The Ubd And Rad Connection

Transcript

UbD Meets Neuroscience: Applying What We Know presented by Jay McTighe Judy Wills, M.D., M.Ed. [email protected] [email protected] Applying What We Know UbD Meets Neuroscience: Applying What We Know presented by Jay McTighe and Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed. The confluence of research on learning from cognitive psychology, neuroscience and studies of student achievement provide educators with unprecedented knowledge. In this session, we will examine this research and its practical implications for curriculum, assessment, instruction and classroom climate. Participants will be actively engaged in exploring the following questions: • What does current brain research tell us about the most effective approaches for learning? • How can we construct a more coherent and relevant curriculum from the learners’ perspective? • How should we teach for understanding and transfer? • What assessment practices will promote learning, not simply measure it? • How does stress impact learning? • What motivates learners to try their best? What factors negatively affect student motivation? • How can we improve student performance on standardized tests without excessive “test prep?” ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 2 Applying What We Know Thinking about Learning Directions: Select one of the following statements with which you agree. Explain why you agree, and, if possible, give an example to illustrate the idea. 1. Learning is purposeful and contextual. Learning is enhanced when the learner sees “the reasons why,” understands ways in which the knowledge can be used, and feels a need to learn it. 2. New learning is built on prior knowledge. Learners use their experiences and background knowledge to actively construct meaning about themselves and the world around them. 3. Learning must be guided by generalized principles in order to be widely applicable. Experts organize or chunk their knowledge around transferable core concepts (“big ideas”) that guide their thinking about the domain and help them integrate new knowledge. 4. Learning is deepened when learners engage in thinking and actively processing new information. Different types of thinking, such as classification, prediction, analysis, inferential reasoning, and metacognition (i.e., thinking about thinking), mediate and enhance learning. Knowledge learned at the level of rote memory rarely transfers; i.e., cannot be applied to new situations. 5. Learning can be enhanced through social interaction, interpersonal inquiry, and communications with others. 6. Feedback is fundamental to improving learning and performance. The most helpful feedback is timely, specific, descriptive, and understandable to the learner in response to meaningful inquiries and applications. 7. Emotional and motivational factors affect learning. A learner’s emotional state, beliefs, interests, goals, preferred ways of learning and sense of self affect their attention, focus, and effort. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis thoughts... ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ page 3 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Stage 3 – Instruction and Learning Plan: Stage 2 – Include authentic performance tasks & rubrics among the assessments The Stage 1 – Frame content through “big ideas” and essential questions UbD & RAD Elements RAS strategies: reduce perception of threat and increase curiosity and prediction The amygdala is a part of limbic system that is found in the temporal lobe of the brain. The amygdala can be thought of as a “fork in the road” or a “switching station” on the way to the “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex). After information passes through the RAS, it enters the amygdala. The amygdala then directs the information to one of two places. The information can be sent to either the lower REACTIVE brain or to the REFLECTIVE “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex). In the reactive lower brain, information is responded to with an automatic fight, flight or freeze response. To pass through amygdala to PFC, the brain cannot be in a reactive state of high stress (that includes prolonged boredom or frustration). Promotion of conduction to the PFC includes instruction and authentic performance tasks that incorporate personal relevance, achievable challenge, scaffolding (rubrics) & evidence of incremental progress. The attention (intake) filter called the Reticular Activating System (RAS) is not under voluntary control. If information not “selected” for intake it cannot become memory. Intake determined by perceived threat or curiosity. The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature – well into the 20s. The prefrontal cortex is center of executive functions and directs conscious thought, logic, and judgment as well as responding reflectively instead of reacting to emotions. Because the PFC is most actively developing the executive function networks during the school years, these circuits need to be used for the brain to develop critical analysis, judgment, creative problem solving, and goal-directed behavior. Overly directed-instruction of predigested facts limits the exercise needed for the brain to maximize development of executive functions. Ideal input for executive function activation is curriculum designed around core concepts and essential questions. Neuroscience – How/why it works The UbD and RAD Connection – How and Why it Works Applying What We Know page 4 Patterning theory (as reason for activation of prior knowledge) because new sensory intake must be linked to a related memory circuit in the hippocampus to become short-term memory. After this encoding process, the newly enlarged relational memory circuit goes to the PFC where it must be stimulated (mental manipulation) for it to become long-term memory. This is the process of neuroplasticity Neuroplasticity is the neurological basis of concept construction and long-term memory. “Mental manipulation”, categorizing activities, repeated and multisensory practice, and prediction with feedback promote the structural changes resulting in long-term memory. Further A-M-T strategies promote the connections among separately constructed memory tracts to develop more extensive relational networks of conceptual knowledge. • On-going The dopamine-reward centers (nucleus accumbens) are small sacs of pure dopamine deep inside each (formative) hemisphere of the brain. They directly send dopamine into the PFC. When predictions are made using assessments stored memory the release of dopamine, and its associated pleasure response, increases or decreases (e.g., white based on feedback that the prediction was correct or incorrect. Ongoing assessment that incorporates boards, exit cards) prediction with timely corrective feedback promotes changes in dopamine release resulting in neuroplastic strengthening of the networks that were used to make accurate predictions (decisions, answers) and rewiring of networks that made incorrect predictions. • SelfDopamine is a neurotransmitter that promotes pleasure, well-being, motivation, attention, and Assessment, perseverance. Strategies can be used to promote whole brain release of dopamine from synapses (in Reflection and contrast to the local blast of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens to the PFC). Goal Setting Self-assessment built by teacher-guided recognition of incremental progress toward desired goals (student interests linked to required standards so they want to know what they have to learn.). Awareness of incremental progress (like the computer game model) increases dopamine release. This metacognition is a key brain element that uses the intrinsic reinforcement of dopamine to replace negativity with motivation and promote self-directed goal-development. Students need guidance to recognize that effort toward goals results in progress, as they don’t yet have the executive function to make that association. • Preassessments • Hooks • A-M-T Strategies • Graphic organizers (continued) The UbD and RAD Connection – How and Why it Works Applying What We Know ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 5 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis • AMT actively engages students in “constructing meaning,” promotes thinking (“minds on” vs. passive) learning. • Pre-assessments allow teachers to check (and build on) prior knowledge, they reveal misconceptions, and they activate and focus attention. • Engage student attention; establish interest and purpose. • Authentic tasks provide relevance and worthy learning targets (the “game” in athletics). • These provide an organizing schema for taking in and connecting new information (“conceptual Velcro”). Cognitive Science – How/why it works a. Provide an organizing frame for integrating new information b. Supports connect new information w/ prior knowledge c. Gives shape to thought (makes the “invisible visible” d. Assists in generating ideas (beyond the information given) • Process guides • Process guides provide a step-by-step protocol for various ways of thinking and (Using “theory-embedded” tools) meaning making (conceptual “training wheels”) • On-going (formative) • Provide feedback to teachers to help them adjust instruction if/when students aren’t assessments “getting it.” Provide feedback to learners on specific ways they can improve. (e.g., white boards, exit cards) • Self-Assessment, Reflection • Actively involves the learners in self-assessing and focusing their future efforts. and Goal Setting • Graphic organizers - Stage 1 – Frame content through “big ideas” and essential questions Stage 2 – Include authentic performance tasks & rubrics among the assessments Stage 3 – Instruction and Learning Plan: • Pre-assessments (e.g., KWL) • Hooks (RAS promoting strategies) A-M-T Show various strategies including the new UbD Template UbD & RAD Elements (continued) The UbD and RAD Connection – How and Why it Works Applying What We Know page 6 Applying What We Know Variables Influencing Student Focus and Effort Research has identified the following variables that impact a learner’s willingness to put forth effort. Both Understanding by Design and RAD Instruction address these variables in ways that support students and their learning. climate acceptance comfort teacher safety peers physical psychological task clarity • clear goals • known tasks • public criteria • models ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis utility/ relevance • big ideas • essential questions • authentic tasks • personal/cultural connections perceived capacity to succeed • responsive teaching • personalized support • celebrating achievement and growth page 7 Applying What We Know The Brain’s Structures -- Viewed from the Left The Brain’s Prediction -- Reward Circuit ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 8 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning R.A.D. LEARNING and TEACHING The first step in understanding how the brain turns sensory input into knowledge, is to ex plore the three main concepts of R.A.D. learning and teaching. Each letter in the acronym R.A.D. stands for both a physical feature of the brain and a corresponding word that represents how that brain feature is connected to learning and teaching. R.A.D. LEARNING and TEACHING = R+A+D Reach + Attitude + Develop Reticular Activating System + Amygdala + Dopamine R = REACH students attention (RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM)   A = Cultivate a positive ATTITUDE and reduce stress (AMYGDALA)   D = DEVELOP memory (DOPAMINE) Part 1: Reaching Attention and the Reticular Activating System R Reach your students by making sure that the information they need to learn passes through the brain’s sensory filter – the Reticular Activating System (R.A.S) The Reticular Activating System (RAS) which is in the lower part of the posterior brain filters all incoming stimuli and makes the “decision” as to what people attend to or ignore. Information constantly comes into the brain from the body’s sensory receptors. At any given moment we are experiencing sights, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile input. It is impossible for us to be consciously aware of all of this sensory information. Therefore the brain has a filter (the RAS) that selects the sensory information to which we consciously attend. How does the RAS select which information passes through the filter to gain access to the conscious brain? What are the criteria? Sensory Information   R A S     This input now has the potential to eventually end up in the “thinking brain.”     From all of the input, the sound of a baby crying is selected for attention by the RAS. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis   page 9 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) The RAS is an involuntary filter that lets in only about 1% of the millions of its of sensory information available every second. It selects which information passes through the filter to gain access to the conscious brain based on inborn, “hard wired” criteria that are essentially the same for humans as higher mammals. The RAS first prioritizes novel stimuli. If there is a change in the environment, the related sensory input will likely pass through the RAS. For example if a fox looks out of his den in the morning and sees an unfamiliar fox walk by, that information will be attended to above other sensory input (e.g. the taste of food he just ate, the sound of birds singing, the feel of the breeze on his fur). The novelty that receives the highest priority is threat. If the RAS senses that the change in the environment is a source of threat, the related sensory input will pass through the RAS at the expense of other stimuli. For example, if the fox hears the howl of a wolf, a dangerous enemy, the related sensory input (the sound of the wolf’s howling) will likely take precedence over all other stimuli, including the sight of the unfamiliar fox. How can educators influence what the RAS selects? Therefore, information (sensory stimuli) will most likely be selected by the RAS if there is no threat perceived in the environment is novel and provokes curiosity. When the curiosity is sustained by prediction, RAS continues to give entry to input relevant to the curiosity itself and to input relevant to the prediction. Step 1) First the educator should reduce any elements of perceived threat in the environment. For a student, threat can come in many forms, both subtle and overt. Threat can take the form of the grumpy face of a teacher, the fear of making a mistake in front of one’s peers, the anxiety of anticipating that a lesson will be too challenging. Specific suggestions for reducing anxiety and promoting positive feelings will be discussed in the “Attitude” (amygdala) portion of this presentation and handout. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 10 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Step 2) Next, the educator should capitalize on the RAS’s preference for novel stimuli, because becoming aware of novel stimuli provokes curiosity. If a student is authentically curious about what a teacher has to share, attention and focus will follow. Specific suggestions for incorporating novelty into teaching are described in the following section. But my students don’t always pay attention! A word about inattention in students: Often students are criticized for not paying attention. However, the student’s RAS is constantly attending to information (e.g. the sound of their neighbor whispering, the texture of their too-tight pants, the ache of their growling stomach, etc.) but it may not be the information that the teacher thinks is important. The challenge for educators is to present their information is such a novel or curiosity provoking way that the RAS selects the educators input over all other competing stimuli. Strategies that Provoke Curiosity and Promote Attention and Focus • • • • • • • • • • Music can be played as students enter the class. Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher. Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise. Optical illusions can be used catch a student off guard. Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more. Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative events in literature, “backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to discoveries, historical events or negative numbers. Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention. Suspenseful Pause: A significant pause before saying something important builds anticipation as the students wonder what you will say or do next. Alterations in the classroom (e.g., a new display on bulletin board) promotes curiosity. Discrepant events capture attention as students want to know how to make sense of something unusual that they are seeing. For example: “Why is the principal sitting in the library reading a Dr. Seuss book?” How can the principles of advertising support educators in capturing students’ curiosity? Advertisers hope to gain the attention, curiosity, and interest of their audience. For example, the “coming attractions” at a movie theatre are meant to leave the viewer wanting more. The trailers are usually edited in a way that is dramatic and attention grabbing. The trailer provides some indication of what the film is about, but leaves out the majority of the details. This technique creates suspense. The viewer, now enticed, wants to see the full-length movie to see how everything resolves. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 11 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Animoto Videos: An “Animoto” is a short video that you can make for free online. Once you select images, text, and music, the website edits your selections into an eye-catching advertisement. If you sign up as an “educator”, you can use additional special features of the website, and have your students make “Animotos” too. http://animoto.com/education   Some examples of Animotos that have been used to advertise upcoming lessons can be found by following the links below: A RAD advertisement I made: http://bit.ly/8O3NZ7 “Funky Fractions” advertisement made by a previous participant: http://animoto.com/play/hJIiMYgkAHKHf7CLVhf3Kw “Fractions – Yes we can!” advertisement made by a previous participant: http://animoto.com/play/RZzA6MAHaGdcvsAv9FLcLA Additional uses of “Animotos”: Students can make Animotos for homework to summarize what they have learned in a given lesson. Animotos can also be used during the class period for dif ferentiation. If a student has demonstrated mastery of a concept based on a formative assessment, that student can work on an Animoto that represents what she learned. How can key points be emphasized throughout a lesson?  The above suggestions are often used at the outset of a lesson to alert students’ attention the fact that something new and important is being introduced. Throughout a lesson however the teacher is usually presenting information that represents varying degrees of importance. For example, in describing human anatomy a teacher might want students to understand the parts of the digestive system. Some anatomical structures are more important for understanding how the digestive system works than others. How can the teacher alert students to the most important information? Color: The teacher uses a set of colored markers when writing notes on the board. Green could represent that a piece of information is important, yellow could represent even more importance, and red could represent the most important “take home message”. The students will also use colored pens or pencils to write their notes. This system also helps students when reviewing information later. Hat: During an oral presentation, when notes are not being used, a teacher could wear a hat and turn the bill of the hat in different directions to indicate levels of importance. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 12 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Emotion and the Brain: De-stressing Learning What determines if the amygdala directs information to the reflective “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex) or to the reactive lower brain? When a person is in a state of stress, fear, frustration, helplessness, anxiety or boredom new information coming through the sensory intake areas of the brain cannot pass through the amygdala’s filter to gain access to the reflective prefrontal cortex. Instead, the information is conducted to the lower, reactive brain. As mentioned above, the lower, reactive brain has a limited set of instructions it can use to direct behavior, such as fight, flight, or freeze. Observing students during these states of stress-directed behavior, it is not surprising they some students are misidentified as suffering from ADHD, petit mal epilepsy (staring spells), and oppositional-defiant syndrome. Alternatively, if stress is reduced, and a person is in a relaxed and alert state, information can pass through the amygdala and on to the reflective “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex). Causes of stress in school: • Fear of being wrong • Feeling too embarrassed to speak in class, answer questions or present their work to their peers • Test-taking anxiety • Physical and language differences • Boredom from lack of stimulation due to from prior mastery of the material or feeling that the information lacks personal relevance • Frustration with material that exceeds a student’s foundational knowledge • Feeling overwhelmed by the increased demands of each subsequent school year, and their inability to organize their time to respond to these demands   What teachers need to know about stress in school: • Stress can cause behavior problems and obstruct learning. • Participating in new learning requires students to take risks that are often beyond their comfort zones. Steps should be taken to reduce stress during these times. • Before students can attend to higher-order thinking they must meet lower-level needs like survival and safety. Examples of survival needs experienced in school: thirst, hunger, clothes that don’t fit comfortably and lack of sleep. Examples of safety needs experienced in school: illness, being physically injured, being insulted or emotionally hurt and having ones property stolen or destroyed. NOTE on the role of teachers in reducing stress: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs places our need for physiological (survival) and safety as the base and prerequisite for our additional needs.  Therefore, our students’ survival needs for food, water, clothing, and shelter, as well as their need to be free of physical and emotional harm must be acknowledged if we hope to ultimately have them engaging in higher-order thinking.  A student who is experiencing the physical pain of hunger or the devastation ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 13 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) of breaking up with a girlfriend during the previous lunch break is likely experiencing too much stress to process the information you are teaching him. As much as possible we should work to support our students’ access to basic needs by reaching out to social workers and community resources or providing simple modifications like letting a hungry student eat a snack.  However, we cannot hope to remove all stress from the lives of of breaking up with a girlfriend during the previous lunch break is likely experiencing too much stress to process the information you are teaching him. As much as possible we should work to support our students’ access to basic needs by reaching out to social workers and community resources or providing simple modifications like letting a hungry student eat a snack.   However, we cannot hope to remove all stress from the lives of our students. Instead we can teach them skills to soften the blow of the stresses they face. Giving them a few moments to journal in class, talk out conflicts with a peer, or practice some mindful breathing can go a long way in helping them set aside the external stressors and focus on the learning at hand.  In addition, it is within our control to create learning environments that are inclusive and supportive so as not to add to pressures they face. **** How can we promote a positive attitude so that information gets to the prefrontal cortex (PFC)? Use curiosity promoting questions/demonstrations • Teach students how to recognize their incremental progress towards a goal • Help students link new input with prior knowledge, especially prior memories that have positive emotional associations • Have students work in their zone of “achievable challenge” (described below) Offer students ACHIEVABLE CHALLENGES – ones that that prevent stress by avoiding boredom and frustration: An achievable challenge is one in which a student has the capacity (or skills to develop the capacity) to meet an ambitious goal. An achievable challenge is therefore a challenge that exists within Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development”. As Goldilocks would say, the challenge is “not too hard, not too easy, but just right!” If a challenge is too easy a student will become bored, which leads to stress, and ultimately disengagement from learning. If a challenge is too difficult a student will experience frustration and hopelessness which also lead to excessive stress. However, when facing an achievable challenge that is just within one’s reach, the student avoids detrimental states of stress, and the amygdala is able to pass information on to the prefrontal cortex. An achievable challenge includes: • structured goals • frequent feedback • positive intrinsic reinforcement • scaffolding, tools and support provided when the level of challenge begins to exceed the participants capacity ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 14 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) What can video and computer games teach us about achievable challenge? Video and computer games are compelling because they offer individualized achievable challenges to their participants. At the outset, a player is presented with a goal. The player begins at level one, and through trial and error (feedback) builds enough skills to ultimately pass level one. The next level challenges the players newly developed skills, but ultimately, through sustained effort, practice, and persistence the player succeeds and continues to progress through the levels. The player feels the pride of knowing that their effort caused their success (intrinsic reinforcement). If a player is feeling stuck, usually they can find hints on the internet or learn tips from their peers. In this way, even the world of video and computer games offers scaffolding. Achievable Challenge and Individuation If teachers were able to implement a “video game” model of teaching, all students would be learning in their personal zone of achievable challenge at all times. Students would be frequently assessed to determine their appropriate “zone”, they would set and reset goals throughout learning, and they would receive the individual support needed to overcome setbacks and obstacles. In the future, it may be possible that individuated instruction will actually take place through computer programs. So, while students learn basic math facts from the computer within their personal zone of achievable challenge, their teacher can take on the role of facilitating projects requiring higher order thinking and collaboration. However, for many reasons, within the constraints of our current educational system, the level of individuation required to have every student constantly working within their zone of achievable challenge is impossible. Teachers simply do not have the time to individuate all learning. What can teachers do to capitalize on the power of having students work within their achievable challenge level? Each of the following topics are discussed in more detail in the pages that follow: • • • • • • • • Pre-assessments Cultivate a “growth mindset” Building motivation Highlighting incremental progress Formative assessments Providing scaffolding Rubrics Activate prior knowledge and Personalization Pre-assessments are noncredit self-graded quizzes: A pre-assessment can be used to alert both the student and the teacher to what the student already knows about a topic. This gives an initial indication of an individual students “zone”. The teacher may find out that a student is missing some foundational skills that will be needed for the topic, or that the student already has a lot of knowledge, and without some additional challenge the student may become bored and disengaged. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 15 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Using pre-assessment also benefit students in the following ways: • They provide a preview of the upcoming key concepts. Neurologically, this stimulates the circuits of any related prior knowledge the students have. Activating this knowledge makes it easier for students to understand and remember the new information. • When students make a prediction (by writing down what they think the correct answer will be) they have more buy-in when listening to the correct answers you provide following the pre-assessment. • The teacher provides timely corrective feedback by going over all of the answers immediately after the pre-assessment. Students correct their own quizzes (in another color). This allows them to notice, and then correct, their misconceptions. • To hold students accountable on these non-graded pre-assessments, you can tell students that sometimes the pre-test will be the same as the final. **** Promote a Growth Mindset People with a fixed mindset believe that people are born with a certain amount of intelligence and skill, and that is all we will ever get. Once we fail, there is no point in trying again, because we have reached our limit. Those with a growth mindset believe that people are given a certain amount of intelligence and skill, just as they have a certain body type, but that people have the potential to grow their intelligence and skill with hard work, just like a muscle. Those with a growth mindset are right, and the implications are enormous (Carol Dwerk 2007). Therefore, helping students learn from their mistakes, and bounce back from set-backs, is essential to moving students forward in their learning. Building Motivation Students who feel alienated in school need additional support to regain their confidence and feel motivated towards reaching a challenging goal. If struggling academically has always been a source of disappointment for them, you can brainstorm times when they have been successful towards reaching a goal (e.g. music, sports, art, making friends, cooking something new, etc.). Students who come to you with a high level of negativity can benefit a great deal from brain knowledge, especially about their ability to modify their brains through neuroplasticity. This can be especially motivating for students who have been marginalized by learning differences. Information about the brain, and how to teach students about the brain can be found in the following articles: “What You Should Know About Your Brain” (http://radteach.com/page1/page8/page45/page45.html) and “How to Teach Students About the Brain” (http://radteach.com/page1/page8/page44/page44.html) • ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 16 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Highlighting Incremental Progress Students should be made aware of the progress they are making towards a goal. In general we experience an intrinsic reward when we realize that we are making progress due to our practice and effort. Even noticing small changes can be helpful. For example, having students keep a graph of how their reading fluency improves depending on how much they practice can be very motivating. Formative Assessments As students progress though a lesson or unit, they should participate in on-going informal assessments with corrective feedback. For example, as a teacher is providing instruction on punctuation, she can write several sentences on the board and ask students to write down what type of punctuation they should use to end the sentence. Students will write their answer on their individual white boards and hold it up for the teacher to see. The teacher gets immediate feedback on how well everyone understands the concept. The teacher then explains the correct answer to correct any mis conceptions. This practice serves a variety of purposes. It keeps all students actively engaged in instruction unlike in traditional classrooms where only the student who raises his hand and answers the question participates. The student becomes aware of their misconceptions and the teacher has a sense of how to progress. Perhaps it is time for some students to move on to a more challenging activity (to avoid boredom) and for some students to remain with the teacher for some additional review (to avoid frustration). Scaffolding For some students, the level instruction in your class will be beyond their zone of achievable challenge. These students will need additional support and scaffolding. One option is to provide preunderlined books or partially filled in outlines from last year’s students or note-takers. They can add their own notes as they participate in the lesson. Rubrics Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before they begin a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students have done that correspond with levels of the rubric. Activating Prior Knowledge and Personalizing Learning All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are introduced to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and what they are going to learn. This serves several purposes. First, it is empowering for a students to realize that they already have some familiarity with a new or challenging topic. Second, students are more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. Neurologically speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with newly introduced information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information stored as working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become long term memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step in the series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 17 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Strategies for helping students build personal relevance and activate prior knowledge: • Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around them. Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: http://www.thefutureschannel.com/ • Connect a unit with current events • Read aloud something curious or interesting that relates to the topic at hand • Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or mathematician when he/she was about the age of your students • Discuss the “So what?” factor. Why should students WANT to know what you have to teach them? You can discuss with students how information connects the “real world” or to their lives. Further it is motivating for students to know concretely how they are going to use the new information after you teach it to them. Are they going to discuss it with a classmate, or teach it to younger students? • Have students interact with a text through the strategy of “Talking Back to the Text” “Talking Back to the Text” is an interactive reading strategy that helps students become personally engaged with what they are reading. Students begin by writing questions and prompts on post-it notes or other small papers that they can insert into their text. Some questions are prediction questions the student will answer before reading. Other questions and prompts will be answered while the student is reading: • Before reading, the student writes and answers prediction questions: o What do I think you’ll be telling me? o I already know things about YOU so I predict.... • During reading, students can complete the following questions or prompts: o You are similar to what I have learned before, because you remind me of... o I would have preferred a picture of...(or sketch or download your own) o I didn’t know that and I like what you have to say (or I’ll bet this will be on the test) o I disagree o This is not what I expected o This gives me an idea o I want to know more about this than you have to offer and I know how to find out o I know there is more than one way to interpret this information o I won’t let you get away with anything, so I’ll check your source o What clues do you have to help me answer the Big Question? Ah, this could be one right here.... • After reading, the student can respond to prompts, such as: o My prediction was.... (e.g., “on target” OR “very different from what YOU said”) o YOU didn’t say anything about.... o I wish that you had.... o If I had written you, I would have.... ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 18 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued)   In an amygdala-positive learning environment we see evidence of active learning and participating: • Students observing and noticing with focused attention • Students discovering, thinking and questioning • Students solving traditional and extension problems • Students who are engaged, motivated, interested, self propelled learners • Students who understand the brain **** Neuroplasticity – You can change your intelligence (genius is more than genes) Neuroplasticity is the idea that through our repeated thoughts and actions, our brains change. Scientists previously believed that many parts of the brain only change during the “critical stages” of infancy. Research now suggests that all parts of the brain are malleable throughout our lives. Specifically, if a region of the brain is stimulated repeatedly (which happens when we practice using information), the connections between neurons (nerve cells) in that region will be strengthened, and new cells may be added. These strengthened connections, if used consistently, become useful, longterm memories. Conversely, if a neural pathway is not used, it will be pruned (removed). “D” Delight from Dopamine: Develop motivation and increase participation with dopamine! Dopamine is neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain which transmit signals between neurons (nerve cells). Neurotransmitters allow for information to travel from neuron to neuron throughout the brain. Dopamine is associated with pleasurable experiences and the anticipation of pleasurable experiences. Its release also increases focus, memory, decision-making, and executive function. When dopamine levels go up, the following behaviors are more prominent: • Pleasure • Creativity • Motivation • Curiosity • Persistence and perseverance The following activities increase dopamine levels: - Collaborating - Enjoying music - Being read to - Expressing gratitude - Experiencing humor - Optimism - Acting kindly - Having choice - Movement - Feeling self-appreciation-recognizing progress towards a personally meaningful goal - Interacting and collaborating well with classmates, including group work ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 19 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued)  CHOICE The following strategies involving choice may increase dopamine levels among students: • Homework study habits: In the beginning of the year, the teacher can pose the question, “Do you want to spend less time on homework this year?” The teacher then explains that there is no one way that students study best. Instead, the students are going to experiment and choose the most effective and efficient system for themselves. Students then hypothesize about what strategies or conditions (such as taking too-frequent snack breaks, interrupting their focus with texting, creating a homework schedule, or turning off the television) will help - or hinder - their learning. Once they have tested different strategies and conditions they report back to the class on how they work best. • Homework deliverables: Students can be given some choice in how they produce their homework. For example, if the assignment is to summarize a book chapter, there a variety of methods that could be used. A student could create an Animoto video online (animoto.com), create a graphic organizer or flow chart of the information, create n picture or visual image, submit a hard copy of how they would “text” or “tweet” about the information (hyper-condensing information in this way requires the use of precise vocabulary and a clear understanding of the content - just think about how much meaning can be found in a perfectly crafted haiku.) • Vocabulary: When students are asked to choose how to arrange a list of words (vocabulary, spelling, etc.) from words they find the most “pleasurable” to the words they find the least “pleasurable”, they remember all of the words better than if they had had no choice in the order of the word list. MOVEMENT The following strategies involving movement may increase dopamine levels among students: • Pantomime vocabulary words (English, foreign language, content specific) • Word Gallery: If students have a list of vocabulary words they can walk around the room and record the number of the numbered poster that has a verbal or pictorial representation of word. Subsequently students can add their own sentences or drawings to the wall charts. Provide scaffolding by allowing some students to have a one-word definition or work with a partner. The activity can be even more dopamine enriching by playing music that students can enjoy as they move through the activity. • Ball-toss review: Students can toss a ball to one another as each student states one thing they remembered from a lesson. • Snowball fight: Each student writes a key point of a lesson onto a piece of paper. The students then stand in a circle, crumple up their pieces of paper, and toss them into the middle of the circle. Students take turns selecting a “snowball” to read aloud to the class. • Write words with parts of the body: elbow, ear, knee etc. • Four corners: Each corner of the room can be marked with the letters A, B, C, or D. Students can answer multiple choice questions by moving to the corner of the choice they believe to be the correct answer. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 20 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued)   PEER INTERACTION The following strategies involving peer interaction may increase dopamine levels among students • Think-Pair-Share: Students, even in middle school and high school, can listen to directed lecture with focused attention for only fifteen to twenty minutes without some type of break. Having students take a moment to process information and communicate with the student next to them is an excellent, dopamine raising mini-break. Group projects: Groups work best if the members have a common, relevant, high interest goal that they can only achieve if all group members are accountable for the outcome. Students benefit from having opportunities to teach each other. In addition, students are more likely to ask each other clarifying questions, rather than asking in front of the whole class. Ideally, the problem or question that the group is investigating should involve opportunities for critical thinking and reasoning things out together. Game show: Students can be grouped in teams and given the chance to converse as a group before answering review questions in a quiz show format. In addition to the benefit of the peer interaction, game shows are fun which provides an additional dopamine boost. Group presentations: Teams can collaborate to produce graphic organizers related to a given topic. Graphic organizers can be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned information to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has been discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. When the class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a graphic organizer that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a graphic organizer where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at once. While the right foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an iceskating partner overhead. Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the “anatomy” challenge, more students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons will be engaged. Teams can then present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector which brings with it the added fun of using the teacher’s special tools. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 21 Applying What We Know Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson for Second Grade by Malana Willis Lesson topic: Comparing fractions – When comparing fractions, if the numerators are 1, the fraction with the smaller denominator has the greater value. For example, 1/2 is greater than 1/8. (Second grade standard in California) *Note: This is typically very confusing for second graders, as they want to say that 1/8 is greater than 1/2 because the number 8 is greater than 2. Step of Lesson (teacher or student activity) How that step is neuro-logical (R.A.D.) Intro: Teacher enters the room carrying a Happy Birthday balloon and a pizza box. This is a novel event and therefore will peak the students’ attention because the brain’s Reticular Activating System (RAS) responds to novel stimuli. Teacher asks students what they think the lesson is going to be about. They will write a one word answer on their individual whiteboards and hold it up for the teacher to see. The teacher acknowledges the answers and explains that they will find out soon what the lesson will be about. Now the students know that the pizza box and balloon are advertising a lesson, which further peaks their attention. The opportunity to make a prediction, and then see if the prediction is correct gives them further “buy-in”. (RAS) Further, using the individual whiteboards reduces stress because the student doesn’t have to worry about saying the “wrong” answer aloud in front of his/her peers. (amygdala) Challenge question: The teacher will then pose the following challenge question: Usually people want to have a lot of something that they like. When is it better to only have a little bit of something that you like? You can have students do a think-pair-share with their neighbor at this time. Explain that by the end of the lesson, we will discuss the answer to the question. (Answer – even though you like your friends, its better to have less friends at your party if you want a bigger slice of pizza you share! * This question creates some cognitive dissonance, which is another strategy for gaining attention. (RAS) ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis A think-pair-share is social and involves some movement and interaction, which are both dopamine boosters. *Students understand that this is meant to be a funny way to help them remember how to compare fractions, not a value judgment on the comparative value of friends versus pizza.) page 22 Applying What We Know Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson (continued) Activating Prior Knowledge: Now the teacher explains that she will tell the class what the lesson is going to be about. Initially she explains that the lesson is about sharing. The teacher asks the class to think about a time when somebody shared something with them. A few students can share their answers aloud, and another think-pair share can be introduced if there is a lot of excitement around this topic. The lesson is now personalized because the student is able to connect with a positive memory of a time when someone shared with him/her. This reduces stress and adds pleasure with support supports the passage of new information through the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex. The teacher then explains that in math, fractions are used to describe sharing. The teacher can draw some fractions on the board and then ask students to think-pairshare about what they remember about fractions. Ask some students to tell the class what they remember about fractions, and record their contributions on the board. The teacher is activating prior knowledge around what the students already know about fractions. This is essential for a variety of reasons. First, the amygdala responds to the positive feelings students experience when they know that they already have some understanding of a topic. Further, without activating the prior knowledge, the brain will be much less efficient in consolidating the new information into long term memory. (hippocampus) Further, instead of just asking the class what they know about fractions, the teacher draws some fractions on the board. This adds visual sensory input which supports students who are strong visual learners and/or ELL’s who might not initially remember what the word “fraction” means, even though they do have knowledge of the concept. This reduces stress, which promotes the passage of information through the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 23 Applying What We Know Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson (continued) Direct Instruction/Problem Solving: This concrete example connects to someThe teacher explains that she is going to show thing that many children can relate to (a the class how fractions can help her figure out birthday party with pizza) and is a little how to share pizza at her birthday party. The bit funny, because they are imagining teacher gives the following example, and distheir teacher having a birthday party. plays a poster with a drawing of the informaHumor promotes dopamine release tion: “I am having a birthday party, and I need which supports memory. to figure out how many people to invite. I love having lots of friends over, but I also really love pizza and I know I will be really hungry at my birthday party. I’m trying to decide if I should invite 8 people to my party or 4 people to my party.” The poster will show two pizzas: The first divided into 4 parts and the second divided into 8 parts. The teacher will show the students how to compare the size of the slices and decide that if the teacher is really hungry, she should only invite 4 people to her party. The teacher will then show the class that based on what they have already learned about fractions, they can label a slice of the first pizza as 1/4 and the Group work is social which is amygdala second as 1/8. The teacher guides the class in positive and promotes dopamine release concluding that 1/4 is greater than 1/8. that in turn supports memory. However, if the group’s interactions are unpleasant Team task: Each group of students will get two or stressful for any number of reasons circles, with dotted lines dividing the circles (i.e. students arguing, not sharing mainto wedges. The students will be asked to cut terials, not knowing what their role is, a wedge from each “pizza”, compare which is feeling too confused etc.) the amygdala bigger, name and then compare the fractions. sends information to the lower brain They will need to make a small poster showwhere the output is limited to flight, ing their results. The teacher does one example fight, or freeze and the benefits of group first, and then the students will work together. work will be undone. Therefore it is After all teams are done, they will present their essential that significant time and pracfindings to the class. The teacher will record tice be spent on how to work as a findings on a sheet that the class can refer to cooperative group at the beginning of later. For example, the teacher can say “OK, the school year with corrective feedback team 1 found out that 1/2 is greater than 1/3” and debriefing throughout the year. and record the information on the chart. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 24 Applying What We Know Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson (continued) Class number line: Half of the students will This group activity is helpful in several be given cards that have both the picture ways. A number line can be thought of and numerical form of the fractions 1/1 as a type of graphic organizer, in which through 1/12. They will get in order from the numbers are visually organized in least to greatest. The other students will meaningful way. Graphic organizers then check to see if they are in the correct support the development of relational order, and comment on what they notice. memories in hippocampus. At this point if a student hasn’t noticed the rule (that while the fractions go from least Also, the scaffolding that they teacher is to greatest, the number in the denominator providing allows students to experience goes from greatest to least) the teacher can this activity as an achievable challenge. scaffold students to making this observations. From this observation, students can be further supported recognizing that when comparing fractions in which the numerator is 1, the larger denominator corresponds to the smaller fraction. Formative Assessment: Students have Making predictions (writing what they their individual whiteboards. The teacher think the correct answer is) and then writes two fractions on the board (includfinding out if they are correct or incoring the corresponding pictures) and asks rect, ultimately promotes the release of students to write which fraction is greater. dopamine from the nucleus accumbens. After several, the teacher can ask which This dopamine strengthens the neural fraction is less, and also take out the scafnetwork connected to the information. fold of the pictures. After each question, the teacher notices which students are Being “assessed” in this way, in which struggling, and also providing and explainstudents are provided with immediate ing the correct answer. It can be helpful corrective feedback, lowers stress and is to refer back to the party example (if four amygdala positive. friends each share the pizza each slice is bigger than if six friends share the pizza) and also to the number line (which should now be posted in a visible location) ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 25 Applying What We Know Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson (continued) Differentiation: At this point the teacher will have an idea of which students understand the new content. The students that understand should proceed to a challenge activity. Following is an example of a dend-write they could respond to: • How many people would you want to come to your own pizza birthday party? Draw a picture of how you would divide the food. Students who are struggling should remain with the teacher for further practice and review. With this smaller group, it will be easier to determine at which stage of the questions are they getting stuck. The students who understand the new topic, if required to keep reviewing with the group, may become bored and therefore stressed. There amygdala may respond to this stress by directing information to the lower brain where the output is limited to fight, flight, or freeze. This may result in the acting out or tuning out. By providing an activity within their range of achievable challenge, the learners will re-engage at a level that is engaging for them. By working more closely with the students who continue to struggle with the topic will lower their stress and allow their amygdala to pass on their new learning to their prefrontal cortex. You will also be providing them with the chance to practice the correct procedure with you to strengthen their new learning. Review activities (these would be done in These games, especially “walk and the days following the lesson): waddle” provide humor, positive peer • Go fish: “I need a fraction that is interaction, movement and choice, all greater than 1/8” of which support the release of dopa• Errorless Math: 1/2 ____1/5 * anmine, and therefore the construction of swer: 1/2 is greater than 1/5 memory. • Walk and waddle: each student has a fraction card. They walk around the room until they come to another person. They figure out together which fraction is less. The person with the lesser fraction squats down and waddles to another partner, while the person with the greater fraction walks. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 26 Applying What We Know Consolidating New Information into Short-term Memory: Patterning for Memory Relational Memory After leaving the amygdala, new information makes one more stop before reaching the pre-frontal cortex. The new information enters a brain structure called the hippocampus. Hippocampus Prefrontal Cortex When the new information enters the hippocampus, related memories are triggered in various parts of the cortex. These related memories are stored in different parts of the cortex depending on which sensory receptors initially responded to the input. For example, the memory of ducks quacking is stored in the area of the cortex related to auditory input. If you were listening to a lecture about mallard ducks, the new information you were learning would enter your hippocampus. Related memories about ducks (e.g. the sound of ducks quacking, the image of ducks you saw in a pond, a fact you once heard about the properties of feathers) would “meet” the new information about mallard ducks in your hippocampus. The combination of the pre-existing related memories and the new information is called a “relational memory” (also referred to as short-term or working memory). Relational memories are temporary. They will only be converted to long-term memories if they are mentally manipulated in the prefrontal cortex. (Activities that require mental manipulation are described later in this document in the section called “Mental manipulation”) Once the information has been converted to long-term memory, when someone mentions something about a duck, your network of relational memories will be triggered and available to you. The ability of the brain to form relational memories is advantageous. If we were unable to form relational memories, all new learning would seem random and extremely hard to categorize and use. The brain’s ability to form relational memories is frequently an automatic process. However, if students have not been made aware how their prior knowledge connects with new information, it is unlikely relational memories will be formed. Teachers can make the process of forming relational memories more efficient, effective, and transparent to students. Activating a Prior Knowledge Bridge Prior knowledge is data that students have already acquired through formal teaching, personal experience or real world associations. Teachers should “activate” this prior knowledge by alerting students to what they already know that connects to what they are going to learn. This is consistent with the way the brain makes these connections through pattern recognition and pattern matching. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 27 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Activate prior knowledge by: o Giving pre-unit assessments o Showing videos or images that remind students of prior knowledge o Holding class discussions starting with high interest current events o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective of another course or cross-curricular studies. Patterning The process that directs relational memory formation in the brain is “patterning.” To survive successfully animals need to understand their environments and make meaning of what they see, hear, smell, touch, and taste all around them. The brain is designed to perceive and generate patterns and uses these patterns to predict the correct response to new information. Based on our brains’ process of patterning, we are able to make predictions and anticipate what might happen next and the best response. For example, a fox might have acquired the pattern or relationship between cold temperatures and rabbits entering their dens earlier in the evening. Therefore, on a cold evening, the fox can predict that his best opportunity for catching dinner is before the sun goes down. Teachers can capitalize on the brain’s patterning in a variety of ways. • Presenting information in context (real world connections, cross-curricular themes of study, experiential learning, from concrete to abstract) helps students identify patterns and connect new information with previous experiences and memories (relational memories). • Graphic organizers: Help students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) by using graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and old information). Reduce Mistake Fear to Increase Participation and Memory Prediction + Mistakes + Neuroplasticity = Accurate Durable Memory Mistakes are useful, but scary! For most students, their greatest fear is making a mistake in front of the whole class. However, learning actually increases when we make mistakes. Every time that a student responds to a question, and receives feedback as to whether their response was correct or incorrect, the student is learning. If the student made a correct “prediction” (answer), the neural network storing the related information is strengthened. If the student made an incorrect “prediction” (answer), but then received corrective feedback and was able to revise their misunderstanding, their neural network will be corrected. However, if a student does not make any “predictions”, because they are not actively participating, their neural network will not be strengthened. In addition if a student makes a faulty prediction, and their misconception is not corrected, their misunderstanding will likely persist which can severely restrict future learning. Therefore, the goal is to keep all students participating and engaged because only the person who THINKS (predicts) learns. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 28 Applying What We Know What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning (continued) Reducing the Stress of Participation Students learn best from corrective feedback when they are in a state of low stress. Theref ore, despite the fact that students learn from mistakes, it is not ideal for a student to be “called out” as having made a mistake in front of his peers. Ideally, students share their predictions (answers) through the use of individual white boards. The students make a prediction, and hold up their white board for their teacher to see. After the teacher acknowledges that they have seen the students’ answers, the students lower their white boards so they are not on display for their peers. This protects students’ privacy and prevents cheating. When the teacher provides the correct answer, each individual student will know if they made a mistake, and can make their corrections. Of course there are times for class discussions and the public sharing of ideas. It is important to build a class culture where all answers, both correct and incorrect, are treated with respect and seen as learning opportunities. However, the white board strategy is useful not only for having students feel comfortable participating and predicting, but it also requires participation from all students which is important because as mentioned above, only the person who THINKS (predicts) learns. What is happening in the brain when we learn from mistakes? There is a small brain structure called the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens constantly releases a small stream of dopamine (the neurotransmitter associated with pleasure) into the area of the prefrontal cortex where memories are formed. When we make a prediction (answer), and discover that our prediction is correct, the nucleus accumbens releases an extra dose of dopamine. While we may not consciously register the surge of pleasure caused by this dopamine boost, our brain does. The brain patterning connected to this correct prediction is strengthened to increase the likelihood that the correct prediction, and corresponding surge in dopamine, will occur again. Conversely, when we make a mistake, the nucleus accumbens diminishes the flow of dopamine. Our brain registers a decrease in dopamine, and reacts to this displeasure by deactivating the brain patterning that led to the incorrect prediction, the goal being to avoid making the mistake again with its corresponding decrease in dopamine. Strategies that increase participation and risk-taking in school: • Activate prior knowledge so students feel empowered by what they already know • Frequent interactive formative assessments during lessons keeps students actively connected • Use “safe” prediction opportunities like KWL charts and individual white boards • Ask students to discuss information in pairs. Then, have on student from each pair share-out either their own or their partners ideas • Examples and non-examples columns: If you are asking students to list examples of odd numbers, and some students offer even numbers by mistake, you can add the even numbers to a “non-example” category so that the student contribution is still useful • When students answer incorrectly, if any part of their answer is correct, you should repeat that part of their answer before clarifying and correcting their mistake • Teach students about neuroplasticity - that they literally have the power to change their brains and become “smarter” by thinking, making predictions, incorporating corrective feedback, and practicing and using the information they learn. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 29 Applying What We Know Mental Manipulation for Long-term Memory Mental Manipulation Information that we learn, including that which has become integrated into a relational memory, will only become part of our long-term, consciously retrievable, store of useful knowledge if it is mentally manipulated in the prefrontal cortex. This means that the learner has to “do something” with the information rather than passively taking it in. There are many ways that teachers can have students mentally manipulate information. One way that has been very successful in the classes I have taught is the use of “Dend-Writes”. Dend-Writes (a word play on the neural structures called ‘dendrites’) are brief thinking/writing assignments that students do to help them make sense of and consolidate new learning. They also can provide teacher feedback such as checking for understanding. I usually have students write on small note cards. Following are the ten Dend-Write prompts that I have posted in my classroom: 1. Create an analogy about what you learned; write what it reminded you of, or how it fits with what you already know. 2. Draw a picture, diagram, or graphic organizer of what you learned. 3. Write a reaction/reflection of how something you learned relates to your life. 4. Write about something that made you wonder or surprised you - a new insight or discovery. 5. What do you predict will come next? 6. How could you (or someone in a profession) use this knowledge? 7. What did you understand today that you haven’t understood before? What is something that you are confused about or find difficult? 8. What was the part of lesson that you enjoyed the most? What was the part that was most difficult for you? 9. What strategy did you use to solve a problem today? 10. “So What?” – What do you think were the most important things in the lesson? What are they important? When and how to use Dend-Writes: • When checking for understanding, especially when on-going feedback tells you there are problems, you can use Dend-Write prompts such as #4, #7, or #8. Students should always start the response by including the positive statement that relates to the first part of the question. For #8 one would write, “The part of the lesson I enjoyed the most was ………and something that still confuses me is…” In that way the student will have a burst of brain satisfaction (dopamine) because they are recognizing an accomplishment. They then feel less anxious expressing what they still find confusing or difficult in the second part of their Dend-Write. • Feedback to you - how accurately the lesson was understood • Before the next class correct any misperceptions you discover ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 30 Applying What We Know Mental Manipulation (continued) • Make check marks on cards that you think the rest of the class would benefit from hearing. Students with checks share those insights with the class as a review or to promote discussion. (Because the teacher has identified the card as useful or correct, it lowers participation anxiety of the student presenters because they are confident that their responses are correct) • Students can add to their own notes based on what they learn from hearing the information on their classmate’s Dend-Write • Cards can become study aides • Posted on bulletin boards, Dend-Write cards cover important information for students who were absent and provide review information before the next class or the test. Additional examples of Mental Manipulation (especially effective if used within the first 24 hours after new learning has occurred): • Create a narrative – students can write and share a story about the new information. They should be encouraged to use personification and amusing details to make even the driest of facts memorable. For example, one of my previous workshop participants told an amusing story about a lonely piece of new information that entered a brain. It felt lost and sad until it found its family amongst the related memories in the hippocampus. Illustrating the story adds a further level of mental manipulation. • Teach the new information to someone else – understanding something well enough to teach it to another person requires a clarity of thought and understanding that ultimately supports the “teachers” long term memory of the concept. • Pair-share or collaborate: Students experience a greater level of understanding of concepts and ideas when they talk, explain, predict, and debate about them within a small group, instead of just passively listening to a lecture or reading a text. • Similarities and differences: Just as survival depends on recognizing the changes in an animal’s expected environment (e.g. what has changed and what has stayed the same in the environment of the fox), people are also responsive to remembering information by identifying similarities and differences. Researchers have found that identifying similarities and differences is the most effective way of committing information to memory. • Creating analogies allows students to relate information in new ways. For example: White is to Snow as Blue is to Sky. You can scaffold analogies by using ones students made in previous years, and leaving out one or two of the four components of A is to B as C is to D. Then they can explain and expand on the characteristic or relationship that ties the two sets together. • Creating similes such as “exercising my muscles makes me stronger like reading makes me smarter” also supports building long terms memories of new information. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 31 Applying What We Know Prefrontal Cortex for Higher Order Skills (Executive Functions) The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature-myelination, pruning. The brain maturation of this executive function control center is the last to come “online” and the maturation process continues into the mid twenties). The prefrontal cortex (PFC) responds to event and memory processing and makes conscious decisions. It is the region of the frontal lobe where the brain directs the planning of the movements to do a task. The PFC, once mature is associated with the highest cognitive processes, also referred to as executive functions, including planning, decision-making, reasoning, and analysis These executive functions, when formed into complete networks allows for patterned information to be used for organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment of one’s strengths and best strategies, abstractions, creative conceptual problem solving, attention focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions. Executive Functions Cognitive processing of information that takes place in areas in the prefrontal cortex and allow one to exercise conscious control over one’s emotions and thoughts. This control allows for patterned information to be used for organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, planning, prioritizing, sequencing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment, abstractions, problem solving, attention focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions. Mature humans are the only creatures with the ability to analyze their thoughts and behaviors and then act in accordance with expectations for goal attainment. o Judgment: This executive function includes self-checking strategies such as estimating or checking grammar accuracy, time planning, looking for clues for questions in subsequent questions, and checking in with oneself to monitor their focus. o Prioritizing: Separating low relevance details from the main ideas and connecting separate facts into concepts. In college, many students still need to develop prioritizing skills students to make the most efficient use of study time and plan papers and study schedules. o Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop this PFC executive function, they are limited in capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable goals. They don’t yet recognize their incremental progress along the way to goals without help. o Remembering and applying past emotional, test prep, report planning experiences and applying potential “lessons” from those experiences to new situations, decision-making, analysis, and judgment. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 32 Applying What We Know Will Today’s Students be Prepared for Higher Learning or the Jobs of the 21st Century? • New types of teaching, expectations for working independently with minimal guidance for how to do so, increased amounts of information to learn, requirements to USE not just MEMORIZE facts. • These new challenges depend on executive functions not yet fully developed and rarely used previously • Students are not usually taught how to learn, study, organize, prioritize, review, or actively participate, nor the reasons for any strategies or procedures they are told to use. Before teaching the information in college can be efficient, engaging, and successful, students need to learn how to learn, instead of passively memorizing force fed factlettes. • Memorization that was adequate in high school is not the way students are graded in college. In college and in the best jobs it is more about applying and communicating and supporting what one knows. In college and the most desirable jobs of the future today’s students will be asked to demonstrate these executive function skills and conceptual knowledge by comparison/contrast, giving new examples of concepts, transferring knowledge by applying big ideas to solve new types of problems never solved before. • Consequences we see in college students now who went through the overpacked curriculum and standardized testing without adequate opportunities to have scaffolded experiences using their higher thinking skills and organizational executive functions: Students, faced with more work and insufficient executive functions to organize or delay immediate gratification for long-term goals, make poor decisions that further diminish their success. Example: cramming without mental manipulation so no long-term memory; poor sleep and exercise, high-risk behavior for the dopamine they are not getting from recognition of incremental achievement. • Cycle of Failure: Poor study habits result in poor performance lowering sense of what is achievable and negative mindset. Less willing to take on challenge or persevere through setbacks. YOUR THOUGHTS: __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 33 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 1 Strategies for Passage of Information through Emotional Filter (amygdala) Into Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) and Behavior Output Passage Out from the PFC (Reflective Responses) rather than behavior output involuntarily determined by lower brain (Reactive Responses) • Assessments: formative for feedback to correct or strengthen networks and goal motivating opportunities for authentic performance tasks so the brain recognizes and desires the goal of acquiring the information (for successful passage through intake (RAS) and emotional (amygdala) filters and processing of learning through executive functions • Pre-assessments “allow teachers to check (and build on) prior knowledge, they reveal misconceptions, and they activate and focus attention.” • Opportunities to recognize evidence of incremental progress • Teach students how to recognize their incremental progress towards a goal • Help students link new input with prior knowledge, especially prior memories that have positive emotional associations • Individualized Achievable Challenge with scaffolding (rubrics). An achievable challenge is one in which a student has the capacity (or skills to develop the capacity) to meet an ambitious goal. An achievable challenge is therefore a challenge that exists within Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development”. If a challenge is too easy a student will become bored, which leads to stress, and ultimately disengagement from learning. If a challenge is too difficult a student will experience frustration and hopelessness, which also lead to excessive stress. With desired goals and achievable challenge that is just within one’s reach, the student avoids detrimental states of stress, and the amygdala is able to pass information on to the prefrontal cortex. Achievable challenge includes: • Evident, personally desired goals and clear understanding of assessments that will be included throughout the unit (teacher reviews, resource consultations) • Scaffolding, tools and support provided when the level of challenge begins to exceed the participants capacity Achievable challenge and individuation: If teachers were able to implement a “video game” model of teaching, all students would be learning in their personal zone of achievable challenge at all times. Students would be frequently assessed to determine their appropriate “zone”, they would set and reset goals throughout learning, and they would receive the individual support needed to overcome setbacks and obstacles. In the future, it may be possible that individuated instruction will actually take place through computer programs. So, while students learn basic math facts from the computer within their personal zone of achievable challenge, their teacher can take on the role of facilitating projects requiring higher order thinking and collaboration. However, for many reasons, within the constraints of our current educational system, the level of individuation required to have every student constantly working within their zone of achievable challenge is impossible. Teachers simply do not have the time to individuate all learning. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 34 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 2 What can teachers do to capitalize on the power of having students work within their achievable challenge level? Each of the following topics are discussed in more detail in the pages that follow: • Pre-assessments • Cultivate a “growth mindset” • Building motivation • Highlighting incremental progress • Formative assessments • Providing scaffolding • Rubrics • Activate prior knowledge and Personalization • Formative assessments: As students progress though a lesson or unit, they should participate in on-going informal assessments with corrective feedback. For example, as a teacher is providing instruction on punctuation, she can write several sentences on the board and ask students to write down what type of punctuation they should use to end the sentence. Students will write their answer on their individual white boards and hold it up for the teacher to see. The teacher gets immediate feedback on how well everyone understands the concept. The teacher then explains the correct answer to correct any misconceptions. This practice serves a variety of purposes. It keeps all students actively engaged in instruction unlike in traditional classrooms where only the student who raises his hand and answers the question participates. The student becomes aware of their misconceptions and the teacher has a sense of how to progress. Perhaps it is time for some students to move on to a more challenging activity (to avoid boredom) and for some students to remain with the teacher for some additional review (to avoid frustration). • Scaffolding: For some students, the level instruction in your class will be beyond their zone of achievable challenge. These students will need additional support and scaffolding. One option is to provide pre-underlined books or partially filled in outlines from last year’s students or note-takers. They can add their own notes as they participate in the lesson. • Rubrics: Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before they begin a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students have done that correspond with levels of the rubric. Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before they begin a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students have done that correspond with levels of the rubric. Before turning in work, students recheck and revise their final products against the rubric, especially if they have an intermediate goal in one of the sections and need to be sure their other sections are at least at acceptable levels. Ask, “Am I proud of my progress?” • Goals that are attractive to students and achieve the teacher’s or curriculum requirements are mutually agreed upon, using the rubric to look for where to strive for achievable challenge (not too much, not too little). Sample papers in the achievable challenge range and above... ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 35 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 3 • To build students’ capabilities to recognize their incremental progress to goals, teach them how to organize (executive function) and prioritize (based on current achievable challenge specific goals clearly visible on rubric and with choice on the main focus goal this time). • Records of successful strategies • Meet to compare self-assessment to rubric and teacher assessment so students learn to recognize incremental short and long-term goal progress independently. • The most effective learners set personal learning goals, employ proven strategies, and selfassess their work. Teachers help cultivate such habits of mind by modeling self-assessment and goal setting and by expecting students to apply these habits regularly. In an amygdala-positive learning environment we see evidence of active learning and participating: • Students observing and noticing with focused attention • Students discovering, thinking and questioning… • Students solving traditional and extension problems • Students who are engaged, motivated, interested, self propelled learners • Students who understand the brain Strategies for Information Intake through Brain’s Primitive Intake/Attention Filter (Reticular Activating System – RAS) • Reduce perceived threat o Classroom community building o Opportunities to develop individual strengths to be recognized by one’s self and classmates as valued participant in collaboration o Consistent enforcement of rules that promote sense of safety from threats to one’s body, emotions, and property • Novelty, Curiosity, and Prediction o Music can be played as students enter the class with a line from the lyrics relating to the instruction topic o Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher or meeting leader o Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise o Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more o Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative events in literature, “backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to discoveries, historical events or negative numbers. o Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention o Suspenseful Pause: a significant pause before saying something important builds anticipation as the students wonder what you will say or do next o Alterations in the classroom such as a new display on a bulletin board promotes curiosity ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 36 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 4 • To build students’ capabilities to recognize their incremental progress to goals, teach them how to organize (executive function) and prioritize (based on current achievable challenge specific goals clearly visible on rubric and with choice on the main focus goal this time). • Records of successful strategies • Meet to compare self-assessment to rubric and teacher assessment so students learn to recognize incremental short and long-term goal progress independently. • The most effective learners set personal learning goals, employ proven strategies, and selfassess their work. Teachers help cultivate such habits of mind by modeling self-assessment and goal setting and by expecting students to apply these habits regularly. In an amygdala-positive learning environment we see evidence of active learning and participating: • Students observing and noticing with focused attention • Students discovering, thinking and questioning… • Students solving traditional and extension problems • Students who are engaged, motivated, interested, self propelled learners • Students who understand the brain Strategies for Information Intake through Brain’s Primitive Intake/Attention Filter (Reticular Activating System – RAS) • Reduce perceived threat o Classroom community building o Opportunities to develop individual strengths to be recognized by one’s self and classmates as valued participant in collaboration o Consistent enforcement of rules that promote sense of safety from threats to one’s body, emotions, and property • Novelty, Curiosity, and Prediction o Music can be played as students enter the class with a line from the lyrics relating to the instruction topic o Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher or meeting leader o Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise o Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more o Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative events in literature, “backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to discoveries, historical events or negative numbers. o Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention o Suspenseful Pause: a significant pause before saying something important builds anticipation as the students wonder what you will say or do next o Alterations in the classroom such as a new display on a bulletin board promotes curiosity ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 37 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 5 o Discrepant events capture attention as students want to know how to make sense of something unusual that they are seeing. For example: “Why is the principal sitting in the library reading a Dr. Seuss book upside down?” Promote Sustained Attention with Prediction o Posting photographs related to an upcoming lesson in the days leading up to the lesson o Telling a story relating to an upcoming lesson o Creating a power point or slide show of images related to an upcoming lesson o Create a video advertisement using “Animoto” How to emphasize key information throughout a lesson Color: The teacher uses a set of colored markers when writing notes on the board. Green could represent that a piece of information is important, yellow could represent even more importance, and red could represent the most important “take home message”. The students will also use colored pens or pencils to write their notes. This system also helps students when reviewing information later. Hat: During an oral presentation, when notes are not being used, a teacher could wear a hat and turn the bill of the hat in different directions to indicate levels of importance. Strategies for Pattern Recognition to Encode Relational (Short-term) Memory Prior knowledge is data that students have already acquired through formal teaching, personal experience or real world associations. Teachers should “activate” this prior knowledge by alerting students to what they already know that connects to what they are going to learn. This is consistent with the way the brain makes these connections through pattern recognition and pattern matching Patterning: The process that directs relational memory formation in the brain is “patterning.” To survive successfully animals need to understand their environments and make meaning of what they see, hear, smell, touch, and taste all around them. The brain is designed to perceive and generate patterns and uses these patterns to predict the correct response to new information. Based on our brains’ process of patterning, we are able to make predictions and anticipate what might happen next and the best response. For example, a fox might have acquired the pattern or relationship between cold temperatures and rabbits entering their dens earlier in the evening. Therefore, on a cold evening, the fox can predict that his best opportunity for catching dinner is before the sun goes down. Teachers can capitalize on the brain’s patterning in a variety of ways. • Presenting information in context (real world connections, cross-curricular themes of study, experiential learning, from concrete to abstract) helps students identify patterns and connect new information with previous experiences and memories (relational memories). ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 38 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 6 Activate prior knowledge and personalize learning: All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are introduced to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and what they are going to learn. This serves several purposes. First, it is empowering for a students to realize that they already have some familiarity with a new or challenging topic. Second, students are more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. Neurologically speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with newly introduced information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information stored as working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become long-term memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step in the series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. Strategies for helping students build personal relevance and activate prior knowledge: • Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around them. Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: http://www.thefutureschannel.com/ • Connect a unit with current events • Read aloud something curious or interesting that relates to the topic at hand Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or mathematician when he/she Graphic organizers o Helping students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) by using graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and old information) o Giving pre-unit assessments o Showing videos or images that remind students of prior knowledge o Holding class discussions starting with high interest current events o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective of another course or cross-curricular studies. Graphic organizers can be also be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned information to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has been discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. When the class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a graphic organizer that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a graphic organizer where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at once. While the right foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an ice-skating partner overhead. Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the “anatomy” challenge, more students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons will be engaged. Teams can then present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector, which brings with it the added fun of using the teacher’s special tools. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 39 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 7 Activate prior knowledge and personalize learning: All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are introduced to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and what they are going to learn. This serves several purposes. First, it is empowering for a students to realize that they already have some familiarity with a new or challenging topic. Second, students are more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. Neurologically speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with newly introduced information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information stored as working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become long-term memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step in the series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. Strategies for helping students build personal relevance and activate prior knowledge: • Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around them. Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: http://www.thefutureschannel.com/ • Connect a unit with current events • Read aloud something curious or interesting that relates to the topic at hand Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or mathematician when he/she Graphic organizers o Helping students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) by using graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and old information) o Giving pre-unit assessments o Showing videos or images that remind students of prior knowledge o Holding class discussions starting with high interest current events o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective of another course or cross-curricular studies. Graphic organizers can be also be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned information to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has been discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. When the class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a graphic organizer that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a graphic organizer where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at once. While the right foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an ice-skating partner overhead. Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the “anatomy” challenge, more students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons will be engaged. Teams can then present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector, which brings with it the added fun of using the teacher’s special tools. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 40 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 8 Graphic organizers (maps, timelines, flow charts) are like an external prefrontal cortex Graphic organizers use executive functions when they match the brain’s mechanisms for arranging information in meaningful ways. Just as the prefrontal cortex automatically seeks links and patterns amongst facts, ideas, concepts, topics, and other categories of knowledge, so does the student who organizes new information into a graphic organizer. Some of the skills required when using a graphic organizer are: prioritizing, categorizing and recognizing relationships. These skills relate to prefrontal cortex executive functions that are not yet mature in our students. Therefore, scaffolding students in the use of these skills supports the development of their executive functions. Additional reasons that graphic organizers are beneficial: • Graphic organizers require students to summarize. It requires active thinking on the part of the student to make large amounts of information, from different sources, manageable. • Graphic organizers provide an opportunity for students to actively learn as they reconstruct information they hear, read, and discover, into a personally meaningful framework. • They can be done as a syn-naps (short brain break) and/or as a group activity • Allowing students choice in regards to which graphic organizing template they use boosts dopamine. Pre-assessments as noncredit self-graded quizzes A pre-assessment can be use to alert both the student and the teacher to what the student already knows about a topic. This gives an initial indication of an individual students “zone”. The teacher may find out that a student is missing some foundational skills that will be needed for the topic, or that the student already has a lot of knowledge, and without some additional challenge the student may become bored and disengaged. Using pre-assessment also benefit students in the following ways: • They provide a preview of the upcoming key concepts. Neurologically, this stimulates the circuits of any related prior knowledge the students have. Activating this knowledge makes it easier for students to understand and remember the new information. • When students make a prediction (by writing down what they think the correct answer will be) they have more buy-in when listening to the correct answers you provide following the pre-assessment. • The teacher provides timely corrective feedback by going over all of the answers immediately after the pre-assessment. Students correct their own quizzes (in another color). This allows them to notice, and then correct, their misconceptions. • To hold students accountable on these non-graded pre-assessments, you can tell students that sometimes the pre-test will be the same as the final. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 41 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 9 Strategies for Building Long-Term and Conceptual Memory With Neuroplasticity Neural network pattern expansion (extended, conceptual), accuracy, and permanence (long-term memory) • Scaffolded experiences, authentic assessments, performance tasks that build the procedural, organizational, prioritizing executive functions o Experiences that develop self-directed comprehension, memory, and creativity • “Talk back to the text” develops neural networks of active reading for understanding and memory that develop into self-directed strategic comprehension of complex texts. Specific examples of “Talk back to the text” questions can be included here • Deconstructing tasks, procedures, problems, and theories into smaller, accessible components develops into solving complex problems and creative innovation Strategies for Mental Manipulation to Extend Learning into Larger and Permanent Conceptual Neural Networks Examples of Mental Manipulation (especially effective if used within the first 24 hours after new learning has occurred): • Create a narrative – students can write and share a story about the new information. They should be encouraged to use personification and amusing details to make even the driest of facts memorable. For example, one of my previous workshop participants told an amusing story about a lonely piece of new information that entered a brain. It felt lost and sad until it found its family amongst the related memories in the hippocampus. Illustrating the story adds a further level of mental manipulation. • Teach the new information to someone else – understanding something well enough to teach it to another person requires a clarity of thought and understanding that ultimately supports the “teachers” long term memory of the concept. • Pair-share or collaborate: Students experience a greater level of understanding of concepts and ideas when they talk, explain, predict, and debate about them within a small group, instead of just passively listening to a lecture or reading a text. • Similarities and differences: Just as survival depends on recognizing the changes in an animal’s expected environment (e.g. what has changed and what has stayed the same in the environment of the fox), people are also responsive to remembering information by identifying similarities and differences. Researchers have found that identifying similarities and differences is the most effective way of committing information to memory. • Creating analogies allows students to relate information in new ways. For example: White is to Snow as Blue is to Sky. You can scaffold analogies by using ones students made in previous years, and leaving out one or two of the four components of A is to B as C is to D. Then they can explain and expand on the characteristic or relationship that ties the two sets together. • Creating similes such as “exercising my muscles makes me stronger like reading makes me smarter” also supports building long terms memories of new information. • Mnemonics: like PEMDAS for order of operations or ROYGBIV for the colors of the rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 42 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 9 • Summarize: Use “twitter” or “text message” style to be summaries concise. Younger children make “phones” (decorated towel or toilet tissue roll) and practice short overseas calls to someone in “a far away country – real or imaginary” but need to keep toll charges down with short call planned in advanced. • Creating a puzzle on Puzzlemaker.com • Animotos that summarize Repeated and multisensory practice makes permanent neural networks stored in multiple regions of the cortex. These remain connected so activating one will activate the others Strategies to Promote Increased Dopamine (whole brain dopamine release) • Highlighting incremental progress: The experience of incremental progress increases the brain’s predisposition for effort output. Students who feel alienated in school need additional support to regain their confidence and feel motivated towards reaching a challenging goal. If struggling academically has always been a source of disappointment for them, you can brainstorm times when they have been successful towards reaching a goal (e.g. music, sports, art, making friends, cooking something new, etc.). Students should be made aware of the progress they are making towards a goal. In general we experience an intrinsic reward when we realize that we are making progress due to our practice and effort. Even noticing small changes can be helpful. For example, having students keep a graph of how their reading fluency improves depending on how much they practice can be very motivating. The following activities increase dopamine levels: • Collaborating • Enjoying music • Being read to • Feeling self-appreciation-recognizing progress towards a personally meaningful goal • Acting kindly • Interacting and collaborating well with classmates, including group work • Expressing gratitude • Experiencing humor • Optimism • Choice • Movement CHOICE: The following strategies involving choice may increase dopamine levels among students • Homework study habits: In the beginning of the year, the teacher can pose the question, “Do you want to spend less time on homework this year?” The teacher then explains that there is no one way that students study best. Instead, the students are going to experiment and choose the most effective and efficient system for themselves. Students then hypothesize about what strategies or ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 43 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 10 conditions (such as taking too-frequent snack breaks, interrupting their focus with texting, creating a homework schedule, or turning off the television) will help - or hinder - their learning. Once they have tested different strategies and conditions they report back to the class on how they work best. • Homework deliverables: Students can be given some choice in how they produce their homework. For example, if the assignment is to summarize a book chapter, there a variety of methods that could be used. A student could create an Animoto video online (animoto.com), create a graphic organizer or flow chart of the information, create n picture or visual image, submit a hard copy of how they would “text” or “tweet” about the information (hyper-condensing information in this way requires the use of precise vocabulary and a clear understanding of the content - just think about how much meaning can be found in a perfectly crafted haiku.) • Vocabulary: When students are asked to choose how to arrange a list of words (vocabulary, spelling, etc.) from words they find the most “pleasurable” to the words they find the least “pleasurable”, they remember all of the words better than if they had had no choice in the order of the word list. MOVEMENT: The following strategies involving movement may increase dopamine levels among students • Pantomime vocabulary words (English, foreign language, content specific) • Word Gallery: If students have a list of vocabulary words they can walk around the room and record the number of the numbered poster that has a verbal or pictorial representation of word. Subsequently students can add their own sentences or drawings to the wall charts. Provide scaffolding by allowing some students to have a one-word definition or work with a partner. The activity can be even more dopamine enriching by playing music that students can enjoy as they move through the activity. • Ball-toss review: Students can toss a ball to one another as each student states one thing they remembered from a lesson. • Snowball fight: Each student writes a key point of a lesson onto a piece of paper. The students then stand in a circle, crumple up their pieces of paper, and toss them into the middle of the circle. Students take turns selecting a “snowball” to read aloud to the class. • Write words with parts of the body: elbow, ear, knee etc. • Four corners: Each corner of the room can be marked with the letters A, B, C, or D. Students can answer multiple choice questions by moving to the corner of the choice they believe to be the correct answer. PEER INTERACTION: The following strategies involving peer interaction may increase dopamine levels among students • Think-Pair-Share: Students, even in middle school and high school, can listen to directed lecture with focused attention for only fifteen to twenty minutes without some type of break. Having students take a moment to process information and communicate with the student next to them is an excellent, dopamine-raising mini-break. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 44 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 11 • Group projects: Groups work best if the members have a common, relevant, high interest goal that they can only achieve if all group members are accountable for the outcome. Students benefit from having opportunities to teach each other. In addition, students are more likely to ask each other clarifying questions, rather than asking in front of the whole class. Ideally, the problem or question that the group is investigating should involve opportunities for critical thinking and reasoning things out together. Strategies for Inaccurate Neural Network (memory) Correction and Accurate Network Reinforcement (Promotion of Dopamine Reward Prediction Feedback System – nucleus accumbens) o Promote prediction by all students o Provide timely corrective feedback o Lower Mistake Fear Strategies that increase participation and risk-taking in school: • Activate prior knowledge so students feel empowered by what they already know • Frequent interactive formative assessments during lessons keeps students actively connected • Use “safe” prediction opportunities like KWL charts and individual white boards • Ask students to discuss information in pairs. Then, have on student from each pair share-out either their own or their partners ideas • Examples and non-examples columns: If you are asking students to list examples of odd numbers, and some students offer even numbers by mistake, you can add the even numbers to a “non-example” category so that the student contribution is still useful • When students answer incorrectly, if any part of their answer is correct, you should repeat that part of their answer before clarifying and correcting their mistake • Teach students about neuroplasticity - that they literally have the power to change their brains and become “smarter” by thinking, making predictions, incorporating corrective feedback, and practicing and using the information they learn. Executive Functions for Current and Future Challenges and Opportunities The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the region of the brain that allows us to make conscious decisions in regards to our thoughts and emotions. It is the last part of the brain to mature, and maturation continues into the mid twenties. The PFC, once mature, is associated with the highest cognitive processes, also referred to as executive functions. Executive functions can be thought of as the skills that would make a corporate executive successful. These include planning, decision-making, reasoning, and analysis. These executive functions further allow for: organizing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, self-assessing, abstracting, creative conceptual problem solving, focusing, and linking information in order to take appropriate actions. Mature humans are the only creatures with the ability to analyze their thoughts and behaviors and direct them in a way that leads to the successful fulfillment of their goals. However, even in college students (early to mid-twenties), these functions are still being developed. Following are several executive functions that educators can help support in their students: ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 45 Applying What We Know Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 12 o Judgment: This executive function, when developed, promotes a student’s ability to monitor the accuracy of his or her work. Techniques such estimation, and editing and revising one’s own written work require judgment. o Prioritizing: This executive function helps students to separate low relevance details from the main ideas of a text or topic of study. It also promotes one’s ability to combine separate facts into a broader concept. In college, many students still need to develop prioritizing skills to help them make the most efficient use of their time. o Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop this PFC executive function, they are limited in their capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable goals. They need support in recognizing their incremental progress towards their goals. o Metacognition: Assessment tasks that include opportunities for authentic transfer of learning to new contexts for exec function, concept and & long-term memory o Remembering and applying information from the past: The ability of students’ to apply “lessons” they have learned from past experiences to their current situation is still developing in some college students. To prepare students for college, job responsibilities, and life-long executive function use • Helping student to develop a personal responsibility for learning: In high school students may have relied on their teachers to keep them on track. High school teachers take attendance, call on students by name, and can even hold parent-teacher conferences. However in large college classes, students can feel anonymous. Students in a large lecture hall may hide behind their laptops, surfing the web instead of taking notes and asking questions. They feel that their relative anonymity to the professor will keep them from “getting in trouble”. Their lack of judgment prevents them from realizing that the information they are missing out on during the lecture will ultimately keep them from doing well in the class, and more importantly from learning and reaching their potential. Educators can help students see the link between in-class participation and success in college. Further, educators can spend some time talking with students about why they are in college and how to connect their broader life and career goals to the learning process. Students may require help shifting their focus from simply getting by with good grades, to taking ownership of their learning. • Students, throughout their educational journey, should be taught how to succeed in school: Students should be explicitly taught how to learn, study, organize, prioritize, review, and actively participate in class. They should be taught the reasons for any strategies or procedures they are told to use. • Making the switch from memorization to mental manipulation: Memorization that was adequate in high school is not the way students are graded in college. In college, and in many jobs, it is more about applying, communicating, and supporting what one knows. Students are asked to demonstrate executive function skills and conceptual knowledge by comparing and contrasting concepts, giving new examples of concepts, and transferring knowledge by applying big ideas to solve new types of problems. Educators can help students to recognize the ways in which they need to move beyond memorization. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 46 Applying What We Know Optional Activities for Workshop Participants A-M (acquisition and making-meaning) • Create a narrative to explain the functions of the (RAS, amygdala, etc.) to a young student (or to a student in a grade you teach). • Pair-Share to summarize your understanding of… • Create an analogy, flow chart, skit, song/rap, graphic organizer, or diagram to represent the function and/or processing that takes place in the … • What strategies have you used to (promote curiosity, reduce stress, activate prior knowledge, etc.). Select one to share at your table group. An additional option to get more ideas is a “jigsaw” or “card party” where you write down the strategies from your group and move to different tables to hear their lists then return to your group and each share your favorites from those you just heard. • Select a dend-write from the 3 choices to complete. Hand it in at the end of today’s workshop and I’ll demonstrate the multiple uses of the dend-writes with your responses tomorrow. Dend-Writes (a word play on the neural structures called ‘dendrites’) are brief thinking/writing assignments that students do to help them make sense of and consolidate new learning. They also can provide teacher feedback such as checking for understanding. I usually have students write on small note cards. Following are the ten Dend-Write prompts that I posted in my classroom: 1. Create an analogy about what you learned; write what it reminded you of, or how it fits with what you already know. 2. Draw a picture, diagram, or graphic organizer of what you learned. 3. Write a reaction/reflection of how something you learned relates to your life. 4. Write about something that made you wonder or surprised you - a new insight or discovery. 5. What do you predict will come next? 6. How could you (or someone in a profession) use this knowledge? 7. What did you understand today that you haven’t understood before? What is something that you are confused about or find difficult? 8. What was the part of lesson that you enjoyed the most? What was the part that was most difficult for you? 9. What strategy did you use to solve a problem today? 10. “So What?” – What do you think were the most important things in the lesson? What are they important ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 47 Applying What We Know Optional Activities for Workshop Participants (continued) When and how to use Dend-Writes: • When checking for understanding, especially when on-going feedback tells you there are problems, you can use Dend-Write prompts such as #4, #7, or #8. Students should always start the response by including the positive statement that relates to the first part of the question. For #8 one would write, “The part of the lesson I enjoyed the most was ………and something that still confuses me is…” In that way the student will have a burst of brain satisfaction (dopamine) because they are recognizing an accomplishment. They then feel less anxious expressing what they still find confusing or difficult in the second part of their Dend-Write. • Feedback to you - how accurately the lesson was understood • Before the next class correct any misperceptions you discover • Make check marks on cards that you think the rest of the class would benefit from hearing. Students with checks share those insights with the class as a review or to promote discussion. (Because the teacher has identified the card as useful or correct, it lowers participation anxiety of the student presenters because they are confident that their responses are correct) • Students can add to their own notes based on what they learn from hearing the information on their classmate’s Dend-Write • Cards can become study aides • Posted on bulletin boards, Dend-Write cards cover important information for students who were absent and provide review information before the next class or the test. Transfer: Applying your new learning to your professional work • Make an animoto to “advertise” your topic (unit/meeting) • Write in your handout under the section for _______ which strategies you could apply to your unit/meeting to promote the neurological processing in this brain network/filter/structure or to increase the dopamine effect. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 48 Applying What We Know Glossary of Neuroscience Terms Amygdala: Part of limbic system in the temporal lobe. It was first believed to function as a brain center for responding only to anxiety and fear. When the amygdala is in this state of stress, fear, or anxiety-induced overactivation, new information coming through the sensory intake areas of the brain cannot pass through the amygdala’s filter to gain access to the prefrontal cortex and the information is conducted to the lower, reactive brain. Axon: The single fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits messages to the dendrites of other neurons (or to body tissues). Cerebral Cortex: This outer layer of the brain where most neurons are located is also called gray matter due to the coloration of the neurons. The cerebral cortex is associated with the highest cognitive processes, also referred to as executive functions, including planning, decision-making, reasoning, and analysis. Dendrite: Branched protoplasmic extensions that sprout from the arms (axons) or the cell bodies of neurons. Dendrites conduct electrical impulses toward the neighboring neurons. A single nerve may possess many dendrites. Dendrites increase in size and number in response to learned skills, experience, and information storage. New dendrites grow as branches from frequently activated neurons. Dopamine: A neurotransmitter most associated with attention, decision-making, executive function, and reward-stimulated learning. Dopamine release on neuroimaging has been found to increase in response to rewards and positive experiences. Scans reveal greater dopamine release while subjects are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving self-acknowledgement for achievement. Executive Function: Cognitive processing of information for higher functions such as organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, planning, prioritizing, sequencing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment, abstractions, problem solving, attention focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions. Graphic organizers: Diagrams that are designed to coincide with the brain’s style of patterning. For sensory information to be encoded (the initial processing of the information entering from the senses), consolidated, and stored the information must be patterned into a brain-compatible form. Graphic organizers can promote this more patterning if they guide students’ brains when they participate in this creating of relevant connections to their existing memory circuitry. Hippocampus: A ridge in the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain that consists mainly of gray matter that has a major role in memory processes. The hippocampus takes sensory inputs and integrates them with relational or associational patterns thereby binding the separate aspects of the experience into storable patterns of relational memories. Limbic System A group of interconnected deep brain structures involved in olfaction (smell), ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 49 Applying What We Know GLOSSARY (continued) Neuron: Specialized cells in the brain and throughout the nervous system that conduct electrical impulses to, from, and within the brain. Neurons are composed of a main cell body, a single axon for outgoing electrical signals, and a varying number of dendrites for incoming signals in electrical form. There are more than 100 billion neurons in an average adult brain. Neuronal Circuits or Neuronal Networks: Neurons communicate with each other by sending coded messages along electro-chemical connections. When there is repeated stimulation of specific patterns of a group of neurons, their connecting circuit becomes more developed and more accessible to efficient stimulation and response. This is where practice (repeated stimulation of grouped neuronal connections in neuronal circuits) results in more successful recall. Neuroplasticity: Dendrite formation and dendrite and neuron destruction (pruning) allows the brain to reshape and reorganize the networks of dendrite-neuron connections in response to increased or decreased use of these pathways. Plasticity refers to the ability of synapses, neurons, or regions of the brain to change their properties in response to usage (stimulation). Neurotransmitters: Brain proteins that are released by the electrical impulses on one side of the synapse, to then float across the synaptic gap carrying the information with them to stimulate the next nerve ending in the pathway. Once the neurotransmitter is taken up by next nerve ending, the electric impulse is reactivated to travel along to the next nerve. Neurotransmitters in the brain include serotonin, tryptophan, acetylcholine, dopamine, and others that transport information across synapses. When neurotransmitters are depleted, by too much information traveling through a nerve circuit without a break, the speed of transmission along the nerve slows down to a less efficient level. Prefrontal Cortex (front part of the frontal lobe): The prefrontal cortex responds to event and memory processing and makes conscious decisions. It is the region of the frontal lobe where the brain directs the planning of the movements to do a task Reticular Activating System (RAS): This lower part of the posterior brain filters all incoming stimuli and making the “decision” as to what people attend or ignore. The Reticular Activating System alerts the brain to sensory input that sense receptors in the body send up the spinal cord. The main categories that focus the attention of the RAS and therefore the student include physical need, choice, and novelty. Scaffolding: This is instruction based on the concept that learning always proceeds from the known to the new. Students construct their new learning on the foundations of what they already know with the help of teachers, parents, or a more knowledgeable other who support them with instruction to help them build upon the abilities and knowledge they have to reach a higher level. Synapse: These gaps between nerve endings are where neurotransmitters like dopamine carry information across the space separating the axon extensions of one neuron from the dendrite that leads to the next neuron in the pathway. Before and after crossing the synapse as a chemical message, information is carried in an electrical state when it travels down the nerve. It is through synaptic transmission that cells in the central nervous system communicate when an axon sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft to activate the receptor on the adjacent dendrite. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 50 Applying What We Know What Is Exemplary Design for Learning? 1. Think back to your many prior experiences with well-designed learning, both in and out of school. What was the most well-designed learning experience you have ever encountered as a learner? What features of the design - not the teacher’s style or your interests - made the learning so engaging and effective? (Design elements include: challenges posed, sequence of activities, resources provided, assignments, assessments, groupings, site, accommodation of differences, teacher’s role, etc.). 2. In sharing your recollections and analyses with your colleagues, build a list of generalizations that follow from the accounts. What do well-designed learning experiences have in common? In other words, what must be built in “by design” for any learning experience to be maximally effective and engaging for students? The best designs for learning...  •  •  •  •  •  •  • ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 51 Applying What We Know W.H.E.R.E.T.O. Considerations for the Learning Plan The acronym W.H.E.R.E.T.O. summarizes the key elements that should be found in your learning plan, given the desired results and assessments drafted in Stages 1 and 2. Note that the elements need not appear in the same order as the letters of the acronym. Think of W.H.E.R.E.T.O. as a checklist for building and evaluating the final learning plan, not a suggested sequence. For example, the learning might start with a Hook (H), followed by instruction on the final performance requirements (W), then perhaps some rethinking of earlier work (R), etc. H How will we hook and hold student interest? E W How will we equip students for expected performances? Where are we going? Why? What is expected? W.H.E.R.E.T.O. R O How will we help students rethink and revise? How will we organize and sequence the learning? T How will we tailor learning to varied needs, interests, styles? ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis E How will students self-evaluate and reflect on their learning? page 52 Applying What We Know W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – Questions to Consider for the “W” The “W” in W.H.E.R.E.T.O. should be considered from the students’ perspective. By working through “backward design,” designers should be clear about their goals and the evidence needed to show the extent that students have achieved them. Now, we seek to help the students become clear about the goals/expectations and the purpose/benefits of achieving them. Research and experience show that students are more likely to focus and put forth effort when they have clarity on the goals/expectations and see a purpose/value for the intended learning. Goals Expectations • Where are we going in this unit/course? • What are the goals or standards toward which we are working? • What will students be learning? • What resources and learning experiences will help us get there? • What is expected of students? • What are key assignments and assessments? • In what ways will students be expected to demonstrate learning? ...understanding? • What criteria and performance standards will be used for assessment? W Relevance/ Value • Why is this worth learning? • In what ways will this knowledge/these skills benefit students in school? ...in the future? ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Diagnosis • From where are students coming? • What prior knowledge, interests, learning styles, talents do they bring? • What misconceptions may exist? page 53 Applying What We Know W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – Examples for the “W” Goals Expectations ❏ Directly state the desired results at the beginning of the unit. ❏ Present unit/course goals, syllabus, and schedule on first day. ❏ Post and discuss essential question(s) at the start of unit. ❏ Invite students to generate questions. ❏ Ask students to identify personal goals. ❏ Present the culminating performance task requirements. ❏ Review scoring rubric(s). ❏ Show models/exemplars for expected products/performances. ❏ Involve students in identifying preliminary evaluation criteria. W Relevance/Utility ❏ Present the rationale for the unit/course goals. ❏ Discuss the benefits to students. ❏ Identify people and places beyond the classroom where this knowledge/ these skills are applied. ❏ Use K-W-L to have students identify things they want to learn. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Diagnosis ❏ Give a pre-test on content knowledge. ❏ Give a diagnostic skills test. ❏ Use K-W-L to see what students already know (or think they know). ❏ Have students create a visual organizer to reveal their initial knowledge and understandings. ❏ Check for possible/probable misconceptions. page 54 Applying What We Know Ideas for Diagnostic (Pre-) Assessment The following pre-assessment techniques provide efficient diagostic checks of student prior knowledge and misconceptions. This information guides any differentiatied instruction/assessment that may be needed. K-W-L-S Prior to the introduction of a new topic or skill, ask students what they already Know (or think they know) about the topic or skill. These are recorded on a board or chart paper under the “K” column. (Sometimes, students make statements that are incorrect or reveal misconceptions.) Secondly, ask them what they Want to know (or what questions they have) about the topic/skill. These are recorded under the “W” column. (Their questions often reveal interests or “hooks” to the topic. In some cases, their questions reveal misconceptions that will need to be addressed.) As the lesson or unit proceeds, Learnings are summarized and recorded in the “L” column as they occur. (This provides an opportunity to go back and correct any misconceptions that may have been initially recorded in the “K” column.) Pre-Test (non-graded) Give students a pre-test to check their prior knowledge of key facts and concepts. Use the results to plan instruction and selection of resources. (Make sure that students know that the results will not count toward fianl grades.) Skills Check (non-graded) Have students demonstrate their proficiency with a targeted skill or process. It is helpful to have a proficiency checklist or developmental rubric to use in assessing the degree of skill competence. Students can then use the checklist or rubric for on-going self assessment. Web/Concept Map Ask students to create a web or concept map to show the elements or components of a topic or process. This technique is especially effective in revealing whether students have gaps in their knowledge and the extent to which they understand relationships among the elements. Misconception Check Present students with common errors or predictable misconceptions regarding a designated topic, concept, skill or process. See if they are able to identify the error or misconception and explain why it is erroneous or flawed. The misconception check can also be presented in the form of a true-false quiz, where students must agree or disagree with statements or examples. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 55 Know Want to Know Learned So What? An efficient and effective way to check for students’ prior knowledge and interests is through the use of a K-W-L-S Chart. At the beginning of a unit or course, students are asked what they Know (or think they know) about the given topic. These items are recorded in the K column of the K-W-L-S Chart, posted on a board or flip chart. Then, they are asked to pose questions about the topic (i.e., what they Want to know), and their questions are recorded in the W column. As the unit unfolds, the L column is used to summarize key things that the class has Learned about the topic. As the unit concudes, the class considers the implications of their learning (i.e., So What?). The S column is used to list ways in which the new knowledge will be useful to them inside and outside of school. K-W-L-S Chart Applying What We Know ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 56 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Novice Proficiency Developing Proficient Expert page 57 *Sticks: ___ childs Chopsticks are gripped incorrectly and/or held near the bottom. Both sticks move or cross when food is gripped. ___ standard effect Foods are consistently missed and/or regularly dropped. User may to resort to “stabbing” the food to avoid hunger. Foods are occasionally missed and/or dropped. The user is able to eat, albeit quite slowly and deliberately. Desired foods are consistently selected and rarely dropped. Conversation may pause during food selection. Desired food selection is precise. The user eats as quickly (and as much) as desired, while carrying on conversation w/ other diners. ___ metal The chopstick motions appear labored and awkward, requiring intense concentration. The chopstick motions appear mechanical, requiring deliberate effort. The chopstick motions are generally smooth and fluent, with minimal concentration required. Chopsticks are gripped correctly and held near the far end. The bottom stick moves slightly when food is gripped. Chopsticks are gripped incorrectly and/or held near the middle. The bottom stick moves when food is gripped. The chopstick motions are smooth. The motion appears effortless and gracefull, with no wasted energy. Chopsticks are gripped correctly and held at the far end. The bottom stick does not move when food is gripped. fluency grip Rubric for Using Chopsticks* Applying What We Know Applying What We Know W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – “Hooking” the Learners Effective teachers recognize the importance of hooking the student at the beginning of a new learning experience and holding their interest throughout. The “H” in W.H.E.R.E.T.O. directs designers to consider ways of engaging students in the topic and pointing toward big ideas, essential questions, and performance tasks -- by design. Use the list below to brainstrom possible “hooks” for your unit design. H Hook Hold How will you hook and hold student interests? ❏ ❏ ❏ ❏ ❏ ❏ ❏ odd fact, anomaly, counter-intuitive example ___________________ provocative entry question ________________________________ mystery ______________________________________________ challenge _____________________________________________ problem/issue _________________________________________ experiment -- predict outcome _____________________________ role-play or simulation ___________________________________ ❏ personal experiences ____________________________________ ❏ allow student choice for: _________________________________ ❏ emotional connection ____________________________________ ❏ humor _______________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 58 Applying What We Know Teaching and Learning for Understanding What does it mean to teach and learn for understanding? We have found it useful to consider this question by examining three distinct, yet interrelated, learning goals: 1) acquisition of new information and skill, 2) making meaning of that content (i.e., coming to understand), and 3) transfer of one’s knowledge (i.e., applying one’s learning to new situations). These three categories link directly to elements identified in Understanding by Design. In Stage 1 teachers specify the knowledge and skill that they intend students to acquire. They also decide upon the “big ideas” they want students to come to understand and develop essential questions to help students make meaning of those ideas. In Stage 2, teachers develop performance tasks requiring transfer as evidence that students understand and can apply their knowledge in authentic contexts. Make Meaning Acquire important knowlege and skils of “big ideas” (key principles and strategies) Transfer learning to new situations ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 59 Applying What We Know What is Fair? Who won this year’s 7th grade race around the campus? Every year at Birdsong Middle School, there is an all-class race. Below are the results for the 7th grade (which is made up of four different classes of 7th grade). But there is a problem: no one agrees on who won! One person thinks Class C should win the trophy because they had the 1st runner overall in the race. Another person thinks Class D should win because they had 3 runners come in under 10th place. A third person says: just find the average. But a 4th person said: wait a minute – Class C had way more students in their class than Class D! Averages won’t be fair. A 5th person says: use the scoring system in Cross Country – just add up the place of finish of the top 5 and lowest total wins. A 6th person says – unfair! Some classes did well in the first few runners but poorly in the middle! Why should they win? Now, everyone is confused and arguing. What is the most fair solution? Who should win the trophy? Your group, well-known in the school as a group of expert mathematicians (and widely known and respected for your sense of fairness) is being consulted as to who should win the trophy. What will you recommend and why? Class rank Class A Class B 1 4 6 2 9 7 3 11 10 4 12 13 5 20 16 6 21 22 7 25 24 8 26 27 9 29 34 10 35 39 11 43 40 12 45 42 13 49 48 14 54 52 15 61 53 16 65 62 17 69 66 18 70 72 19 71 20 Class C 1 3 14 18 19 23 28 30 32 41 44 47 50 56 60 63 64 68 73 74 Class D 2 5 8 15 17 31 33 36 37 38 46 51 55 57 58 59 67 Notes on the chart: • The numbers in the chart, from 1 to 74 represent the place of finish of that runner. So, the overall race winner was from Class C, the number two runner overall was in Class D, etc. • Class rank refers to the rank of finish place in that class, not the overall race. So, the first runner in class A was 4th overall in the race, the 2nd best runner in class A came in 9th overall, etc. • The blanks reflect the fact that each of the 4 classes has a different number of students. Class D has 20 students, CLASS A has 19 students, etc. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 60 Applying What We Know Stage 3: Instruction and Learning Activities. A = acquiring basic knowledge and skills M = making meaning T = transfer MATHEMATICS Unit on Measures of Central Tendency Essential Question: What is fair - and how can mathematics help us answer the question? 1. Introduce and discuss the essential question, first part - What is ‘fair’? What is ‘unfair’? M 2. Introduce the 7th grade race problem. Which 7th-grade class section won the race? What is a fair way to decide? Small-group inquiry, followed by class discussion of answers. M 3. Teacher informs students about the mathematical connections derived from the problem analysis, and lays out the unit and its culminating transfer task. A 4. In small-group jigsaw, students share their answers to the INQUIRY sheet, then return to their team to generalize from all the small-group work. Discuss other examples related to the concept of “fairness” such as the following. M • What is a fair way to rank many teams when they do not all play each other? • What is a fair way to split up limited food among hungry people of very different sizes? • When is it ‘fair’ to use majority vote and when is it not fair? What might be fairer? • Is it fair to have apportioned Representatives based on a state’s population, yet have two Senators from each state irrespective of their size? What might be fairer? • What are fair and unfair ways of representing how much money the “average” worker earns, for purposes of making government policy? 5. Teacher connects the discussion to the next section in the textbook - measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation). A 6. Students practice calculating each type of measure. A 7. Teacher gives quiz on mean, median, mode from textbook. 8. Teacher leads a review and discussion of the quiz results. A A M 9. Group task worked on in class: What is the fairest possible grading system for schools to use? M T 10. Individuals and small teams present their grading policy recommendations and reasons. M T 11. Culminating transfer task: Each student determines which measure (mean, median or mode) should be used to calculate their grade for the marking period and write a note to the teacher showing their calculations and explaining their choice. T 12. Students write a reflection on the essential question. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 61 © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe What habits of mind and cross-disciplinary goal(s) – e.g. 21st century skills, core competencies – will this unit address? What Content Standards, Program and/or Mission related goal(s) will this unit address? Established Goals UbD Template 2.0 What facts and basic concepts should students know and be able to recall? Students will know... What thought-provoking questions will foster inquiry, meaning making, and transfer? ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Students will keep considering... What discrete skills and processes should students be able to use? Acquisition of Knowledge & Skill Students will be skilled at... What inferences should they make? What specifically do you want students to understand? UNDERSTANDINGS Students will understand that... Meaning What kinds of long-term, independent accomplishments are desired? Students will be able to independently use their learning to... Transfer Stage 1 – Desired Results 62 Regardless of the format of the assessment, what qualities are most important? What criteria will be used in each assessment to evaluate attainment of the Desired Results? Evaluative Criteria Students will show they have achieved Stage 1 goals by... What other evidence will you collect to determine whether Stage 1 goals were achieved? OTHER EVIDENCE Consider the six facets when developing assessments of understanding. Optional: Use the G.R.A.S.P.S. elements to frame an authentic context for the task(s). How will students demonstrate their understanding (meaningmaking and transfer) through complex performance? Students will show they really understand by... Assessment Evidence Stage 2 – Evidence PERFORMANCE TASK(S) © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Are all of the Desired Results being appropriately assessed? Coding UbD Template 2.0 63 Stage 3 – Learning Plan Optional: Use the column on the left to code your learning activities; e.g., their alignment with Stage 1 elements, T-M-A, or W.H.E.R.E.T.O. While detailed lesson plans are not expected here, you should include sufficient information so that another teacher who is familiar with the unit’s content could understand and follow the basic learning plan. Is the plan likely to be engaging and effective for all students? Is there tight alignment with Stages 1 and 2? Does the learning plan reflect principles of learning and best practices? Are all three types of goals (acquisition, meaning, and transfer) addressed in the learning plan? Learning Events Student will be equipped for success at transfer, meaning-making, and acquisition by... What pre-assessments will you use to check students’ prior knowledge, skill levels and potential misconceptions? © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe What’s the goal for (or type of) each event? Coding UbD Template 2.0 64 How will students get the feedback they need and opportunities to make use of it? What are potential rough spots and student misunderstandings? How will you monitor students’ progress towards acquisition, meaning-making, and transfer, during lesson events? Progress Monitoring Pre-assessment © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Source: American Driver & Traffic Safety Association G4 Demonstrate balanced vehicle movement through steering, braking, and accelerating in a precise and timely manner throughout a variety of adverse conditions G3 Interact with other users within the Highway Transportation System by adjusting speed, space, and communications to avoid conflicts and reduce risk G2 Use visual search skills to obtain correct information and make reduced-risk decisions for effective speed and position adjustments knowledge of rules, regulations and procedures of operating an automobile G1 Demonstrate a working National Driver Development Standards Established Goals UbD Template 2.0 K1 the driving laws of their state, province or country K2 rules of the road for legal, courteous and defensive driving K3 basic car features and functions Students will know... S1 procedures of safe driving under varied traffic, road & weather conditions S2 signalling/communicating intentions S3 quick response to surprises S4 parallel parking 65 Q2 What makes a courteous and defensive driver? Q1 What must I anticipate and do to minimize risk and accidents when I drive? ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Students will keep considering... Acquisition of Knowledge & Skill Students will be skilled at... UNDERSTANDINGS Students will understand that... U1 Defensive driving assumes that other drivers are not attentive and that they might make sudden or ill-advised moves. U2 The time needed to stop or react is deceptively small, thus requiring constant anticipation & attention. U3 Effective drivers constantly adapt to the various traffic, road, & weather conditions. Meaning T2 anticipate and adapt their knowledge of safe and defensive driving to various traffic, road and weather conditions. T1 drive courteously and defensively without accidents or needless risk. Students will be able to independently use their learning to... Transfer Stage 1 – Desired Results Students will show they have achieved Stage 1 goals by... 8. Driving (road) test required for getting a license. 7. Written test required for getting a license. 6. Observation of student driver while using the simulator and while driving. 5. Self-assess your driving and parking in Tasks 1 - 3 in terms of courteous & defensive. Discuss adjustments made. OTHER EVIDENCE 4. Booklet: Develop an illustrated booklet for other young drivers to help them understand the “big ideas” of safe and effective driving. 3. Task: Same task as #1 but in rush hour traffic. 2. Task: Same task as #1 but during rainy conditions. 1. Task: Drive locally (e.g., from home to school and back), with adult supervision. The goal is to demonstrate skillful, responsive, and defensive driving under realworld conditions. Students will show they really understand by... Assessment Evidence Stage 2 – Evidence PERFORMANCE TASK(S) © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe • knows the law • meets driving test criteria • skilled Skill & Transfer Goals Knowledge & Skill Goals; Basic Transfer • accurate • perceptive • responsive to varied conditions • obeys traffic laws • skillful • courteous/ defensive • anticipates well Evaluative Criteria Meaning Goals Meaning Goals Transfer goals Coding UbD Template 2.0 66 The skill is introduced and modelled. It is practiced and applied with overt instructional guidance. It is practiced and applied correctly when prompted. It is applied correctly and consistently without any prompting. Car Check Safety Checks Controls & Instruments Starting up, Moving and Stopping Safe Positioning Mirrors Signals Circles Pedestrian Crossings Highways Turns Reversing Parking Emergency Stopping Security Separate skill development and real-world practice in – © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Anticipation & Planning Ahead Use of Speed Other Traffic Intersections Darkness Weather Conditions Rules & Laws ACQUIRE KEY SKILLS & FACTS and use them in context: Experience and equipping via direct instruction and video simultaors is provided in terms of how to handle: Wet Roads, Dry Roads, Darkness Daylight, Highway, City, Country. Direct Instruction on key laws and rules of the road, and practice tests are used. MAKE MEANING: Students are prompted to reflect upon and generalize about the driving experience via discussion of the essential questions after each virtual and real road experience. Written self-assessment is required after each driving experience. Expert driving is modeled via video and the driving instructor, and the driver generalizes about good (vs. not so good) driving. • • • • Driving instruction is geared toward developing increasing levels of autonomous proficiency (i.e., transfer). Whether beginning with the driving simulator in the classroom or to actual driving on roads, the following sequence (a gradual release of responsibility) is employed: Learning Events Student will be equipped for success at transfer, meaning-making, and acquisition by... Pre-assessment of driving knowledge, skill, understandings, and attitudes using surveys and simulators. Stage 3 – Learning Plan Code Key: T = transfer, M = Meaning-making, A = Acquisition A M T Coding UbD Template 2.0 67 * not perceiving speed of oncoming cars during merges and turns * not accurately responding during changes in road conditions * failure to check mirrors and peripheral vision • Look for such common misconceptions and skill deficits as - Formative assessment and informal feedback by instructor as student tries to apply skills learned while driving off-road Progress Monitoring Pre-assessment © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe VIRGINIA VISUAL ARTS STANDARDS 4.20 – The student will identify and investigate ways that works of art from popular culture reflect the past and influence the present. 7.23 – The student will analyze, interpret, and judge works of art based on biographical, historical, or contextual information. VIRGINIA SOCIAL STUDIES STANDARDS – Virigina History a) identify and interpret artifacts and primary and secondary source documents to understand events in history; f) sequence events in Virginia history; g) interpret ideas and events from different historical perspectives Established Goals UbD Template 2.0 - decline of agricultural society - growth of industrialization - move from rural to urban society - impact of segregation (e.g., Jim Crow laws) - impact of desegregation the basic history of early 20th-century Virginia, including the: Students will know... - conducting 4-part art criticism process - critically examining historical photographs - interpreting ideas from different perspectives - comparing primary and secondary sources - describing and sequencing historical events 68 • Whose “story” is it? • How do we know what really happened in the past? • What roles do race and gender play in creating and interpreting history? • What can a photograph tell us about a society? • How should we “read” an historical account, artifact or photograph? Can we trust them? ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Students will keep considering... Acquisition of Knowledge & Skill Students will be skilled at... • History consists of “his” story and “her” story. • There are often different perspectives on what happened in the past. • One’s experiences influence one’s view of history. Race and gender influence historical interpretation. • Photographs can reveal but also mislead. • Critical reading and viewing is necessary to recognize incomplete or biased accounts of the past. UNDERSTANDINGS Students will understand that... Meaning • Recognize that history involves interpretation of past events, and that historical interpretations typically reflect a singular perspective, an incomplete account, or deliberate bias. • Critically evaluate historical accounts. Students will be able to independently use their learning to... Transfer Stage 1 – Desired Results the significance of the selected events the perspective or point of view of the photographs • Clear and appropriate reflections • Effective analysis of perspective • Critical analysis • Historically accurate • Well-crafted display • • • Thorough explanation of: • Historically accurate Evaluative Criteria • Series of journal entries - reflections on events/time periods from different perspectives (race, gender, economic status) • Historical analysis sheet (perspectives) • “Reading” art and 4-part criticism worksheets • Quizzes on historical facts and sequence of events Students will show they have achieved Stage 1 goals by... http://cass.etsu.edu/ARCHIVES/photoapp.htm http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/afam/raceandplace/index.htm OTHER EVIDENCE 1. the significance of the event shown (i.e., how it reveals an important transition occurring in early 20th-century Virginia); AND 2. the perspective or point of view of the photograph * Students have access to archives of historical photos at the following websites: Your task is to choose two significant events or transition periods from early 20th-century Virginia.* Then, select several photographs that represent each event from two or more perspectives. Prepare a commentary for each selected photograph in which you explain: 69 The Virginia Historical Society has invited you to prepare an exhibit to inform the public about significant transitions that occurred in early 20th-century Virginia society and show various points of view through which this history can be seen. The exhibit will be presented using historical photographs with commentaries. Students will show they really understand by... (framed using GRASPS) Assessment Evidence Stage 2 – Evidence PERFORMANCE TASK(S) © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Coding UbD Template 2.0 Introduce a representative photo and one with another point of view. Lead students in 4-part art criticism process (describe, interpret, analyze, evaluate), which will get them into the history depicted, the human subject, what the photographer wanted us to see, ... Complete Historical Analysis sheet (looking at stakeholders’ perspectives and outcomes of event) Compare and contrast photo with text information (Venn diagram - primary/secondary sources). Continue these comparisons with most photos. Self-evaluation. Exhibit display (“gallery walk”). Analysis of peer’s selections. Daily journal entries. Prompt: Reflect on the event, considering different perspectives and your own personal connection. Share in small groups. ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND FOR THE UNIT Post and discuss essential questions and understandings. Introduce Performance Task 1: Take a Walk in Someone Else’s Shoes. Discuss rubric. Present and discuss exemplar for Task 2. Discuss rubric. Time to begin task. Facilitate SQ3R of textbook (and/or other resource) information regarding topic. M T M M M A © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Lead a Socratic Seminar on a photo. In middle of seminar, present another photo showing same ‘event’ with different perspective (segregated restaurant/African-American patrons). Continue seminar, now comparing two photos. INTERPRET PHOTOS Distribute letter from Historical Society (task 2) and rubric. Present photo collection. Present students with an engaging photo of people in early 20th century Virginia, depicting a certain event or time of social transition (ex. segregated restaurant/white patrons). Ask them to create a caption that might accompany the photo in a magazine of the time period. Students share their captions. Learning Events Student will be equipped for success at transfer, meaning-making, and acquisition by... Stage 3 – Learning Plan M M Coding UbD Template 2.0 70 Progress Monitoring Pre-assessment © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Established Goals UbD Template 2.0 Students will know... ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Students will keep considering... Acquisition of Knowledge & Skill Students will be skilled at... UNDERSTANDINGS Students will understand that... Meaning Students will be able to independently use their learning to... Transfer Stage 1 – Desired Results 71 Evaluative Criteria OTHER EVIDENCE Students will show they have achieved Stage 1 goals by... Students will show they really understand by... Assessment Evidence Stage 2 – Evidence PERFORMANCE TASK(S) © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Coding UbD Template 2.0 72 Stage 3 – Learning Plan Learning Events Student will be equipped for success at transfer, meaning-making, and acquisition by... © 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe Coding UbD Template 2.0 73 Progress Monitoring Pre-assessment Applying What We Know Four Types of Goals Consider these four goal types – Knowledge (K), Skill (S), Understanding (U), and Transfer (T) – for the same academic topic, to illustrate the value of these distinctions (i.e. to help you with your meaning-making). HISTORY Topic: The Declaration of Independence • Know the names of the writers of the Declaration of Independence (K). • Use your research skill to learn about one of the signers of the Declaration (S). • Analyze the Declaration in terms of the historical context and its “audience” and “purpose” to develop a thesis. (U) • Apply your analysis to role-play a signer of the Declaration in a simulated town meeting where you explain your decision to your townspeople and are prepared to respond to criticism of your stance. (T) WORLD LANGUAGE Topic: Beginning Spanish • Know the most common phrases related to asking directions. (K) • Use your emerging skill with the present tense (and your knowledge of common phrases) to translate simple teacher prompts that begin Donde esta... ? (S) • A student argues: “One past tense is enough, and it’s too hard to learn two! Why bother?” Write a letter, make a podcast, or create a YouTube video to explain why having different past tenses is needed for precise communication in Spanish. (U) • Role play: You must ask about various trains that have departed and will soon depart, in a simulation of being in a crowded train station with little time. Some speakers will speak more quickly and idiomatically than others. (T) MATHEMATICS Topic: Linear relationships in Algebra • Know the meaning of “slope” and that y=mx+b. (K) • Graph various linear pairs. (S) • Explain, in general terms, how linear relationships help anyone find the price point but are not likely to help you predict sales. (U) • Use linear equations and real data to help you determine the price point for selling store-bought donuts and homemade coffee at athletic events in order to make a profit for a fundraiser. (T) ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 74 Applying What We Know Stage 3: Instruction and Learning Activities. A = acquiring basic knowledge and skills M = making meaning T = transfer 1. Begin with an entry question (Can the foods you eat cause zits?) to hook students into considering the effects of nutrition on their lives. M 2. Introduce the essential questions and discuss the culminating unit performance tasks (Chow Down and Eating Action Plan). M 3. Note: Key vocabulary terms are introduced as needed by the various learning activities and performance tasks. Students read and discuss relevant selections from the Health textbook to support the learning activities and tasks. As an on-going activity students keep a chart of their daily eating and drinking for later review and evaluation. A 4. Present concept attainment lesson on the food groups. Then, have students practice categorizing pictures of foods accordingly. M 5. Introduce the Food Pyramid and identify foods in each group. Students work in groups to develop a poster of the Food Pyramid containing cut-out pictures of foods in each group. Display the posters in the classroom or hallway. A 6. Give quiz on the Food groups and Food Pyramid (matching format). E 7. Review and discuss the nutrition brochure from the USDA. Discussion question: Must everyone follow the same diet in order to be healthy? A M 8. Working in cooperative groups, students analyze a hypothetical family*s diet (deliberately unbalanced) and make recommendations for improved nutrition. Teacher observes and coaches students as they work. M T 9. Have groups share their diet analyses and discuss as a class. M (Note: Teacher collects and reviews the diet analyses to look for misunderstandings needing instructional attention.) 10. Each student designs an illustrated nutrition brochure to teach younger children about the importance of good nutrition for healthy living and the problems associated with poor eating. This activity is completed outside of class. M T 11. Show and discuss the video, Nutrition and You. Discuss the health problems linked to poor eating. A 12. Students listen to, and question, a guest speaker (nutritionist from the local hospital) about health problems caused by poor nutrition. A 13. Students respond to written prompt: Describe two health problems that could arise as a result of poor nutrition and explain what changes in eating could help to avoid them. (These are collected and graded by teacher.) A 14. Teacher models how to read and interpret food label information on nutritional values. Then, have students practice using donated boxes, cans and bottles (empty!). A 15. Students work independently to develop the 3-day camp menu. T 16. At the conclusion of the unit, students review their completed daily eating chart and self assess the “healthfulness” of their eating. Have they noticed changes? Improvements? Do they notice changes in how they feel and/or their appearance? M T 17. Students develop a personal “eating action plan” for healthful eating. These are saved and presented at upcoming student-involved parent conferences. T 18. Conclude the unit with student self evaluation regarding their personal eating habits. Have each student develop a personal action plan for their “healthful eating” goal. M T ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 75 Applying What We Know Coding Assessments Using A - M - T Example - unit on Nutrition - grades 5-6 Performance Tasks: You Are What You Eat – Students create an illustrated brochure to teach younger children about the importance of good nutrition for healthful living. A, M, T Chow Down – Students develop a 3-day menu for meals and snacks for an upcoming Outdoor Education camp experience. They write a letter to the camp director to explain why their menu should be selected (by showing that it meets the USDA Food Pyramid recommendations, yet tasty enough for the students). A, T Other Evidence: (e.g., tests, quizzes, prompts, work samples, observations, etc.) Quiz 1 - the food groups and the USDA Food Pyramid Quiz 2 - read nutrition information on food labels A A Prompt - Describe two health problems that could arise as a result of poor nutrition and explain how these could be avoided. A, M Self Assessment - To what extent are you “eat healthy” now (at the end of unit compared to the beginning)? What specific actions can you take to improve your nutrition? T ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 76 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Note: Like the above learning goals, these three teaching roles (and their associated methods) work together in pursuit of identified learning results. Teacher Role/ Instructional Strategies Three Interrelated Learning Goals → m differentiation m feedback, corrections, m guided practice m process guides m demonstration/modeling m questioning (convergent) m graphic organizers m advanced organizers m lecture m diagnostic assessment Strategies include: Direct Instruction In this role, the teacher’s primary role is to inform the learners through explicit instruction in targeted knowledge and skills; differentiating as needed. This goal seeks to help learners acquire factual information and basic skills. ACQUIRE Facilitative Teaching Teachers in this role engage the learners in actively processing information and guide their inquiry into complex problems, texts, projects, cases, or simulations; differentiating as needed. Strategies include: m diagnostic assessment m using analogies m graphic organizers m questioning (divergent) & probing m concept attainment m inquiry-oriented approaches m Problem-Based Learning m Socratic Seminar m Reciprocal Teaching m formative (on-going) assessments m understanding notebook m feedback/ corrections m rethinking and reflection prompts This goal seeks to help students construct meaning (i.e., come to an understanding) of important ideas and processes. MAKE MEANING This goal seeks to support the learner’s ability to transfer their learning autonomously and effectively in new situations. TRANSFER Coaching In a coaching role, teachers establish clear performance goals, supervise on-going opportunities to perform (independent practice) in increasingly complex situations, provide models and give ongoing feedback (as personalized as possible). They also provide “just in time teaching” (direct instruction) when needed. Strategies include: m on-going assessment, m providing specific feedback in the context of authentic application m conferencing m prompting self assess- ment and reflection Learning Goals and Teaching Roles Applying What We Know page 77 Note: Not every learner action will be applicable to every situation. Nonetheless, these are the kinds of learner actions needed to achieve the various learning results. Three Interrelated Learning Goals → ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis habits of mind m employ productive m set learning goals m self assess m complete classwork and homework m rehearse/practice representations m create non-linguistic m compare m link to prior knowledge m use mnemonics m ask questions m take notes m respond m rethink action m make connections m set learning goals m rethink ideas m reflect on their understanding m self assess m rehearse/practice mindfully m employ productive habits of mind m reflect on performance m revise m refine m create analogies m create non-linguistic representations m re-try m visualize performance m engage in focused practice m listen to and act on feedback m apply their learning in novel and increasingly complex situations. m observe the results m make inferences m compare m critically question m take reflective notes m respond thoughtfully critically m listen, read, and view In order to develop the capac ity to transfer their learning, students need to: In order to make meaning (i.e., come to an understanding) of important ideas and processes learners need to: In order to acquire knowledge and skills, learners need to: m listen, read, and view carefully TRANSFER MAKE MEANING ACQUIRE Learning Goals and Student Actions Applying What We Know page 78 Applying What We Know Meaning Making - Activating Prior Knowledge What comes to mind when you think of Westward Expansion? What do you know about how the pioneers lived on the prairie? Use the web below to list (or draw) your ideas. Summarize your ideas in a few sentences below. _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 79 Applying What We Know Meaning Making - Vocabulary Term: My Understanding: 1 2 3 4 Describe: Make a drawing or visual representation: Source: Marzano and Pickering, Building Academic Vocabulary, ASCD, p. 19 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 80 Applying What We Know Meaning Making - Categorizing & Inferencing The following terms were commonly used during the pioneer era. What can we infer about pioneer life (i.e., the journey west and settlement on the prairie) by examining these terms? *activity adapted from Dr. Barry Beyer Common Pioneer Terms hearthstone windmill whicker gopher zinnias paddock woodchuck ladder nasturtiums bonnet biscuit horses squall kettle meadowlark mica axe hailstones petticoat overalls harvest tumbleweed wagon churn pitchfork hammer suspenders lantern saw plow Inferences about pioneer life: ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 81 Applying What We Know Making Meaning From “Facts” to “Big Ideas” Group the pioneer terms into “big ideas” (concepts) by listing the terms that belong together and then create a label for them. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 82 Applying What We Know Meaning Making - Adding Up the Facts Use the following worksheet to look at a set of facts or data together. What inferences can you make or conclusions can you draw from “adding up the facts”? Early settlers lived in sod houses. Many pioneers, especially children, died from disease. The pioneers had to grow, or hunt for, their food. Often, they went hungry. Much hard work was required to settle new land - clearing fields, constructing shelter, etc. ✙ Settlers faced attacks by Native American tribes on whose lands they travelled or settled. C o n c l u s i o n ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 83 Applying What We Know From Concepts to Hypotheses What inferences can you make or conclusions can you draw from about pioneer life and Westward expansion? How can you further test these hypotheses? ☞ HYPOTHESES/INFERENCES: ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 84 Applying What We Know Making Meaning - Perspective Chart Use the following chart to examine different perspectives on an issue or topic. Topic or issue: Westward expansion and settlement of the West settler’s children We need to expand our customer base by enticing people to move to the West. The West offers the promise of great freedom and opportunity. The potential rewards are worth the challenges of moving. All we do is work from sunrise to sundown. Life here is so hard. Why did we have to move here? railroad executives eager, risk-taking pioneers The white settlers are moving on to our lands and competing with us for nature’s resources. Native Americans living on the plains ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 85 “big idea” facts & examples ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis source Gulliver’s Travel’s p. 60 Encyclopedia Brittanica Vol. 2, p. 1204 • Bolingbroke fled to France after threat of prison. J. Swift: An Introductory Essay p. 134 • Walpole gained control through bribery and corruption. • The Flimnax leaders were chosen based on their skill in rope jumping. • Gulliver fled to Blefescu after the Articles of Impeachment were filed against him. • There were senseless disputes over which end of an egg should be broken. • War has raged for “six and thirty moons.” Walpole’s leadership political persecution Catholics vs. Protestants J. Swift: An Introductory Essay p. 135 • Rope jumping and stick competitions – insignificant ceremonies which obscured the real issues. • satirized through Lilliputian elections English political process “A Voyage to Lilliput”, Book 1 of Gulliver’s Travel’s, satirizes political figures and situations in England during Jonathon Swifts’ political career (1708-1715). Use the following organizer to help identify the “big idea(s)” based on specific facts and details. Meaning Making – “Big Idea” Table Applying What We Know page 86 Applying What We Know Meaning Making - Inferences about Character Use the following Character Trait map to help understand a character based on patterns of action or behavior. actions actions • He travels alone. • He feels that people are against him. • He won’t accept job from Charlie. • He doesn’t want to admit failures. alienated proud character traits Willie Loman confused actions • He contradicts himself. • He engages in fantasy. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis traits weak actions • He was afraid to stand up to his boss. • He attempted suicide. page 87 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis oil, natural gas few permanent residents, nomads POPULATION treeless plain NATURAL RESOURCES perma frost TOPOGRAPHY harsh, inhospitable minimal (unable to survive) frigid temperatures CLIMATE Similar to Both VEGETATION Unique Characteristics TUNDRA sand hot and dry Unique Characteristics DESERT Use the following diagram to help you compare two things according to identifed dimensions. Dimensions for Comparison: Making Meaning – Comparison Diagram Applying What We Know page 88 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Examples + • teacher observation • oral questioning • exit cards • weekly letter • scrimmage • dress rehearsal Non-Examples – - final exam - state test - senior project - AP/IB exam - the game - the play - whole group or individual Non-Essential Charateristics – formative assessment • on-going as part of instruction • provide feedback to teachers and learners • inform needed adjustments • guide differentiation • not graded Essential Charateristics + Making Meaning – Frayer Diagram Applying What We Know page 89 Applying What We Know Making Meaning – Rethinking Examples of the “R” Rethink Revise/Refine Help students rethink by having them: ❏ shift perspective ❏ reconsider key assumptions ❏ confront alternative versions of... ❏ take the role(s) of... ❏ play “Devil’s advocate” ❏ re-examine the argument/evidence ❏ conduct research ❏ consider new information ❏ rethink the naive idea that... ❏ argue/debate ❏ confront surprises/anomalies Provide opportunities for students to revise and refine their work through: ❏ drafting and editing sessions ❏ peer critiques ❏ rehearsals ❏ peer response groups ❏ practice sessions ❏ self assessment R Reflect Encourage students to reflect through the use of: ❏ reflective journals and think logs ❏ regular self assessments ❏ metacognitive prompts ❏ think-alouds ❏ I-Search papers ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 90 Applying What We Know Making Meaning – Rethinking Rethink and revise – Use the following idea starters to generate one or more ideas for helping students “rethink what they thought they knew” about the key ideas. help students rethink friendship by having them... re-tell the “Spring” epsiode from the point of view of Toad ❏ reconsider key assumptions... about friendship (e.g., Friends must like the same things you do.) ❏ shift perspective... ❏ revise, based on feedback... ❏ confront alternative versions of... ❏ make the strange familiar by... reading stories about unfriendly people who became fast friends ❏ make the familiar strange by... ❏ take the role(s) of... someone who has to choose between two friends the saying, “the enemy of enemy is my friend” ❏ play “Devil’s advocate”... Frog is Toad’s “true” friend in ❏ re-examine the argument/evidence/view that... the story ❏ review the apparent truth/error... ❏ conduct research... about your classmates’, your parents’ and your teachers’ views about friendship ❏ consider new information... ❏ rethink the naive idea that... friends are the people you hang around ❏ argue... Frog’s case in a simulated trial ❏ confront such surprises/anomalies as... so-called friends acting in an unfriendly way and vice versa ❏ see the problems/weaknesses in... ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 91   Applying What We Know Our challenge is to develop players that are: Technically and Tactically Sound, Composed, Creative Risk Takers They should “Own the Game” and are focused on solving the problems that the game presents, instead of primarily thinking about coach imposed solutions to the game.   EVOLVING COACHES –> EVOLVING PLAYERS In order to affect change on the players a shift in coaching methodology may need to take place. The development of creative, intuitive players is greatly impacted by coaching style and demands. When conducting training sessions, there needs to be a greater reliance on game oriented training that is player centered and enables players to explore and arrive at solutions while they play. This is in contrast to the “coach centered” training that has been the mainstay of coaching methods over the years. GAME CENTERED TRAINING DEFINED “Game centered training” implies that the primary training environment is the game as opposed to training players in “drill” type environments. This is not to say that there is not a time for a more “direct” approach to coaching. At times, players need more guidance and direction as they are developing. However, if the goal is to develop creative players who have the abilities to solve problems, and interpret game situations by themselves, a “guided discovery” approach needs to be employed. This approach taps in to certain essentials that are always present within the team. Players want to play and enjoy playing the game first and foremost. Since the “game” is used in training, this allows for players to be comfortable with the pace, duration, and physical and mental demands that the game provides. The reason why the players play is because they enjoy the game. They have a passion for the game. This is where they find and express their joy and creativity. DRILLS Many “drills” are not realistic. Therefore, players find it difficult to transfer the things learned in “drill” environments to the game itself. This is not to say that “drills” that closely replicate one aspect of the game should not be used in training. Dynamic, demanding, “drill” environments, used at the beginning of the training times, often prepares the players to play the game as it breaks down the more complicated “picture” that the game provides in to manageable pieces. However, care must be given to making sure that the “drill” is active, and mirrors the demands found in the game. CONTINUOUS PLAY IN TRAINING Reflects the real game. Demands rhythm. The players can not go “all out” for an entire 90­minute stretch. They need to know how to control the rhythm of the game so that they can last the entire time. Demands focus. Players must stay focused for lengths of time, just like they need to do during the game. In order to have continuous play during training, the coach must coach “in the flow” of the game, and not interrupt play with stoppages to make coaching points. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 92 Applying What We Know Transfer – Problem-Solving Strategies Wheel Effective problem solvers use the following strategies when they’re stuck. Restate the goal. Identify what you know and what you need to find out. Relate this problem to similar problems. Represent the problem visually. Use a diagram. Look for patterns. Work backward from the end result. Try systematic trial and error (guess and check). ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 93 Applying What We Know Degree of Transfer Rubric 3 THE GAME – The task is presented without cues as to how to approach or solve it, and may look unfamiliar or new. Success depends upon a creative adaptation of one’s knowledge, based on understanding the situation and the adjustments needed to achieve the goal - “far transfer.” No simple recall or “plugging in” will work, and the student who learned only by rote will likely not recognize how the task taps prior learning and requires adjustments. Not all students may succeed, therefore, and some may give up. • In a writing class, students are given a quote that offers an intriguing and unorthodox view of a recently-read text, and are simply asked: “Discuss” • In a math class, students must take their knowledge of volume & surface area to solve a problem like: “What container shape permits the greatest volume of M & Ms to be packed in the least amount space for cost-effective and safe shipping?” 2 GAME-LIKE – The task is complex but is presented with sufficient clues/ cues meant to suggest the approach or content called for (or to simplify/ narrow down the options considerably). Success depends upon realizing which recent learning applies, and using it in a straightforward way – “near transfer.” Success depends on figuring out what kind of problem this is, and with modest adjustments using prior procedures and knowledge to solve it. • Writing: same as above, but the directions include remnders of what a good essay should include, and what ideas and skills apply. • Mathematics: the above problem is more simplified and scaffolded, by the absence of a specific context, and through cues provided about the relevant procedures 1 DRILL – The task looks familiar and is presented with explicit reference to previously studied material and/or approaches. Minimal or no transfer is required. Success requires only that the student recognize, recall and plug in the appropriate knowledge/skill, in response to a familiar (though perhaps slightly different) prompt. Any transfer involves dealing with only altered variables or details different from those in the teaching examples; and/or in remembering which rule applies from a few obvious recent candidates. • Writing: the prompt is a just like past ones, and the directions tell the student what to consider, and provide a summary of the appropriate process and format. • Mathematics: the student need only plug in the formulae for spheres, cubes, pyramids, cylinders, etc. to get the right answer to a de-contextualized problem. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 94 Applying What We Know Encouraging Self Assessment and Reflection The following questions may be used as prompts to guide student self evaluation and reflection. • What do you really understand about _________? • What questions/uncertainties do you still have about _________? • What was most effective in _________? • What was least effective in _________? • How could you improve_________? • What would you do differently next time? • What are you most proud of? • What are you most disappointed in? • How difficult was _________ for you? • What are your strengths in _________ ? • What are your deficiencies in _________ ? • How does your preferred learning style influence _________ ? • What grade/score do you deserve? Why? • How does what you’ve learned connect to other learnings? • How has what you’ve learned changed your thinking? • How does what you’ve learned relate to the present and future? • What follow-up work is needed? • other: __________________________________________ ? ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 95 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis The graph is generally neat and readable. The graph is very neat and easy to read. neatness The data is inaccurately The graph is sloppy represented, contains maand difficult to jor errors, OR is missing. read. 1 Only some parts of the graph are correctly labelled OR labels are missing. _________________________ All data is accurately represented on the graph. accuracy The the title does not reflect what the data shows OR the title is missing. All parts of the graph (units of measurement, rows, etc.) are correctly labelled. labels 2 The graph contains a title that clearl and specifically tells what the data shows. title The graph contains a title that generally Some parts of the graph Data representation tells what the data are inaccurately labelled. contains minor errors. shows. 3 weights – Goals/Actions: Name: _____________________________________ Date: ______________ Analytic Rubric for Graphic Display of Data Applying What We Know page 96 Applying What We Know Performance List for Cooperative Learning Primary Level 1. Did I do my job in my group? 2. Did I follow directions? 3. Did I finish my part o­ n time? 4. Did I help others in my group? 5. Did I listen to others in my group? 6. Did I get along with others in my group? 7. Did I help my group Needs Terrific O.K. Work What will you try to do better the next time you work in a group? ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 97 Applying What We Know Teaching and Assessing for Understanding – Observable Classroom Indicators To what extent are... 1. Instruction and assessment focused on “big ideas” and essential questions based on established standards/outcomes? 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4. Opening ”hooks” used to engage students in exploring the big ideas and essential questions? 4 3 2 1 5. Students’ understanding of the “big ideas” and core processes assessed through authentic tasks involving one or more of the six facets? 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 9. The students expected to self-asses/ reflect on their work/learning and set goals for improvement? 4 3 2 1 10. Other: _____________________________________ 4 3 2 1 2. Essential questions posted and revisited throughout a unit? 3. Pre-assessments used to check students’ prior knowledge and potential misconceptions regarding new topics of study? 6. Evaluations of student products/performances based upon known criteria/rubrics, performance standards, and models (exemplars)? 7. Appropriate instructional strategies used to help learners’ acquire knowledge and skills, make meaning of the big ideas, and transfer their learning? 8. Students given regular opportunities to rethink, revise and reflect on their work based on feedback from on-going (formative) assessments? ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 98 Applying What We Know Looking for Learning – Evidence of Meaning Making and Transfer We look for evidence of students’ understanding in their products and performances. In addition, the following indicators may be observed or revealed through interviews. and responses to questions. Understanding is revealed when students can effectively: – explain the key ideas (concepts and principles, processes, strategies) in their own words and ways (e.g., visually). – provide new examples of a concept or process; make apt analogies. – interpret (make meaning of) data, a text, experiences. – support and justify their answers. – apply their learning to a new situation or problem; i.e., transfer their learning. – identify and correct common errors and misconceptions – distinguish and describe different points of view on an issue or different approaches to accomplishing a task; explain how someone else might think or feel differently from them. – describe their learning styles and strengths and weaknesses as learners. – self-assess their performance and set personal improvement goals. – reflect on the meaning and significance of their learning experiences. Other: ______________________________________________________________ Other: ______________________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 99 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction Pre-Assessment: • How will you diagnose students prior knowledge and skill levels? ❏ K-W-L chart ❏ misconceptions check ❏ pre-test ❏ infomal Q & A ❏ skills check ❏ Other: ____________________ Differentiation Plan: • Based on pre- and ongoing assessments, what and how will you differentiate? Content – Input ❏ Use varied materials (e.g., texts for different reading levels, audio-visuals). ❏ Use varied teaching methods/strategies (e.g., manipulatives, group activities). ❏ Target instruction to readiness levels (e.g., directed skill teaching, enrichments). ❏ Provide scaffolded support (e.g., graphic organizers, step-by-step process guide) ❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ Process ❏ Use flexible groupings (e.g., skill groups, interest groups). ❏ Use varied teaching methods/strategies (e.g., manipulatives, group activities). ❏ Create learning stations (e.g., self-paced centers, computer-based tutorials). ❏ Establish learning contracts (e.g., self-directed practice, independent project). ❏ Allow student self assessments and goal setting (based on established criteria). ❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ Product ❏ Provide tiered assigments/tasks using the G.R.A.S.P.S. elements. ❏ Allow appropriate student choices (e.g., product TIC-TAC-TOE, interest based). ❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 100 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment In some cases, you may need to modify a learning or assessment task to accommodate the needs of students. The following lists provide general and subject-specific suggestions. General ___ Review the task to determine if students have been taught the necessary concepts and skills. Provide targeted instruction as needed. ___ Determine if the task is too difficult in its present form and if the time frame is appropriate. Notes ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ In the presentation of a task, try to stay within the framework of the established daily classroom routine. ____________________ ___ Arrange for special grouping or seating (e.g., in the front of room, at a carrel, near someone helpful). ____________________ ___ Prepare students for a change in the daily routine by explaining any unusual procedures so that students know what to expect. ____________________ ___ State the directions in a clear, concise manner. Rephrase the directions if necessary. Focus the student’s attention on important details. ___ Provide large print materials for visuallyimpaired students. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Sign directions for hearing-impaired students. ____________________ ___ Check to see if students understand by asking them to repeat or rephrase the directions. ____________________ ___ Write the directions on the board or on paper so that students can refer to them when needed. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ ____________________ page 101 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment Notes ___ Provide choices (e.g., product, process, audience) ____________________ for an open-ended task. ___ In a multi-step activity, simplify the task by providing instruction for one part at a time. Have students complete that part of the activity before you provide instruction for the next part of the activity. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Adjust the timing of the task to allow extra pro- ____________________ cess ing and response time. ____________________ ___ Provide periodic breaks. ____________________ ___ Administer the activity over several days. ____________________ ___ Assist students with organization of work on paper. ____________________ ____________________ ___ Provide assistance to those students who require help with materials or equipment used in the task. For example, you may need to precut materials or set up equipment. ____________________ ___ Structure cooperative groups to maximize student success. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Circulate about the room, inconspicuously pro____________________ viding assistance to students. ___ Provide immediate feedback when tasks are completed. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ ____________________ page 102 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment Reading ___ Select simplified reading material on the same topic. ___ Ask specific questions to guide the students’ reading. ___ Use graphic organizers to provide visual over- Notes ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ views and show meaningful connections. ____________________ ___ Assign reading in advance to give students an ____________________ opportunity to preview material. This will increase opportunities for students to be more actively involved during class activities. ___ Use a colored highlighter to mark important ____________________ ____________________ ideas, significant names, and terms. ____________________ ___ Prepare tape-recorded text segments to provide ____________________ overviews and summaries. ___ Encourage students to formulate questions and ____________________ make and validate predictions while reading. ____________________ ___ Use mental or visual imagery to enhance the student’s ability to recall information. ____________________ ___ Teach students cues (e.g., headings, captions, dif- ____________________ ferentiated print, introductory and summary paragraphs) for recognizing features of expository text structure. ____________________ ___ Provide assistance in organizing information. ____________________ ____________________ ___ Encourage students to rehearse important infor- ____________________ mation read by retelling, paraphrasing, or summa____________________ rizing. ___ Check for understanding after reading. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ page 103 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment Writing ___ Keep directions short and simple. Condense lengthy written directions by writing them in brief steps. ___ Give students the opportunity to talk about their ideas before writing. Notes ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Encourage students to select the method of writing ____________________ (cursive or manuscript) that is most comfortable for ____________________ them. ____________________ ___ Brainstorm vocabulary that could be incorporated in written work. ____________________ ___ Reduce the amount of written work. Have students dictate some responses orally. Allow students to dictate into a tape recorder. ____________________ ___ Permit students to include pictures, drawings, and diagrams as part of their written products. ____________________ ___ Have students write on every other line of the paper. ____________________ ___ Allow students to use a computer, typewriter, or tape recorder to reduce paper/pencil tasks. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Provide a proofreading checklist. ____________________ ___ Allow students additional time to complete written assignments. ____________________ ___ Allow students to list components/concepts, rather than write complete paragraphs. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ ____________________ page 104 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment ___ Model and encourage the use of reference materials such as word banks, word walls, graphic organizers, or dictionaries. Notes ____________________ ____________________ ___ Use peer support for generating and brainstorming ____________________ ideas during the prewriting and revision stages of writing. ____________________ ___ Structure opportunities for students to verbalize ____________________ (pre-writing) on a one-to-one basis and in small groups. ____________________ ___ Provide a picture, title, topic sentence, or other prewriting activity to help students begin creative writ- ____________________ ing. ____________________ ___ Give students a guide for structuring writing by providing an organizational format (e.g., graphic orga- ____________________ nizer). Mathematics/Science ___ Use concrete objects and manipulatives to teach abstract concepts (e.g., weight, width, energy, shape, dimension, force). ___ Provide students with a list of steps necessary to complete an activity or the entire task. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Teach and model problemsolving strategies (e.g., ____________________ using pictorial representation, tallying, charting, simpli____________________ fying the problem). ___ Post a basic problem-solving sequence chart to post in the room. For example: 1. Read the problem. 2. Identify the key words. 3. Identify the operation. 4. Write the number sentence. 5. Solve the problem. 6. Check your work. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ page 105 Applying What We Know Differentiating Instruction and Assessment Notes Mathematics/Science (continued) ____________________ ___ Check students’ understandings of key vocabulary and skills. ____________________ ___ Have students restate the problem/task in their own words. ___ Assist students in breaking complex problems/ tasks into specific steps or sub-parts. ___ Use color coding to help students distinguish math/science symbols and operations/processes. ___ Allow students to use calculators to perform calculations to drill problems as a means of demonstrating that they know the appropriate operation. ___ Have students verbalize steps as they work in order to help them monitor their progress and identify errors. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ___ Use color coding to help students distinguish math/science symbols and operations/processes. ____________________ ___ Allow students to use calculators to perform calculations to drill problems as a means of demonstrating that they know the appropriate operation. ____________________ ___ Have students verbalize steps as they work in order to help them monitor their progress and identify errors. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ page 106 Applying What We Know Challenging High Achievers In some cases, you may need to modify the curriculum activities or performance tasks to provide greater challenge for high achieving students or those learners with exceptional potential. The following lists provide general suggestions for enriching learning activites and assessment tasks for the highly able. Notes ___ Provide extension activities and assignments to students who have demonstrated mastery of the ____________________ basic curriculum mateial. ____________________ ___ Provide more sophisticated resources (e.g., ____________________ texts, primary sources, websites) on the same topic. ____________________ ___ Use Socratic questioning to push students’ thinking (e.g., play Devil’s advocate) when explor- ____________________ ing essential questions and challenging tasks. ____________________ ___ Present more open-ended and authentic tasks or problems with minimal cues or scaffolds. ____________________ Encourage high-achievers to use creative, “out-ofthe-box thinking” when tackling challenging tasks. ____________________ ___ Use the GRASPS format to adjust student Role, ____________________ Audience, Situation, and Products/Performances to provide greater challenge. ____________________ ___ Encourage students to explore topics, issues ____________________ and problems through the six facets of understand____________________ ing. ____________________ ___ Allow gifted learners to propose and conduct independent or small-group inquiry/research proj____________________ ects. ___ Allow student’s appropriate choices regarding content, process and product/performance. ____________________ ___ Provide self-paced, contract-based learning options for high achievers. ____________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ____________________ page 107 ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Formative assessments include both formal and informal methods. Examples: quiz, oral questioning, observation, draft work, “think Diagnostic assessments provide information to assist teacher planning and guide differentiated instruction. Examples: pre-test, student survey, skills check, K-W-L ongoing assessments that provide information to guide teaching and learning for improving learning and performance Formative assessment that precedes instruction to check students’ prior knowledge and identify misconceptions, interests, and/or learning style preferences Diagnostic Stage 3 – Assessment for Learning Examples: test, performance task, final exam, culminating project or performance, work portfolio Summative assessments are evaluative in nature, generally resulting in a score or a grade. culminating assessments conducted at the end of a unit, course, or grade level to determine the degree of mastery or proficiency according to identified achievement targets Summative Stage 2 – Assessment of Learning Three Types of Classroom Assessments Applying What We Know page 108 Applying What We Know Sources of Assessment Evidence: Self Assessment Directions: Use the following scale to rate your “level of use” of each of the following assessment tools (at the classroom, school or district level). What do the survey results suggest? What patterns do you notice? Are you collecting appropriate evidence for all the desired results, or only those that are easiest to test and grade? Is an important learning goal “falling through the cracks” because it is not being assessed? 4 = Frequent Use 3 = Use Sometimes 2 = Occasional Use 1 = Do Not Use ______ 1. selected-response format (e.g., multiple-choice, true-false) quizzes and tests ______ 2. written/oral responses to academic prompts (short-answer format) ______ 3. performance assessment tasks, yielding: ____ extended written products (e.g., essays, lab reports) ____ visual products (e.g., Power Point show, mural) ____ oral performances (e.g., oral report, foreign language dialogues) ____ demonstrations (e.g., skill performance in physical education) ______ 4. long-term, “authentic” projects (e.g., senior exhibition) ______ 5. portfolios - collections of student work over time ______ 6. reflective journals or learning logs ______ 7. informal, on-going observations of students ______ 8. formal observations of students using observable indicators or criterion list ______ 9. student self-assessments ______10. peer reviews and peer response groups ______ Other: _____________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 109 Applying What We Know Constructing a Performance Task Scenario (G.R.A.S.P.S. - mathematics example) Goal: •  The goal (within the scenario) is to minimize costs for shipping bulk quantities of M&Ms. Role: • You are an engineer in the packaging department of the M&M Candy Company. Audience: • The target audience is non-engineer company executives. Situation: •  You need to convince penny-pinching company officers that your container design will provide cost-effective use of the given materials, maximize shipping volume of bulk quantities of M&Ms, and be safe to transport. Product/Performance and Purpose: • You need to design a shipping container from given materials for the safe and cost-effective shipping of the M&Ms. Then you will prepare a written proposal in which you include a diagram and show mathematically how your container design provides effective use of the given materials and maximizes the shipping volume of the M&Ms. Standards & Criteria for Success: • Your container proposal should... - provide cost-effective use of the given materials - maximize shipping volume of bulk quantities of M&Ms - be safe to transport • Your models must make the mathematical case. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 110 Applying What We Know Constructing a Performance Task Scenario (G.R.A.S.P.S. - social studies example) Goal: •  Your goal is to help a group of foreign visitors understand the key historic, geographic and economic features of our region. Role: • You are an intern at the Regional Office of Tourism. Audience: • The audience is a group of nine foreign visitors (who speak English). Situation: •  You have been asked to develop a plan, including a budget, for a four-day tour of the region. Plan your tour so that the visitors are shown sites that best illustrate the key historical, geographic and economic features of our region. Product/Performance and Purpose: • You need to prepare a written tour itinerary and a budget for the trip. You should include an explanation of why each site was selected and how it will help the visitors understand the key historic, geographic and economic features of our region. Include a map tracing the route for the tour. [Optional: Provide a budget for the trip.]* Standards & Criteria for Success: • Your proposed tour plan needs to include... - an itinerary and route map - the key historical, geographic and economic features of the region - a clear rationale for the selected sites *- accurate and complete budget figures ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 111 Applying What We Know Constructing a Performance Task Scenario (G.R.A.S.P.S.) Consider the following set of stem statements as you construct a scenario for a performance task. Refer to the previous idea sheets to help you brainstorm possible scenarios. (Note: These are idea starters. Resist the urge to fill in all of the blanks.) Goal : • Your task is ________________________________________________________________________ •  The goal is to _______________________________________________________________________ • The problem/challenge is______________________________________________________________ • The obstacle(s) to overcome is (are) _____________________________________________________ Role: • You are ___________________________________________________________________________ • You have been asked to _______________________________________________________________ • Your job is ________________________________________________________________________ Audience: • Your client(s) is (are) ________________________________________________________________ • The target audience is _ ______________________________________________________________ • You need to convince _ _______________________________________________________________ Situation: • The context you find yourself in is ______________________________________________________ • The challenge involves dealing with _____________________________________________________ Product/Performance and Purpose: • You will create a ____________________________________________________________________ in order to _________________________________________________________________________ You need to develop _________________________________________________________________ • so that ____________________________________________________________________________ Standards & Criteria for Success: • Your performance needs to ____________________________________________________________ • Your work will be judged by ___________________________________________________________ • Your product must meet the following standards ___________________________________________ • A successful result will _______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 112 Applying What We Know Possible STUDENT ROLES and AUDIENCES KEY: ROLES = R and AUDIENCES = A ___ actor ___ advertiser ___ anthropologist ___ artist/illustrator ___ astronaut ___ author ___ biographer ___ board member ___ boss ___ boy/girl scout ___ businessperson ___ candidate ___ carpenter ___ cartoon character ___ cartoonist ___ caterer ___ celebrity ___ chairperson ___ chef ___ choreographer ___ CEO ___ coach ___ community members ___ composer ___ clients/customer ___ construction worker ___ dancer ___ designer ___ detective ___ doctor ___ editor  ___ elected official ___  embassy staff ___ engineer ___ ethnographer ___ expert (in ________) ___ eye witness ___  family member ___ farmer ___ filmmaker ___ firefighter ___ forest ranger ___ friend ___ geographer ___ geologist ___ government official ___ historian ___ historical figure ___ illustrator ___ intern ___ interviewer ___ inventor ___ judge ___ jury ___ lawyer ___ library patron ___ literary critic ___ lobbyist ___ meteorologist ___ museum director/ curator ___ museum goer ___ neighbor ___ newscaster ___ novelist ___ nurse ___ nutritionist ___ panelist ___ parent ___ park ranger ___ pen pal ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis ___ photographer ___ pilot ___ playwright ___ poet ___ policeman/ woman ___ pollster ___ radio listener ___ reader ___ reporter ___ researcher ___ reviewer ___ sailor ___ school official ___ scientist ___ ship’s captain ___ social scientist ___ social worker ___ statistician ___ storyteller ___ student ___ taxi driver ___ teacher ___ t.v. viewer ___ tour guide ___ trainer ___ travel agent ___ traveler ___ t.v./movie character ___ tutor ___ viewer ___ visitor ___ web designer ___ zoo keeper Other: _________ page 113 Applying What We Know Possible Products and Performances Make sure that the selected product and performance options will provide appropriate evidence of the desired knowledge, understanding, proficiency. Written Oral ❍ advertisement ❍ audiotape ❍ biography ❍ conversation ❍ blog ❍ debate ❍ book report/review ❍ discussion ❍ brochure ❍ dramatization ❍ crossword puzzle ❍ dramatic reading ❍ editorial ❍ infomercial ❍ essay ❍ interview ❍ field guide ❍ radio script ❍ historical fiction ❍ oral presentation ❍ journal ❍ oral report ❍ lab report ❍ poetry reading ❍ letter ❍ podcast ❍ log ❍ puppet show ❍ magazine article ❍ rap ❍ memo ❍ skit ❍ newscast ❍ speech ❍ newspaper article ❍ song ❍ play ❍ teach a lesson ❍ poem ❍ position paper/ policy brief ❍ proposal ❍ research report ❍ screen play ❍ script ❍ other: _______________ ❍ story ❍ test ❍ Tweet ❍ other: _______________ ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Visual ❍ advertisement ❍ banner ❍ book/CD cover ❍ cartoon ❍ collage ❍ computer graphic ❍ data display ❍ design ❍ diagram ❍ display ❍ drawing ❍ Face Book/My Space page ❍ flowchart ❍ flyer ❍ game ❍ graph ❍ map ❍ model ❍ Power Point show ❍ photograph(s) ❍ questionnaire ❍ painting ❍ poster ❍ scrapbook ❍ sculpture ❍ storyboard ❍ videotape ❍ web site page 114 Applying What We Know Allowing Student Choice in Products The following Tic-Tac-Toe Chart offers a practical technique for allowing appropriate student choice regarding the product(s) and/or performance(s). The teacher may structure the options while allowing students to choose from the various columns. Product Tic-Tac-Toe Chart ESSAY ORAL REPORT POSTER RADIO SCRIPT FREE CHOICE COMIC STRIP LETTER ROLE PLAY ILLUSTRATED BROCHURE ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 115 Applying What We Know Criteria & Rubric Ideas By what criteria should understanding performances be assessed? The challenge in answering is to ensure that we assess what is central to the understanding, not just what is easy to score. In addition, we need to make sure that we identify the separate traits of performance (e.g. a paper can be well-organized but not informative and vice versa) to ensure that the student gets specific and valid feedback. Finally, we need to make sure that we consider the different types of criteria (e.g. the quality of the understanding vs. the quality of the performance in which it is revealed). Ideas for criteria and rubrics are provided on the next three pages; sample rubrics follow. Four types of performance criteria (with sample indicators) process quality result Describes the degree of knowledge of factual infomation or understanding of concepts, principles, and processes. Describes the degree of skill/proficiency. Also refers to the effectiveness of the process or method used. Describes the degree of quality evident in products and performances. Describes the overall impact and the extent to which goals, purposes, or results are achieved. accurate appropriate authentic complete correct credible explained justified important in-depth insightful logical makes connections precise relevant sophisticated supported thorough valid careful clever coherent collaborative concise coordinated effective efficient flawless followed process logical/reasoned mechanically correct methodical meticulous organized planned purposeful rehearsed sequential skilled attractive competent creative detailed extensive focused graceful masterful organized polished proficient precise neat novel rigorous skilled stylish smooth unique well-crafted beneficial conclusive convincing decisive effective engaging entertaining informative inspiring meets standards memorable moving persuasive proven responsive satisfactory satisfying significant useful understood content ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 116 Applying What We Know On-Going Assessments of Understanding The following informal assessment techniques provide a quick check of student understanding and reveal existing misconceptions. Hand Signals Ask students to display a designated hand signal to indicate their understanding of a designated concept, principle, or process: 1. I understand _____________ and can explain it (e.g., thumbs up) 2. I do not yet understand __________________ . (e.g., thumbs down) 3. I’m not completely sure about _____________ . (e.g., wave hand) I.Q. Card (“Ticket to Leave”) Periodically, distribute index cards and ask students to complete as follows: Side 1—Based on our study of (unit topic), list a “big idea” that you understand in the form of a summary statement. Side 2—Identify something about (unit topic) that you do not yet fully understand (as a statement or a question). Question Box/Board Establish a location (e.g., question box, bulletin board, e-mail address) where students may leave or post questions about concepts, principles, processes that they do not understand. (This technique may be helpful to those students who are uncomfortable admitting publicly that they do not understand.) Analogy Prompt Periodically, present students with an analogy prompt: (designated concept, principle, or process) is like _______________ because___________. Web/Concept Map Ask students to create a web or concept map to show the elements or components of a topic or process. This technique is especially effective in revealing if students understand the relationships among the elements. One-Minute Essay Periodically, have students complete a brief “essay” summarizing what they think they understand about a given topic. Misconception Check Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a designated concept, principle, or process. Ask them to agree or disagree and explain their response. (The misconception check can also be presented in the form of a multiple-choice or true-false quiz.) ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 117 Applying What We Know Characteristics of the Best Learning Designs... (based on surveys of K-16 faculty throughout the nation) Expectations the best learning designs... • provide clear learning goals and performance expectations. • cast learning goals in terms of genuine/meaningful performance. • frame the work around genuine questions & meaningful challenges. • show models/exemplars of expected performance. Instruction in the best learning designs... • the teacher serves as a facilitator/coach to support the learner. • targeted instruction and relevant resources are provided to “equip” students for expected performance. • the textbook serves as one resource among many (i.e., text is resource, not syllabus). • the teacher “uncovers” important ideas/processes by exploring essential questions and genuine applications of knowledge and skills. Learning Activities in the best learning designs... • individual differences (e.g., learning styles, skill levels, interests) are accommodated through a variety of activities/methods. • there is variety in work, methods and students have some choice (e.g., opportunities for both group and individual work). • learning is active/experiential to help students “construct meaning”. • cycles of model-try-feedback-refine anchor the learning Assessment in the best learning designs... • there is no mystery as to performance goals or standards. • diagnostic assessments check for prior knowledge, skill level, and misconceptions. • students demonstrate their understanding through “real world” applications (i.e., genuine use of knowledge and skills, tangible product, target audience). • assessment methods are matched to achievement targets. • on-going, timely feedback is provided. • learners have opportunities for trial and error, reflection and revision. • self-assessment is expected. Sequence & Coherence the best learning designs... • start with a “hook”, immerse the learner in a genuine problem/issue/challenge. • move back and forth from whole to part, with increasing complexity. • scaffold learning in “do-able” increments. • teach as needed; don’t over-teach all of the “basics” first. • revisit ideas – have learners rethink and revise earlier ideas/work. • are flexible (e.g., respond to student needs; revise plan to achieve goals). ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 118 2 = sometimes 1 = rarely/never ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis Sequence & Coherence To what extent does my/our designs... • include pre-assessments to check for prior knowledge, skill level, and misconceptions? • begin with a “hook” (e.g., immerse the learner in a genuine problem/issue/challenge)? • move back and forth from whole to part, with increasing complexity? • scaffold learning in “do-able” increments? • revisit important ideas/questions and allow learners to rethink and revise earlier ideas/work? • remain flexible (e.g., to respond to student needs; allow revisions to achieve goals)? Assessment To what extent does my/our assessments... • provide appropriate measures of all of the learning goals? • ask students to demonstrate their understanding through “real world” applications? • provide on-going, timely, and descriptive feedback to learners? • include opportunities for trial and error, reflection and revision? • allow self-assessment by the learners? Learning Activities To what extent does my/our learning activities... • address individual differences (e.g., learning styles, skill levels, interests) through a variety of activities/methods (vs. “one size fits all”)? • provide variety in work, methods and students have some choice (e.g., opportunities for both group and individual work)? • include inquiry/experiential opportunities to help students “make meaning” for themselves? • incorporate cycles of model-try-feedback-refine learning experiences? Instruction To what extent does my/our teaching... • provide targeted instruction and relevant resources to “equip” students for expected performance? • use the textbook as one resource among many (i.e., the textbook is a resource, not the syllabus)? • help “uncover” important ideas/processes by exploring essential questions? Expectations To what extent does my/our designs... • provide clear learning goals and performance expectations (i.e., no mystery for learners)? • cast learning goals in terms of genuine/meaningful performance? • frame the work around genuine questions & meaningful challenges? • show models/exemplars of expected performance? 3 = consistently o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2 o o o o o o o o 3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 Analyzing Current Practices Against Best Learning Designs Applying What We Know page 119 Applying What We Know Synthesizing Activity Directions: INDIVIDUALLY... Review your handouts and notes. Identify 2-3 useful and/or interesting ideas gained as a result of attending this session. WITH YOUR GROUP... Share your interesting/useful ideas with group members and listen to theirs. Add to your list in the space below. ©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 120