -_I for vocational and education programmes: No. ILO, 1981); technology in forest techniques (Sgnga, appropriate countries ogerations referred to and technical ---_l 17 - ---Forestry (Rome, with_eo_ssibble --I SIDA, 1983); technology (HelsGki, is FAO, 1982); applications for forestry operations FINNIDA, 1986). -in _- 3 The tion Michel vided present publication with E. Fosser. Bagas amended the finance. was Hazel and compiled Cecconi supplemented by edited the B. Strehlke and typed drawings. in collabora- the text and DANIDA p-o- BASIC 4 WORK AND HAINTENANCE TOOLS ----” HAND TOOLS FOR WOQD HARVESTING The following vesting: tools (1) Axe (2) One-man (3) Cross-cut (4) Machete (5) Splitting (6) Wedges (7) Turning (B) Timber (9) Measuring are (weight (10) Caliper (11) Debarking needed between bow saw saw (length efficient and 1.5 approx. (length hammer (for 0.8 for usually (weight about cross-cutting felling, manual wood har- kg) 1 m) 1.20-1.60 2.5 m) kg) and splitting) hook tong and stick (to timber or measure pick tape measure diameter) spade More detailed information is given in: for vocational and technical traininvnd ---.- ---_.- -_._.I._,___,____._._____ -.- -..--..-. --.No._ _ 17 Forestry ILO, 1981). -______-..-___ .-.__...,__--_, (Geneva, --.-- _--.--_ q_lannin_e-guide - _____-.. --EquQment educationgrogrammes: -._--_. 5 07 BASIC 6 WORK AND HAINTENANCE TOOLS FILES The following forest tools. mum to simplify types of An effort For saws Millsaw file, 20 cm, with two round edges small gullets deepening Round fi!e of the big file, gullets For axes Millsaw will has and stocking cross-cut A worn lowering file for commonly made to be used for maintaining keep these to the mini- distribution. single cut, smooth sharpening (1). sort this been be used can (22.4 cutter for and cuts per cm), flat raker teeth and for the jointing saw and for raker. 25 cm, between and other file, 25 constant rakers diameter (2). edged cm, of 12.5 tapered or mm for deepening the tools single cut, blunt for reshaping (3). For handles tool Wood rasps are used for never be used on metal. File or handle should of rasp Files handles (4). They must must never have a length be used without of 12 cm. a handle (5). The files When file or a wire brush and wooden handles A file Care shaping rasp (file teeth card) become which clogged, they must must be kept clean be cleaned with and dry (6). must never be allowed to become rusty, knocked or are best kept in a canvas holder when not in use. dropped 7 0I 03 BASIC 8 GRINDSTONES WORK AND MAINTENANCE TOOLS AND WHETSTONES debarking spades and other cutting $ools, operated by hand or foot are used for reguThey should have a minimum diameter of 50 cm of 10 cm, be made of sandstone or appropriate When not in use, the and be used with water. softening the part of stone must be kept dry to prevent moisture the stone under water. From time to time, the stone must be "dressed", that is, restored to its original circular shape. For sharpening axes, revolving grindstones lar overhauls (1). and a minimum width artificial material be made locally from 20 litres of good can easily cement and 50 litres of quartzitic sand with 1 mm or The sand must be sieved (e.g. with mosparticle size. In be washed and clean from clay or salt. quito netting), an iron tube or rod is needed, about 60 cm length and addition, Grindstones quality smaller 2 cm diameter The with grindstone is a shady place. and 15 cm high. on a board (2b) Exactly in a perfect by After the ling After small the right boards a nail made in The mould It removing centre angle nailed the with to its middle. a wooden mould is approximately (2) which is set up in by 50 cm in size (2a) which are placed 50 of two parts on two supports (2~). consists resting filling the mould grindstone is left water may be with in a trestle water container welded of the mould the iron rod with the mould and securely on the mould (3a). with to dry required grindstone a piece mortar and for about to from of an old compacting three avoid the tyre is too mould, fitted placed, held in it days. forming position carefully, Some sprink- rapid drying. the stone underneath is placed as a (4a). This type of grindstone tools such as hoes and village. is also handy for spades and should sharpening be available agricultural in any Zn addition to grindstones, whetstones are necessary where edged tools are in use for frequently touching them up during the day. They are also used for finishing axes after grindstone work and saws and axes after filing. Whetstones with a coarse and a fine side, of pocket size (5 by 10 cm), are required (5). 9 j0 cm 03 r- 0I BASIC 10 WORK AND MAINTENANCE TOOLS - SPLITTING To avoid and HAMMER AND WEDGES the to lift the splitting The saw blade be kept Wedges should Three Type 2a is of wedges a wedge even under after type reduce and of fall (2) about and are 2.5 splitting, for needed. kg and the edge high shoe wear. In wedge for the can disadvantage off. use: tree angle, felling with a rather opening up closed saw pressure. and a wooden opens absence head the This ring. therefore the break Additionally, a metal 2a. have splinters for They alloys. type the of may be fitted which wooden of wedge saw cut a metal with can head has is a farther shoe, an iron the ring be up head to wear. from metal, felling. be inserted before very and a wooden a narrow a metal with angle than made (pinching), of aluminium if used and replaced wider 2~ saw cut wedges wedges suggested commonly of from dangerous are surface secured Type and For Steel wood. and consists of (1) a weight be made hard heavy cuts 2b have the direction 90 cm long. preferably large Type intended hammer should in sharp. very types the about be made from being caught a splitting handle should also into hammer a straight of tree wood, splitting getting the is It very can convenient be carried in the saw cut saw cut closes. for in the as a measure cross-cutting pocket of and precaution should 01 02 0a 0c BASIC 12 MAKING simple tyre (la) construction is vice the platform two rubber His elbow ing of is practical closed is when the the should and holding two pieces of a piece of wood an old when is is firmly standing correspond handles, for instance of important ensure to The handle of arm, height) should bc made from suitable be used for axe worker tool to It (lb). down held on the the opens when between the platform. height of the open- vice. efficiently. vice The is then length an wood platform (2%). when height extremely The from for the lifted pieces tool and very made a handle. The Good TOOLS TOOL HANDLES This making WORK ANDIMAINTENANCE can during and sharpening. the hooks and hoes, that work can be done should fit the worker and weight size wood other axes, in purposes order to as well, of last are conveniently of Isi the for such hand, tool. a as It long holding time. 13 _- y-- -- __ -,. - v -m-.-5 -am---- ---.*--. -- - -4 - _ _ AXES 14 USE ANO TYPES OF AXES In traditional tool for felling, wood harvesting, the axe cross-cutting, debranching, is used as a un iversal and splitting debarking. The main advantages easy maintenance. However, it is many accidents, Axe to work heavy axe work including should preparation of be for work are the simple and may waste a lot very serious ones. restricted felling to the of tool of wood the felling of very larger ones and to Axes made by local blacksmiths may be quite use if they are properly hardened and well and outfit good for shafted. and cause small trees, debranching. traditional The The axe consists of a steel head fitted to a wooden handle. most important part of the head (1) is the blade (la), ending in The wooden handle is fitted into the eye (1~). the edge (lb). Modern axes are shaped like a wedge and have an oval eye which prevents the handle from turning in the eye. Special However, types in of most axes cases can be used a universal for axe felling and debranching. is used for both jobs. the type of axe shown in the picture is weight should be from 0.8 to 1.5 kg, the on the length of the length of the handle from 60-80 cm, depending The handle should have fawnfoot shape (2) and worker's arms (3). Workers should be able to make handles and be made of strong wood. During transport, the axe to replace broken handles themselves. blade should be secured with a protective cover which can be made from a worn bicycle tyre (2a). easily, 8.g: For professional recommended (2). work, The To keep the axe sharp, course of the day using repeated maintenance is needed a whetstone (see page 8). during the 15 02 03 AXES 16 MAINTAINING AN AXE Taper The axe blade has a curved ening it is important that Heavy axes a stronger Lighter to the Taper and axes used to cut hard blade close to the cutting axes cutting Although be very taper towards the the correct taper and axes UC!', 1 for edge (lb). wood of hard and soft coniferous trees axes may require During edge, is maintained. wood ano frozen edge (la). wood should wood be thinner sharp- red;.Jire close is usually soft, branches may the same taper as for hard wood. gauge The taper of new axes is usually A gauge can be made from a piece the taper of the new axe (2a). If the axe "bites", maintenance. the axe does not penetrate enough big. Adjustments are made during corresponds to the requirements, accordingly. suitable for average conditions. of metal sheet corresponding to This gauge can be used during the taper is too small and if into the wood, the taper is too maintenance and when the taper the taper gauge can be adjusted Oaikmaintenance -----. Hone the or spit wards on with the . : axe several times daily on the whetstone to keep one side with the handle handle up (3b). with a whetstone (3). Use water it moist. Honing is done downdown (3a) and on the other side 17 0I I \ I d 9 \ 4---+-h \ \ \\\ II :’ : I ’ I :’ \ ’ ’~ \ I :’ \ ’1 \ 1 9: :I: v 02 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ @ . r ,>‘:;.. ~~ AXES 18 - MAINTAINING Major This overhaul is the use steps: - - AN AXE (continued) done at intervals of about Major overhaul of the axe. Check curve of edge with a new axe or a curv e gauge A curve gauge can be made locally from a met al, sheet using a new axe to copy the correct curve. If Grind the axe axe from down (5). necessary, - Final correct necessary, holding - a week or long er depen ding is done by th e follow ing axe curve a vice with (2). millsaw on grindstone in zone to left (41 and at the Grind zone 3b only at longer by moving the axe from left blade right honing whetstone the axe in to (see is done as for daily remove burrs and to 3, previous is not available, If a grindstone sharpening. Care must be taken move file away from the cutting fil (1). (la) e (page 61, the 3a, by moving same t ime up a n d inte rvals, i f to ri ght (4). maintenanc polish the e with surface a of page). to a millsaw file file a correct edge. can be u sed f taper. Alwa 19 01 -I-.- AXES 20 NAKXNG AN AXE HANDLE hardwood of high elasticity and To make an axe handle, is taken from the butt end of a young tree or from the The wood must be well seasoned. zones of an old one. have straight fibres and be free of knots and bends, A scantling piece of as sawn (1). is wood indicated seasoned in or squared with an axe out of a suitable Annual rings should run through the scantling drawing (2a). The scantling must be well handle is made. the before the A model of a fawnfoot handle is used for drawing The model can the handle on the scantling (2b). of cardboard. a new handle on a piece A bow saw is used from the scantling An axe Final a wood can for rasp is (see for finished instance, Making handle axe shaping done page The handle is of glass (for an cuts making into the wood the outline be copied to be taken of from off (2~). be used shaping strength outer lt should with the outline a spokeshave of (31, the if handle. available, and (41, a piece 6). by polishing with sandpaper window glass), or a knife. is easier if a vice can be used (see page 12). 0I 02 80mm \ 36m!nb 03 04 AXES 22 SHAFTING AN AXE When shafting - that the blade (1); handle that the centre of axe is placed with surface on a level the the (2). blade done is by the Fit with - Put handle into ment (1, 2). - Take depth - Put the handle wedge into the Test the of for the If the handle, surface of the the axe, for correct the eye of handle out and the eye (5). cut with a knife eye (6). again and correct the alignment (1, the wood rasp axe once more. alignment and wedge protruding is it same if the handle steps: to the cut the the end and into saw ensure: exactly touches and the with of in (4) off the above nails. Note: blade to eye alignment head are following the handle exactly a wood rasp (3). - - be taken the Shafting - must and plane - care an axe, correct, above part of 2). after put the the test or drive If having 2 small head handle of preferably axe align- to the hardw ood a small necessary, taken off adjust the nails across the axe (ba), and wedge about the saw 1 cm reshafted, drive the remaining wood out of from the unwedged side or from the wedge d side and wedge have been removed. Never bur n wood still remaining in the eye: by doing this, the ax e's temper would be lost and it would become useless. If the an axe is eye either once nails 23 BOW SAWS 24 ___---__-_ _..- AND TYPES OF BQW SAWS --USE _...-_ ...-Bow saws are handy vided the wood is For professional oval steel frame protective cover for not felling too hard. and cross-cutting small trees pro- the bow saw should consist of a high-quality use, holding a thin blade under high tension (1). is needed to guard the blade during transport A (la). A one-man bow saw with an asymmetric frame of approx. 100 cm (1). There are also models with a symlength is recommended metric frame and one side of the bow extended into a handle which allows more force in cutting but restricts movement if space is narrow (lb). For a frame of 100 cm length, are 91.5 cm long and usually or raker teeth (2b). the have When stone used the blade becomes dull, it can be re-sharpened with a whet(4). If the saw runs to one side, the whetstone should be on the side to which it is running (5). blades wear out after some time Great care must be taken during soil, sand and stones. starts (2) (2a) a hard-pointed be re-set Hard-pointed discarded. contact with set and (3). saw blades peg teeth When should with blade loses its setting pliers corresponding hard-pointed p inching, and must then be cutting to avoid it 25 0a 0b CROSS-CUT 26 SAWS -- TYPES OF CROSS-CUT SAWS a comprehensive If cross-cut saws are used, The saw must be well maintained quired. Properly maintained easy and efficient. in use and increase production. tool outfit is rein order to make the job saws require less energy For large trees, The saw should be made of high-quality steel. a straight-back type of saw is preferable (la) and for small to The cutting edge should be type. medium trees a hollow-back thicker than the back in order to reduce friction and the risk The length of the saw should be 100 cm plus the of "binding". The saw should be fitted with detachable diameter’ of the tree, A protective (lb) which can easily be screwed on and off. handles cover (1~) is needed to guard the cutting edge during transport. Peg-tooth (2a). type Raker-tooth They cut common do three through the fibres; loose the cut the loose cut - break - remove they are easy to maintain workers. (2b). things fibres; fibres these three saws, saws the first of cutting on alternate actions are done by the peg-tooth raker-tooth of cutters because preferred by professional more skill in maintenance must - third are type saws are faster but require Saw teeth In saws (sawdust) from the kerf. things are done by one tooth. In the three actions is done by a group The second and sides of the kerf. raker following the group of cutters. 27 a 02 0 A CROSS-CUT 28 SAWS - MAINTENANCE The - TOOLS FOR CROSS-CUT -- SAWS maintenance following are tools necessary for peg-tooth type saws: (la) Millsaw (lb) Jointer, self-made file commercial or using a worn (le) Setting iron (If) Setting mercial or file indicator, (1~) Angle gauge (19) Whetstone (Id) Filing grid (lh) Filing (The three self-made metal For setting of pins adjustable I cut) (single the screw-type raker-tooth tvoe - except for - a raker adjuster (2a) necessary; - indicator the is a setting setting same iron. in a fixed a piece of wood and position with an pin.) saws. the same maintenance tools are needed, differences: following hammer length vice of consists com- self-made (or a combined raker adjuster and shaper) and (2b) and a setting anvil (2~) replace the 29 01 0C @ 0C CROSS-CUT 30 SAUS --c-e FILING VICES, A filing vice SELF-MADE -the holds saw Peg-tooth saws are held saws hold the saw-blade must tions can that Saw vices must more. They be steady. of the worker's whether he is A filing vice little be firmly held Swedish saw wedge-shaped straps boards The materials Four vice and Swedish vice centre (2~1, When the cuts these in the is is at and wooden legs (2d) easily cm, held at working the piece elbow into be preferably the height position saw in are is be made easily held of As required, The saw can wooden wedges (1). (2a) enclosing by three screwed from oblique a leather on to between or no or stump. boards connected a vertical transportable. the two tree height. small of built (2b) can posi- should 50 a standing by using piece centre be oblique closing least should from made cuts (2) saw vice and off are erected, is at raker-tooth sitting. sawn value and a comfortable be made easily saw and vertical of maintenance, for vices Opening The or oblique in a length allowing standing and vertical -The elbow commercial firmly have during position Filing changed. easy. can in vertically. be easily must firmly these one of the position. locally-available boards. two 31 115 IOcm IQcm CROSS-CUT 32 SAUS . FlLING VICES, COMMERCIALLY-MADE . Commercially-made filing Two handy examples The filing to Swiss --sit during An engineer’s pieces between arranged are wood the vice using in vario us types. has the advantage of enabling the worker (1). can vice of available given: bench filing are vices in be used a vertical jaws. two wedges as position An oblique (2). a filing vice connected position of by in serting with flap hinges sa w can be the two 33 01 02 CROSS-CUT 34 EAINTAINING The A PEG-TOOTH measures following Hardness CROSS-CUT are Distance of wood points SAW SAU recommended between of two teeth for triangular teeth: Width of gullet between two tezh Height of tooth Hard 17 mm 16 mm 6.0 mm Soft 9 mm 12 mm 0.5 mm 14 mm 15 mm 3.7 mm Mixed hard and soft Maintenance starts a vertical jointing the while by the filing vice. using very little pressure middle of the saw will wear This is adjusted by increased end of the jointing stroke. the saw teeth teeth in the at the end. and the ning The with position saw is firmly held in The jointer is run along (1). In normal use, the more quickly than those pressure at the begin- is continued until all cutter teeth show a small and jointing should stop when this happens. One or a few (if evenly distributed) badly worn or broken teeth are not conFurther jointings will bring them back into the tooth sidered. jointing “flat” line. Cutter teeth filing is done with a 20 cm millsaw file using horistrokes parallel to the lines of a grid attached to the The sharpening angle marked on the grid (2a) is 70° for (2). hard wood and 60' for soft wood. These angles may be copied from figure 3. The top angle (2b) is 38O for hard and soft wood. A to check the sharpening angle and the top angle gauge is needed During filing, the gullet should be lowered at the same (4). time (5). First file one side of the saw, tooth by tooth, and then turn the saw and file the other side. Care must be taken to stop filing when the flat is about to disappear. zontal vice Deburring run lightly 38). done is Setting is saw set 0.5-0.6 (6b). mm for Note: with both along carried The soft the whetstone, sides (as for out with correct wood. a setting indicator is 0.3-0.4 mm for set worn saws may need gulleta --This is best done after having position (7a). The round edge for gulleting (7b). Badly the fine raker-tooth side of saws, (aa) hard which is see page and a wood special and before sharpening begins. marked the gullet depth and of the millsaw file is used 35 01 04 CROSS-CUT 36 TYPES OF RAKER-TOOTH The raker-tooth for felling for professions! are teeth EM') cutters The cross-cut and There types: for raker's the short, and the depth is Correct 4 YMT) can it w 11 cutters will to the raker depth if too short, fine tion. According (1) raker will not not efficient type type of recommended saw is of saw too kerf. transport long chips long, chips is produced. sawdust International sides of fibres. the with the of kerf than cut by the if fibres sufficient (3~). clean to re- However, sawdust Organisation four It shorter A gullet tend by a plane. loose the (Champion (2). of uncut break the produces wood be slightly off cutters followed on both cut break in raker that with two by softer must and hold to for one sufficiently jam is and are which The depth if 1 most followec! be compared (3b) it raker raker teeth, (3a). needed one wood fibres so that too the is This harder work cutters cutters saw use. two the SAWS sross-cutting. (Lance moves CROSS-CUT SAWS have for edges (4); whiskers Standardisa- (5); .:/ _: Is\’ ,, ,- :, 37 ‘$ 0I 02 CROSS-CUT 38 SAWS -- MAlNTAfNlNG A RAKER-TOOTH Maintenance work except is that, held CROSS-CUT the follows raker additionally, at all same times in SAW pattern as for adjustment a vertical saws needed. is position peg-tooth during The saw maintenance work. Jointi is Raker a raker raker is depth should wood (2). and Raker filing The will are be checked saw file be found adjusting is and the as The during filing small under with saw, working soft condi- (3). It Horizontal should top raker chips. possible. the the mm for height angle (1). placed The saw as raker the 0.6-1.0 raker saws is (2a). properly-shaped (3a). the file angles disappears, of done is of angle strokes finished by set, plate wood must flat used filing A top last the easily teeth Filing The depth peg-tooth against guide hard for correctly firmly tool mm for as be 90°. end of Zt the mill- (3b). Cutter piece tool the after way adjuster, indicated until can the with done is same the correct be strokes (4). Holding flush continued file raker be 0.2-0.5 (2b). the exactly The filed tions of in adjustment. over is done 70' should and not is used with the gauge the top tap wood. This strokes when tnd with the flat the with a side exceed gives the is the per pressure frequently of tooth a true in must just about oblique 35' minute. put the with the file be very to must on the when of position be produced. The and picturi? file the of angle 60 an even saw how gentle. disappear. full length file. Check flat almost handle much flat or is Sharpening small left. is 39 0I 02 # & n 03 ^‘,_,’ :‘ /_,;,, ‘, ..)_’ CROSS-CUT 40 MAlNTAINING A RAKER-TOOTH DeburrinJ. Put the whetstone is Be careful (1). Setting For saw the to that the the are set The cutter held in The setting indicator The correct saw set The is the 0.2-0.4 set right mm (4). hammer hammer (5). After other side Note: Setting The with the Those teeth with anvil is saw hand (2a, is for the after is one body, in the saw, and the the taking the back of strokes vice. of the held anvil towards bevels against firm firmly the burrs fingers. the over of side body the cutter. hammer setting 2b). to check wood is 0.1-0.2 set is corrected used hard set the or the placed and put fine remove with very is arm saw to teeth held arm left short setting is The the sharp saw the with If sides the Insufficient strokes. setting of touch hand. first. both to catch left position. not man, SAW (continued) a vertical along a right-handed not in run Check (2). care in the CROSS-CUT SAWS is too position great of the side, the at tooth soft once has turned further with been round (3). wood by removed is anvil saw is each mm, for it the of set the changed and the set. first teeth six normally on either cutter follows end teeth of the saw but filing need the no setting. order can also be reversed. Deepening of gullets, necessary to deepen At the between the rakers (6b) between the rakers and intervals on the gullets with the of about four cutters the millsaw file cutters (4~) with weeks, it and the (6a) and the the round big file. is gullets gullets 41 4 i---- 0.1 - 0,4 mm CROSS-CUT 42 MAJOR OVERHAUL OF CROSS-CUT If saws the is become tooth the correct old points is a new saw It is two of of by length, the the This to 8 cm for old ends a thin and the 2.0 the (3) line curve outwa:-d m saw desired (3b) is (or a (3). the correct drawn between obtained if is by 7 cm for length and 9 cm for to the new tooth can be used tooth spacing. curve to at of position middle a jointing board the with incorrect flexible in correct bent avoid draw bent a straight is to which underneath after The (2). saw to be done also jointer drawn adjust saw marked is is to a new line line can be used board, board the on the If tooth Its necessary is by using A second (I). can it line, be done available, on both shape. ends middle not saw) line best depth. is fixed tooth saw marked straight-back tooth a model. attached also SAWS of can as gullet a scribe with If shaped on the out This line. properly scribe badly SAWS 2.5 the the 1.5 m saw m saw length. Reshaping the the saw is curve facilitated Shears may be found Use of a press In central for deepening files and according workshops, gullets time. if shears central in it and may line instead marked of on files. workshops. also reshaping be useful worn to saws provide (4). a press This saves 43 02 03 THE WORKER 44 CLOTHING, Workers (1) PERSONAL PROfECTlVE should fitting Long trousers. (3) Boots with Safety During Knee The following (7) helmet the (5) (6) non-slip the of loosely nor worker must -- wear: ventilation trees, large-sized first-aid kit standard dressing A full at (8) Rubber (9) Raincoats. the kit work periods, must tightly. to may be advisable it be available: containing for first-aid rainy protection too protectors. A pocket Simple a warning holes. equipment During in too first-aid kept EQUIPMENT soles. with felling preferably jacket, neither operations, felling (4) or shirt (2) In FIRST-AID wear: Long-sleeved colour, EQUIPMENT, open for wounds, treating for site workers carried serious a group should bandages roller of by and . the worker accidents, to be as a workers. have: boots. shelters against should rain be available or sun for (10). use during breaks use: 05 07 -_.) a ,, “i:‘ -‘. ’ I. THE WORKER 46 FOOD, NUTRITION AND REST Wood harvesting The worker heavy is must work therefore and be over a period a good in state of of time is tiring. and health be well fed. He should Under have severe tropical not climate), least 30 hours of Food should and be fats (olive (fruit, two again during of or breaks. humid, productive two (after work breaks meal the can first of two later). in starches proteins (rice, (beans, cheese, oil, eat weather day, be taken in coconut oil, working rich cassava); hot hours six hours and wheat, maize, eggs, and butter); meat, in fish); vitamins vegetables). During hard litres of work liquid carry a container drink not the than should sufficiently mi 1 1 e-t , bananas, in each minutes work more (very a six-hour During work starting conditions climatic be expected. at before a meal day. sweating. and in per day. with hot weather, water, boiled only when thirsty Care must be taken must This but to also replace the body can be replaced. tea at or other regular the salt lose 3 to 4 Workers should beverages and intervals lost during through 47 I)Lr I !J,;. : I I ,< / ;? -: ” , ,: : ,I, THE UORKER 48 UORKING Heavy and work physical working become very by the pulled and can be made easier by prop er working postu movements. can Sawing is POSTURES AND MOVEMENTS upright arms tiring and quite ineffi towards the body, if short stroke and consequently job less only cient the the if body saw remains st s can be made. , saw should carried not . To make the work along only by and its forwards Efficient saws in working as Manual of length and loads. avoid be used The such excessive for same should the whole movement the use be body of of the th e saw. bow 1 saws illustration I principles backwar swinging appl (1) showing y to other and cr the ch jobs, (3). harvesting In load the in efficient the in indicated debarking more the techniques position. wood by supporting are (2) and but muscles working cut such full arm the and tiring often work, lifting the and strain (4). involves back the heavy should strong li fting be ke pt muscles of and carryi straight to the shou legs 49 02 /,.. &&, 03 04 *,,A23 ,.,,. THE WORKER 50 - WORKING POSTURES AND HOVEMENTS (continued) the whole body Zn axe work, changing the weight cut while the upper masters the left-hand near the the worker hand grip (31, work from is the safer moves leg hand and and away supports the stroke by from cut to leg slides the down grip (1). (2) less strenuous. the and the handle. the lf right- 51 01 03 THE UORKER 52 UORK PLANNING AND ORCANISATION Wood harvesting make and the best terrain and of the material raw and low means forest of these and (man-made steep, assortment to be applied type or poles of cut (thinning (roads, natural), waterways) motorised). and planning depend- coppice, accessibility animal, input environment. (fuelwood, natural), to labour the (artificial, (manual, good can order in keeping damage or swampy), cases, while regeneration transport organised systems size of and minimising harvesting kind (flat, all planned different cut), clear be well wGod species, type logs), of cost of on the ing In use production A variety or must of organisation work depends on: the assessment the the determination of the the determination of wood and felling of and of availability other clear and the forest places lines for logs storing to places, be produced; skidding supervisors skilled necessary of working operations shows road assortments lines hand and workers; and maintenance for individual work and transport). tools equipment; different illustration skidding Ihe separation The be harvested; to direction: clearly-instructed and volume network (3), (5) areas (felling an example (I), the felling and short the a harvesting of transport direction wood (6). map direction (4) and indicating (21, the teams the storage 02 ‘. _, THE UORKER 54 ACCIDENT Wood or PREVENTION harvesting is severely may lead kers to extremely injured in serious open stumble slip, tree and Many dangerous. felling and Many wounds. fall in workers are Cutting transport. accidents difficult killed terrain tools occur when or slippery on wor- surfaces. Adequate accident any of wood need to well trained type Workers must be a definite The - - - - Axes, saws and cient number felling from creased to poor. to fall. an position four adequate strong When be and keep of is They condition. must strictly observe safety carry as be required in and type of cut, maintenance. two trees tree be the a tree leaving suffi- may in controlling back in distance before tree falls, and watch the out worker for falling must retreat branches in- forest is about during a sufficiently hinge. the good equipment. and visibility given wear available distance This when be aid regards (1). should helmets, first a minimum lengths undercut following: should workers tree the use adequate must other care are tools A warning Greatest requirement physical They must helping team lengths rules soles and good jobs, workers non-slip is a basic rules. safety felling, in their safety with The therefore and for shoes by - of healthy important tree is harvesting. be set most In prevention to (2). a safe felling 55 :; THE WORKER 56 ACCIDENT PREVENTION Particular care No tree felling During watch should out turning When to bring preferably working are are more tired. parts lodged in trees down keep to reducing the in this hazards. the the period, sliding on hammers of less falling, especially towards this workers by splitting clear frequent described caught trees, or weather. cross-cutting, not spades on stormy and of During concentrate a view done are must techniques with they or people Accidents workers that debarking other be debarking trees axes, used, designed needed debranching, must The is (1). safely or (continued) are working end of manual being range. the harvesting dangerous slopes. day should jobs. are specifically when 57 TREE FELLfN6 58 PREPARATION FOR TREE FELLING The direction felling depend will shape of tree's of on the skidding crown, the the fall, placed The felling opposite working area placed sideways matchet direction, wind, and the on ground the felling around the as cleared, of in (la) direction to are base determined of lean obstacles and (I). the tree, the in on the also This way the of the possibility safely. routes The be carefully on the obstacles retreating When the must at as 45' determined, direction, tree far about is is angles the tree must be well order to prevent the (1~). cleared to cleared, saw from the to rear using blunting are tools the behind necessary is the tree (lb). Two escape easy allow retreat, (Id). the too axe or quickly a (2). 59 01 I , I i I I 0d 02 I I / TREE FELLINC 60 TREE FELLING trees Small For In The is WITH AXE AND BOU SAU are slightly this cut wasted tion of trees, the horizontal should not Axe felling and fall with larger case, back felled it is an axe, axes cut be made more difficult from cutting are used can with to for both the making be done with the because axe maintain the sides the (I). undercut. bow saw too desired much (2). wood direc- (3). of larger trees is allowed only in exceptional cases. 61 !~~ 1‘-‘.. ;&A - TREE FELLING 62 TREE FELLING of Felling and the WITH AXE AND CROSS-CUT and medium- cross-cut trees large-sized saw. SAY process This done is requires with special the axe and skills experience. A proper undercut a hinge Small (2a) to 60’. The cut. In the lo-20 (1~) of the back cut very large diameter, back tree and The felling. l/4 and the guide cuts during l/5 of to lateral tree (la) cut into (2b) of diameter; it should be about the depending are the desired avoid depth trees, (lb) of undercut open should 2-5 at than the back the be about of the about under- up to cut fall, from an angle may penetrate and of fibres should cm higher undercut leaving direction tearing the on shape, necessary, l/3 may be cm higher. Wedging necessary, will be necessary wedging will to also avoid pinching of the force the to fall. tree saw (3). If 01 G 02 03 TREE FELLING 64 - PRECAUTIONS Accurate and done makes felling rations with stump, has WHEN MAKING it been reduces the job timber the greatest can easily safer, facilitates wastage. care and be seen ope- therefore be should Felling By looking precision. whether subsequent a poor or the at a good job felling done. When making the undercut, cisely the felling the undercut in THE-- UNDERCUT AND THE BACK CUT into front of care must direction. (1). If be taken that This be checked can it the necessary, pre- points by undercut standing should be corrected. Sufficient in order in any to by a gust trees more moved of have the making of to sure that they are back 2b in the wind ease back (3). cuts with are placed an axe. must so that intended If cut the tree not 2a shows the penetrates is remain does it (2). the always fall as deeply practically loose anywhere. it it a hinge tree picture, transport facilitate marked that may push and as the cut. buttresses, and the acts of than the undercut precision which control other depth indicated and If maintain direction correct as wood holding necessary is cut, which to can The buttresses and handling in the right remove then should of the position, them be made also log. before with be reTo make it helps if 65 01 0 2 0a 0b 1 1 I I I 03 TREE FELLING 66 , FELLING Trees TREES LEANING leaning felled ln the into particularly workers, such the tree. (3) and planned to the a case, the may entail This When the to avoid wastage of timber. (2) must preparing the axe. The back cut (5) must wood (6) be sawn be done parallel from both with more undercut work sides the have danger penetrate saw starts.pinching, the (1) order in undercut DIRECTION direction felling saw and with maining THE PLANNED FELLING carefully damage (4). INTO and hinge. in to deeply be the into steps two should only to continue the re- 67 01 TREE b8 FELLING -- FELLING --- A tree In TREES can this also the Felling tional and ches). the (b). lean (d) In felled. will be case, direction of LEANING help to larger cases requires TO THE felled at undercut The hinge and larger addition, direct special an (a) (c) on the fall against to save skills, angle of should be the side (e) placed of the the about face should a wedge trees (e.g. SIDE the kept to on from the intended smaller which the lean. felling on the side the tree is side of the lean in excep- to tree. lean is tree growth techniques and young 30' only justified or near equipment buildings) (e.g. win- be 49 0e Q4 a 0C \ ‘\ : 0d r 1 0b 0b 0d I TREE FELLING 70 TREE FELLING Felling DENSE TROPICAL dense in Dense IN tropical undergrowth during its is often to assess Trees forests makes Dead fall. not difficult it For of lean be particularly can branches visible. the FORESTS the to retreat from may be hidden the same dangerous. in reason, the tree crown, the which may be difficult it tree. may be over-mature and may therefore have or hollow rotten centres. Trees are trees fall, from The snap accident are the opposite crown be often will bark and dirt Tree harvesting some extent chain down with (4). trees are Branches (1). trees Climbers When the climbers. other neighbouring felling if are trees area the (2, 3) are off torn or broken may to in around dense the forests tropical base of the tree the reach is and cleared. well the of a length felling 20-30 m beyond The direction. angle between of them 45’. attached Climbers rations when cleared about from other (5). routes Two paths lt or reduced escape should I back each pull backwards risk considerably the tree may swing and to frequently falling and break connected they the off often to the tree be necessary deposited in with saws to by natural hand have saws must clean also the be cut base before of the sawing tree to begins. remove termites. tropical forests although in taken over. the still continues large commercial to ope- 71 ’ TREE 72 FELLING Plank OF TREES WITH PLANK BUTTRESSES buttresses many tree Large at the are with of a height with working height If felling from to build a platform workers will able locally. able and the be able The safe 3-5 m above working and workers ground is (41, to not platform position. this more irregular should steep permit shape ground (21, at at it quickly At (1). standing in quite in a cylindrical level possible, especially do attain may be felled are occur large. ground larger the grown often buttresses plank while have They trees. tropical buttresses becomes large in they plank cross-section Trees common once species trees only FELLING level (3). a convenient ground level. may be necessary terrain. with a sufficiently Experienced material avail- comfort- TREE FELLING 74 FELLING If OF TREES WITH PLANK BUTTRESSES -(continued) felling into the undercut is felled The done is First (la). The back cut zontal (lb) and is necessary horizontal cut is made and the about This technique tree. The must (2a). felling direction smaller one should felling, to be cut it is to the are first again also to cut to stabilise tree into the buttresses one after advisable then to hori- buttresses tree of of the in two opposite the the other, the the larger one insert be may direction be made two and the the shape to cut. oblique Wedging particular (2b) diameter side order have the than on the (1~). instance, have which the the more) begins in push for there usually of then (or buttress buttress may, If cut rear be adapted undercut buttresses The on the buttress is one-third 20 cm higher undercut. rear (Id). assist about made tree lean. of lateral fall the a depth on the on the of buttresses, to finished and To made is of the direction the cut through wedges (2d). (2~). 75 01 TREE FELLING 76 WOOD WASTAGE DUE TO POOR WORKING TECHNIQUES stumps High are Often supervision. which are workers level trees), This to helps skidding Where of The the the wage level in the is one table special of wood to cases be as and low insufficient marks, felling purposes, too cut 1 m above about (e.g. because high. or hollow as and the stump (1~) gives information timber heavily (lb). possible stumps lower make may correspond undercut there butt end, the is split end. at a week's wages on volume or is tree's and this cm 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.057 0.113 0.171 0.100 in can felling or the with an level as, wood fibre will the value of too small (3a), fall is 0.200 0.300 occur also or higher be if the tree undercut insufficient same the results loss: 80 that a risk reducing the to value 60 losses is undercut because the high, 40 an undercut without the price Diameter wood cut, butt control recover- felled may putting comfortable should low height Considerable If for stump 20 40 60 If stump of and operator. following able result in wastage workmanship the more it Except avoid left of Stump find poor FELLIN --- easier. wood more are on the (la). buttressed of they be left to Sometimes ground an indication IN pulled than, (2). the out is of back the log. this no longer in considerable can properly be most guided. wastage dangerous The on the tree valuable TREE FELLING 78 -- WOOD WASTAGE DUE TO --POOR WORKING TECHNIQUES A considerable are amount across felled ridges such The by experienced when determining This will the Efforts to breaking valuable worker the can break will look felling be felled such as break if trees (11, they may be small, hit the loss be considerable. for carefully try cases. Remember that about a point and, obstacles he will to large hollows direction, many in can when (continued) 30' to even on them. avoid heavily either side lean. facilitate The the bu possible trees leaning of out cutting part FELLING lost species broken the is ground Most (3). Although obstacles. caused on the rocks or wood valuable obstacles logs (21, of IN avoid work of hardwood obstructions because a tree species. not unnecessary can cause only reduce cross-cutting serious losses, waste but is also avoided. especially for ‘;; (, i,,: ifi, :$‘-,’ ,,’ Is ‘: ! 1. :. .i ,_ .- ,: I, ; ‘,-;, *<;,‘) ,, ,,_I _‘, r ;‘, ,. :;i.,.,,:t:, : : .‘:.,“. _ :... ’ (” ’ 79 RELEASINQ 80 RELEASING LODGED TREES WITH SIHPLE When thinning stopped this man-made by other is operators open spaces. will help A proper to reduce before deciding Do not walk Do not try Do not fell Do not climb how or trees is to the take said frequently be lodged to and by felling hinge cannot very tree the tree and wedging be avoided. always Th ink dangerous. into first down. a hang-up. below tree which on to tree lodged for suitable (Za), the holding loosen small trees (e.g. the tree wood which the lodged tree. hang-up. to material which is crown. its poles, might wood) split on the backwards slide (la), (3a). Cut the the stump, might remaining preferably easily - Use - Use a pole - Use a manual safe are an adequate hung-up tree on to this this techniques ground avoid but fell.the the to lodging, another Place may then is undercut, work to Recommended - try will BEWARE - dislodging - tree trees a hang-up. called Skilled The trees. TOOLS falling forests, LODGED TREES the help get to position, an connect (1). axe If the a saw tree is with used, it pinched. turning to with may still hook push winch increase if to the to roll butt the necessary. end the pull pull tree the to backwards tree or to one side (2). (3). backwards (4). A pulley place winch in the a 81 01 03 RELEASING 82 SPECIAL If occurs lodging lifting the sulky may also are tree Their 0.5 skid means of facilitating restricted to if suddenly forward is ing Heavy the advisable the is metres. BEUARE - terrain when For down with tractor or animals lodged tree and is lifted move the butt braking, cannot which pulled it draught must the cable the be placed winch pull trees be made in tree from end to by or at used, Sul kies and danger a volume may push the sulky stump. In the ground before manual a skidding a safe abo ut of the the ous workshops. local of handle The (1). line. heavy up to ai d for down it skidding this be dislodged animals to the to the slopes, AND MACHINES may be a convenient and it can Sulkies to sulky. trees stump to use cubic the be used an excellent job. it up from EQUIPMENT a sulky frequently, LODGED TREES sulkv work tractor distance such cases at tach- is lift should ed up be (21. from The th e r7-- I 02 : _ _: L .,.T,‘.’ . .,, ‘,, ,I ” 2’; .’ :::, ,,*:, .. . “,,“.., _,,_,*., ““’ ,__;,,, ,, ,_ .: .,,:,/;‘,. ‘. j -’ ,’ :’ _ _’ DEBRANCHING 84 AND DEBARKIN I, 3 +‘I .d DEBRANCHING :^- :. Debranching may be a rather coniferous branches, thin branch severe, and hits is as far that as (1) Debranching are cut the If trees After turn off are w ith poles wh ich accidents stroke t he misses especially or to the stroke towards the top tension, it under from distance flush with branched, tree and the upper (2a). care to keep side, the tree the direct part logs towards to some debranching cut always and the to of heavily from trees a powerful may happen never proceeds remaining branches if side and thick them cut small causes easily on the usually branches and This essential possible cut is leg. For in young ? to s tand workers. therefore It job an axe. especially be used. also especially the inexperienced with can a dangerous is be quite may done is a matchet Debranching to It trees. job, time-consuming opposite the away of the branc from base and h the tree. body. Zf may be preferable their the legs, rst fi subsequent1 Y stem. must the be taken working a turning to space hook (2) remove c.ut clear. is needed to 02 00 ;,.. ‘,.‘,‘i\.:I,. I:>: ,.,,,: ; ) ,I, /,. : , ‘Yc, ; -.:, ,i‘,s,> 86 “, : _. DEBRANCHING DEBARKING as control of wood may be required acceleration of insects, of for is weight in Debarking .., AND DEBARKING instance used Large with for transport pulp wood, tanning, industries debarking lf manual be used. should be requiring machines debarking is As debarking suitable for or simply or the for a variety of reasons such of wood seasoning, reduction the demand for wood without bark, demand for the bark itself if it debarked installed required, demands the job in be used to and tough are usually plant. equipped a variety of diffe,-ent and effort, much time and be handled efficiently. Debarking of smallto medium-sized of which different barking spades, debarking spade is used for harder for softer bark, to permit working Axes may too thick wood the debark trees or for the debarking tools tools can logs is usually done with models exist. A short-handled bark (la), a long-handled in longer strokes (lb). de- their butt spade. It may be necessary to debark large logs of trees which have very thick and strong bark. iron spoon should be used which permits, if bark loose and peeling it off with the spoon ends the if broad-leaved In such necessary, (2). the debranching, debarking. a turning hook may be needed to turn bark is tropical cases, an beating the Machetes are sometimes used for peeling off the thin bark They are less efficient smaller trees, such as eucalyptus. less convenient than debarking spades and should therefore restricted to occasional work on a small scale. As in during one of and be logs ,’ Li ‘\ @ - 84 .‘”\‘ LI / ( Ir/-. ~ d, ml I :“, ,- ,, (I S”,, ., ‘2. , : ( -., j,’ . ‘. CROSS-CUTTIN 88 SENERAL RULES FOR C,ROSS-CUTTING If the tree operation the time spent the presence having felling of the the to qualified forest to avoid tree. in cross-cutting, by the same or timber grading this team and delays However, supervisors knowledge greatest the during the to should which additional this process availability of only unless into avoid losses be thoroughly begins. grading bottom rel,uires workers fuelwood is of different uniform log in cross-cutting inspected for Clear instructions logs. Simply should trees cutting may result lengths proper much in wastage utilisation. A single tree may be cut higher-quality (lb), plant siderably increase many sawmills, forest cases, shape trees should therefore trees with size, however, the /* is and degree little logs of must quality recovery (2). depend should normally (3). Skilled saw of the logs to cross-cutting be cut taper for in into Minimum on transport be cross-cut for can con- operation. go from straight In assessed Heavily lengths and logs conversion. mill. shorter into instance, grading be carefully the for lower-quality returns common will bends fuelwood economic assortments: (la), (1~). sawmill further a reasonable Crooked and it without tree the the different into for logs chipboard tween required cross-cutting for given the is They before grading from care trees, valuable In in for a landing debranching and on getting basic to be produced. The be skidded be done should does to not is maximum to such allow tapering than log straight length and facilities. in the bend and not be- a .-- TOOLS FOR CROSS-CUTTING For cross-cutting support should be contact of sharp support can easily (see page forest Bow saws Above the are To avoid pinching suring sticks, for of saw cutting e.g. for fuelwood, the This facilitates tool with the ground. spot and transported up to a diameter a portable job and This avoids of type the within 92). handy cross-cut (1). used be made on the diameters Furthermore, trees, small-sized cross-cutting 20 cm, the bow saw should wedging is of be replaced 20 cm (2). by the (3). of tools tapes the for saw, correct or calipers. measuring required are needed, (4). such as mea- 91 c- _,A - --- 02 2Ocm CROSS-CUTTING 92 SUPPORTS -AND TRESTLES These are barking or made and when quickly used and cross-cutting many sharp for stand, cases, supports using work and a longer an aid as the in In yard. timber remain locally for the at done is work if s;Jch more not is tis roadside, and easily tool done de- landing Moreover, trestles. time work edges close the to ground. A forked rested branch i s the against !7~~~ataaI a standing trestles tree of consist be made can easily and a bow saw. Dry and are made end of are square The low on one in on three dovetail 12 cm thick and about 7.5 cuts from it of is longer 10 cm higher notches made positions for such as a log must than the fitted The of are be so top the poles which can be put turner or a sappie. an axe the cuts of the legs dovetail cuts. 200 cm long 25 mm deep are made about are 70 cm and the into the extended post on to provide the and 80 Grn long dovetail 65 cm apart. into This of than a post fitted end They ends be about post. legs. two Two dovetail inserted should if tools into legs lower in the end. feet log The cuts They Their used. cons ists dovetail and no other is a pole (I). post (2). and supporting forest with post (4) the the wood (3) cm thick. below. the the of a wooden light The 40 cm from in forest trestle 20 cm and top the sides (4a). means easiest The that dovetail leg and three trestle two resting by tools 93 8’ ’ 3Qcm Jb -----.-.-.b--- ---4 - ,&cc--y 36cm J r- 5Ocm --- 0I 80 - IOOcm -.-g- -- ‘-r .- ---+L --^ dir - CROSS-CUTTING 94 - CROSS-r, - TIN6 OF TREES UNDER TENSION Cross-cutting also of through pinch special Tension can may (la). side is the often cross-cutting then lower the be made be should and If saw. is not tension under jamming to under may cause be avoided loss of wood and as much as possible techniques. this If tension This should trees be place of by possible, and the done continued side putting supports under the tree e.g. in a tree where the upper lower side is accessible, then reduced from the under under the until (lb) the tension, tree an (2a). starts should start from above until the saw starts be continued from below (2~) unless wedging is should effort In sawing and saw (1~). above is tree a support below from this case, jamming (2b) feasible and sufficient. In windfalls, shown in such cases on cross-cutting pages cases also 98 to and 99, avoid be useful under a pressure cracking. in tension other rope Such harvesting is very or cable equipment operations. common. can may As be in used special *r- &A2&..- _ -. h CROSS-CUTTING 96 -. NOOD WASTAGE IN losses of is cut minimal into (lb). Furthermore, ment If CROSS-CUTTING with Cross--cutting wood, 30 of stacking cross-cuts axes per lengths amount and on of wood less. 1 m or and avoided the total be of well as denser logs are not made the side crack. This may be an at an since is under tension advantage in special would have to be split However, valuable logs should to fuelwood quality (3a, 3b). into anyway never saw loading utilisation which In (la). volume cut be in large-sized may occur wastes less effort allows more saw cut as from The requires a clean Cutting log should cent is usually lost during rective cross-cutting. the -, -I_- than axe precise wood a work mrasure- transport. angle of logs may causes (2a), 90' require fuelwood log the by or wood cor- circumstances reduced if cnly to when pulowood. careless I:utLing 97 @ ic /r- -,i 11L._ . 02 --++----h- cc \eLLI--’ ----A,f b-j’ 3. -----rL-e--~-~-~* -. L__ CUTTING 98 UIZJDFALLS - _..- the wood is often under high Windfalls are dangerous to cut: the working place is sometimes restricted and the tree tension; Stumps may tip forward or backward when cut difficult to get at. Therefore, the worker must be well trained loose from the trunk. and experienced in order to avoid accidents and to reduce the loss of wood. Chain saws have a definite advantage over hand saws in clearing windfalls as they can be more easily handled in restricted space compared to a crass-cut saw, only one man is exposed to and, They permit special techniques for cutting wood under danger. FlJrthermore, in extensive windfalls without cracking. tension where there is a danger of wood deterioration through insects and fungi, chain saws help to speed up the operation. Wind-fallen entered. the top areas are attacked from the When working with hand tools, end by debranching and cross-cutting where the wind has are worked up from to release tension. from the stump, special care must be taken of the stump turning over. To avoid the different means of support can the sawyers, of wood or a stone (la), a pole (lb), or When cutting the tree if there is a danger stump moving towards a piece be used, e.g. a cable side trees (1~). cutting therefore whilst they off the tree, stumps may fall back. make sure that nobody is standing After must are The behind sawyers the stump sawing. loose soil, the base of the tree may be pressed on the ground. this case, it is necessary to dig a trench to allow salvage of the valuable butt end (2a). In In Cutting losses pressure Work after of tensioned trees in through cracking (2b). ropes or chains (3). in windfalls cross-cutting is windfalls may easily result in wood This risk can be reduced through greatly facilitated to storage places if which the are wood easy is skidded of access. 0 1 0 2 0a 0 3 Ob / 100 WOOD SPLITTING -_Ic 1-- To handling make and transport of time required ceeding 20 cm is often split of splitting tools, bigger to reduce remain It for kood be necessary to spl it good quality The hammer should weigh about about 90 cm long, with 2 knob head should not be used (2). requires wedge with Since the the crack a wooden head way wood species, wood pieces of fuelwood to be easier do3d and a diameter in the exabsence quality often as fence posts. unutilised. Splitting the of seasoning, wocc? of d;+@r- Lt-c:q-cutting. the may also wood pieces short splits splitting which which end of opens 2.5 more the (3). billet on kg difficult and hammers and have and wedges. handle, a straight Steel wedges with a mushrooni The safest wedge is a steel socket a steel ring (3). a lot must be a few blows the used (1). differs easily, hammer is splitting techniques splits splitting and wood end to further of depending on the modified accordingly. with cutting the split, wedges the billet will is a wedge may be tree For side of suffice. inserted needed For near as the 101 0 2 I I WOOD HANDLING 102 ---HANDLlNG BILLETS simple In absence and of and the pick up A timber pieces of Different (21, hooks of the pick makes wood (lb). types of timber of the worker tool is particularly made more billets are such wood hand sappie logs (5). is helping it moving of logs with handy small but pick are a short is easier has to may be if tongs (4). ones can bend down (?a). small as metal such handle, wooden former muddy up and handle available, timber the worker which to tools and the ground, easier much picks tools, the handling (3) and used. from used for A model for a hook 42 cm iong. a hook 28 cm long. typically lifting heavier A 1ighi:er Sappies are them Alpine skidding of logs logs during tree gravity handling -- fitting the The latter be locally easily. The (7). -I___---_-__ AND LOGS -a stacking helping tools Loading AND TRANSPORT In the used or for short-distance logs has a handle model has a handle skidding 190 cm long and 110 cm long and pulling logs (6) and for turning countries they were widely user; for and continue to be indispensable in felling and transport. for of 103 0 2 s UOOD HANDLING 104 .- ---..h”..- we- HANIJAL TRANSPORT OF SHALLER-SIZED ---Carrying is wood a heavy manually should inefficient and be job avoided which distances Small place logs can be pulled more easily using skidding tongs (2). The close to facilitate If the the a few the log is much only as possible. permissible It over (1). metres to as to tong achieve stacking the should be a lifting or loading attached effect and thus pulling. terrain excellent means transport over for of end just _I- WOOD short of AND TRANSPORT a charcoal and of short kiln ground cover assembling distances, (3). permit, loads e.g. the of for wheelbarrow short taking pieces wood is of to wood an for a site 10s ___c_____e-rf. - - -. ,C_ ---* _ WOOD HANDLING 106 USE OF SKIDDING skidding small-sized consist up to of gravity. the built with handling of slopes. Loads single logs or bundles and may have a weight of loads are attached at the centre On flat terrain, kg. the load is shifted more toOn increasing slopes, Skidding sulkies can be back to serve as a brake. 2 wheels (la) or with 4 wheels latter type is more sophisticated The (lb). transport of 200 wards SULKIES sulky (1) is used for short-distance especially downhill on moderate logs, The can AND TRANSPORT of larger loads and negotiating fixed to bogie but permits rougher axles the condi- surface tions. Two sulkies can also be to connected the load is guided by this case, in the rear. the rear On slopes, close to the ground to facilitate On steep can be ched to terrain, two connected trees by (3a). pull up the empty it by the handle. sulkies may skid bigger logs (2). In one handle in the front and one part of the log should hang rapid be braking operated when required. together (3). They a cable which is guided by two pulleys attaThe loaded sulky (3b) can thus be used to one (3c), together with the worker, who guides 0 3 WOOD HANDLIN6 108 AND TRANSPORT - SLIDZNG Timber YOOD DOWNHILL -chutes are downhill wood used sliding small logs or short with a gradient of 25% or more pieces for on slopes of (1). Plastic chutes are commercially available in sections of 5 m and At a diameter of 40 cm, the chutes with a diameter of 35-50 cm. logs up to a length of 5 m and short pieces to a diameter can take of 30 cm. may be used Chutes able conditions, distance. that over distances 2 m3 stacked may of up to 150 m. be transported Under per favour- hour over chutes are easily assembled thanks to Commercially-available different connecting systems. Chutes may be made locally from plastic tubes cut lengthwise or from other materials, e.g. wooden although these are heavier and more difficult to handle. boards, In clearfelling to the (2). areas roadside They can necessary, at properly, can across on moderate trees subsequently which slopes, have logs been may be rolled felled up the be out into shorter assortments, This techrique, if the foot of the slope. save considerable expense in skidding. down slope if applied 109 0 1 0 2 STACKING 110 Proper stacking of seasoning, rat i on. Stacking the embankment road poles accessible for Short wood is (Za). The at the weight reduces and Logs wood if should if and should be roadside prior provides possible this AND STORING be done on on loading supports aids deterio- transport protection facilitates placed to OF WOOD against the side higher of (1). (‘!a) a!ld be easily loading. usually stacks piled should in stacks which also require supports be firmly secured by one or more stakes (Zb). Small-sized and is thus material more easily used for handled fuel and can be marketed bundled (3). prior to stacking 0 P b 2 0 3 PIT-SAWING Pit-sawing continues to be It is used for countries. site without transporting locally as building material Pit-sawing provides kets. Pits widespread in rural areas of developing cutting boards and planks at the felling The sawnwood is mainly used the logs. but sometimes it reaches distant marjobs for many thousands of workers. and large logs are easily rolled across for sawing. more convenient to set up a stand on which the log The saw cut is marked with a string soaked in moist is placed (1). A plumb line is fixed to the end of the cut dust (fines). charcoal This worker should to guide the worker standing on the ground. The saw hat as a protection against sawdust. wear a wide-brimmed only on the way down but the worker standing on the log has cuts the heavier job because he has to lift the saw up to shoulder Therefore, height. both workers should change places regularly. are However, pit The saws may handles an upper dug it is Depending on log size, saw is tapering in shape (2). Different types vary in length from 150 to 300 cm. An example is given of a lower handle (3a) are used. both of which must be easily removable. handle (3b), The shape and sire of the teeth is indicated in illustration The height of teeth is from 15 to 20 mm, the distance from front edge angle varies from to tooth from 20 to 25 mm, the 100 to 1050 and the near edge angle from 20 to 25 mm. includes Maintenance - jointing - gulleting - sharpening the saw); - of of saw following saws); millsaw round-edge teeth (as (with for 4. tooth operations: cross-cut for (with setting 0,8 - (as the pit of and millsaw triangular file); at an angle cross-cut of saws, 90' with saw set mm); bevelling about The measures wood. pointing (teeth away are given a slight bevel of 50). given must be adapted to size of log and hardness of 113 01 0 2 nh 0 3 0 b I” u TRAINING 114 IN UOOD HARVESTING whether done with hand tools or with machines, Wood harvesting, lf it is done by unskilled percan be a heavy and dangerous job. with poor tools and inadequate working techniques, it generally sons results in excessive effort, numerous accidents, low productivity training is indispensable For this reason, and also in wood waste. not only for professional forest workers but also for occasional wood cutters such as rural people harvesting fuelwood or constructio poles. must be adapted to the special conditions lt must be done on the job, as much as possible of wood harvesting. in a practical way aid on a short-term basis with follow-up visits. It should always be based on locally-available tools and equipment. may be lost if tools are brought just for The benefits of training the sake of training which cannot be bought locally or which are Under such conditions, it is too expensive for village people, important for the trainer to ensure that tools and tool handles made by rural artisans or sold by local hardware shops meet the requirements as much as possible. Obviously, training such skills are passed on from one generation to the next. axe is the only wood harvesting tool, this transfer of However, skills normally produces quite experienced axe workers. tools and helping tools requires the use of saws, saw maintenance additional knowledge and skill for which training is needed. Traditionally, Where the Training of professional forest workers may last several weeks in levels of productivity with new tools the occasional wood cutter, the minimum would be a one-to-two day demonstration, but a one-week period including demonstrations and on-the-job practice would be prefeThis type of training should concentrate on safe working rable. habits, reduction of physical effort and optimal wood utilisation more than on high productivity. order to reach acceptable For and working methods. The trainee is provided with information, demonstrations and practice regarding tools and tool maintenance, safety rules, directional tree felling, debranching, cross-cutting, splitting, stacking and For the maintenance of tools, transport as required for his job. especially saws and wooden handles, it may be necessary to train specially selected persons who take care of this aspect for a group of workers. Training will the trainee, correct the be readily Follow-up work. if accepted visits are it brings needed to obvious benefits to further improve and 115 I-- He will only be plays a crucial role i n traini n9= if he a nd is able to he is perfectly skilled h imself Ide ally, instructors communicate in the language spoken lo tally. i nw ood h arvesting should themselves have extensive expe rience and should undergo special training a s instru cto rs fo r several The instructor accepted if months. Training technical subject of instructors co-operation may be requested for wood harv esting F urther activitlas, i s i nclud ed in IL0 i nfo rmati on on this from: Forestry and Wood lndustrie International Labour Office CH-1211 GENEVA, 22, 5 Specia lis t, 9 Switzerland. Please contents ment send of to the any comments this training same address, which you mi ght wish to make on the manual and suggesti its improveons for